1.
1 SYSTEMS ARCHITECTURE
KEY CONCEPTS THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
➢ Computer systems take data (input), process it and then
output it.
➢ Embedded systems are computers built in to other
devices like washing machines. They are dedicated to a
single task so they are efficient.
➢ Clock speed: the number of instructions a processor can
carry out per/second. Higher clockspeed = faster CPU.
➢ Number of Cores: The more cores a CPU has the more
instructions it can carry out at once (multitasking).
More cores = faster processing.
➢ Cache size: A larger cache gives the CPU faster access
to more data Control Unit (CU): executes instructions and
controls the flow of data in the CPU.
FETCH – DECODE – EXECUTE CYCLE
CPU fetches instruction from the RAM
Program counter: holds the memory address for the
(copies memory address to MAR, copies instruction of each cycle.
instruction to MDR & adds 1 to PC.
CU decodes the instruction from the MDR Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): does all of the
Instruction is executed by the CU calculations and logic operations.
The next instructions is fetched and
The cycle repeats. Accumulator: holds the result of any calculations
in the ALU.
EXAM QUESTIONS Cache: very fast memory that stores regularly used
data so that the CPU can access it quickly.
1. Explain how cache size, cores and clockspeed affect the
performance of the CPU. MAR (Memory Address Register): holds the address
2. Define what is meant by an embedded system about to be used by the CPU.
3. What is the purpose of the ALU?
4. Explain the role of the CPU registers (MAR and MDR) MDR (Memory Data Register:) holds the actual data
5. Explain how the fetch decode execute cycle works or instruction being processed by the CPU.
6.
1.2 MEMORY and STORAGE
RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM) STORAGE CAPACITY
➢ RAM is the computer’s main memory that holds the data, Some storage methods such as a HDD or SSD have a
programs and files while they are being used. large capacity (they can store lots of data. Other
➢ RAM is volatile (power off = the data is lost) devices such as CDs and SD cards have smaller
➢ The CPU will fetch instructions from the RAM in the fetch capacity. Measurements of capacity are shown below:
– decode – execute cycle.
➢ When the RAM is full the computer uses VIRTUAL MEMORY. It
uses the secondary storage as temporary RAM so that the
computer can continue running (but slowly).
READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM)
➢ The ROM is on a chip build into the motherboard
➢ It contains the BIOS (boot up sequence for the computer)
➢ ROM is non-volatile (data still stored after power is off)
TYPES OF STORAGE
➢ Secondary Storage: where all data including the programs
are stored when they are not being used.
Storage Key Information
Hard Disk Drive Magnetic, has moving parts, large
(HDD) capacity, lower cost than SSD
EXAM QUESTIONS
Solid State Drive Flash memory, no moving parts, more 1. Explain how the RAM works with the CPU in the
(SSD) robust than HDD, faster and more fetch –decode – execute cycle
expensive than HDD
2. Explain the difference between volatile and non-
Flash memory Eg: USB memory sticks, memory cards.
volatile memory giving an example of each
Optical Storage Eg: CDs, DVDs. Cheap, portable and fairly
robust. 3. Tom is buying a new laptop, he is not sure
Magnetic tape Used for archive storage (back ups). Very whether to get a magnetic HDD or SSD. Discuss
large capacity, low cost, slow. the benefits and drawbacks of each.
1.2 MEMORY AND STORAGE CONTINUED
DENARY BINARY ADDITION
Denary is the decimal number system that we are used to. It
1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 This binary addition
uses the numbers 0-9 and the column headings go up in powers
+ 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 gives an overflow error
of 10.
1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 as the total does not fit
100 (Hundreds) 10 (Tens) 1 (Units) in 8 bits (a byte).
1 1 1 1 1 1
2 3 8
2 lots of 100 3 lots of 10 8 lots of 1
BINARY SHIFT
BINARY
A binary shift to the left multiplies the number by
Binary uses the numbers 0 and 2. The column headings go up 2. A binary shift to the right divides it by 2.
in power of 2: Below is an 8 bit binary number which has been
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 shifted 2 places to the right.
Original number 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1
Shifted number 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
64 + 4 + 2 + 1 = 71
CHARACTERS
HEXADECIMAL
Character sets = the characters that are recognised
Hexadecimal uses 0- F (A=10, B=11, C=12, D=13, E=14, F=15).
or represented by a computer system
The headings go up in powers of 16.
16 1 ASCII = Each character is represented by a 7 bit
3 D number with a 0 in front to make it up to a byte.
3 lots of 16 D (13) lots of 1
Extended ASCII = Each character is represented by an
To convert a binary number to Hexadecimal, split into 2: 8 bit binary number. This gives 256 different
128 64 32 16 possibilities.
1 1 0 0 3* 16 = 48
D (13) * 1 = 13 Unicode = Each letter is represented by a 16-bit or
48+13=61 32-bit binary number. This gives at least twice as
8 4 2 1
many character options as ASCII and allows the
1 1 0 0 character set to represent characters and symbols
= C = 7 from all languages.
1.2 MEMORY AND STORAGE CONTINUED
IMAGES SOUND
Images are made up of pixels When sound is recorded it is an analogue signal
The colour of each pixel is represented by a binary number (waves). It has to be converted to a digital signal
If an image uses 1 bit to represent each colour then it will so that it can be stored by a computer. This is done
only have 2 colours: by sampling
0 0 1 0 0 This is a 1-bit image Sampling: The amplitude of the wave is measured at
0 0 0 1 0 so it uses 2 colours.
regular intervals which creates a digital
1 1 1 1 1 representation of the wave. If samples are taken more
0 0 0 1 0 0=white and 1=black frequently then you will end up with a more accurate
0 0 1 0 0 sound file but it will be a larger file size.
The analogue wave is smoother
Using more bits allows for more colour options: and shows continuous data. The
10 11 00 11 10 digital sampling shows the
This is a 2-bit images
11 11 00 11 11 amplitude of the wave at
so it uses 4 colours.
00 00 01 00 00 different points.
11 11 00 11 11 00=white, 01=blue,
10 11 00 11 10 10=red, 11=black
COMPRESSION
Colour depth = the number of bits used for each pixel
Compression is used to make file sizes smaller.
Resolution = how many pixels are in a certain space – this Smaller file sizes means that data will be faster to
is measured in “dots per inch”. If there are more dots per send, quicker to download (so webpages will load
inch then there are more pixels in the image so it will have faster) and it will take up less storage space.
a higher resolution and a better picture quality. Lossy Compression: permanently removes some of the
data from a file to make the file size smaller. The
The higher the resolution or the colour depth, the more bits file – eg: an image or sound track – will be a lower
used, so the bigger the file size. quality than the original.
Metadata = the information about the image file that is Lossless Compression: data is temporarily removed
stored within it. This makes sure the file is displayed from the file and then put back together when it is
correctly. It can include: the height, width, colour depth, opened. This is good for program files or documents
resolution and file format as well as the time and date that where you do not want to lose any content but the
the image was created. files can only be made a little bit smaller.
1.3 COMPUTER NETWORKS, CONNECTIONS AND PROTOCOLS
NETWORK TOPOLOGIES LAYERS
Network protocols are divided into layers so that
A topology is the layout of a network.
protocols with similar functions are grouped
Bus: Slow network due to data collisions
together.
on the single backbone cable.
Star: If the central switch fails, the Layer 4: •Turn data into applications or websites
whole network fails. If one device fails, Application •HTTP, FTP, SMTP
the network is fine. Layer 3: •Control the flow of data
Ring: Data moves in one direction which Transport •TCP
prevents collisions. Only one device can send data at once.
Mesh: Each device is connected to every other device so they •Direct data packets between networks
Layer 2: Network •IP
can send data the fastest route. There is no single point
where network can fail. Require lots of wire. Layer 1: Data •Sending data over a physical network
Link •Ethernet
PROTOCOLS
Protocols are the rules for how devices communicate and PACKET SWITCHING
transmit data across a network. ➢ Data is split into packets and numbered in order.
Every device has a MAC address so that it can be identified ➢ Each packet is send the fastest route across the
on a network. Eg: 98-1C-B3-09-85-15 internet by the routers. This means packets can
IP addresses are used when sending data between networks. take different routes and arrive out of order.
They can be static (permanent) or dynamic (different each ➢ The packet numbers are used to put them in order.
time the device connects). ➢ If packets are missing a timeout message is sent
TCP/IP: Used to send data between networks in packets. ➢ Once all have arrived a receipt confirmation is
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): Splits the data into sent to the device that sent them.
packets and re-assembles. Checks data is sent correctly.
Internet Protocol (IP): does the packet switching
Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP): for accessing websites EXAM QUESTIONS
HTTPS: The secure version of HTTP 1. Explain why protocols are used
File Transfer Protocol (FTP): Moves files between devices 2. Describe how packet switching works
Post Office Protocol (POP3): Retrieves emails from server. 3. Evaluate the benefits and drawbacks of a mesh
Once you download the email the server copy is deleted. network.
Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP): Retrieves email 4. Draw topologies for bus, ring and star networks.
from server. Email is kept on server, you see a copy. 5. Explain the difference between HTTP and HTTPS
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP): sends emails. 6. Explain the difference between POP3 and IMAP
1.4 NETWORK SECURITY
Key Terms NETWORK PERFORMANCE
A network is where devices have been connected together so
These factors can impact on network performance:
that they can share data and resources. Networks can be wired
Bandwidth: The more bandwidth, the more data that
(Ethernet) or wireless (WiFi).
can be transferred at a time.
Local Area Cover a small geographical area such as an Number of Users: Having a lot of people using a
Network (LAN) office. Use their own infrastructure. network means lots of data is being transmitted
which can slow it down.
Wide Area WANs connect LANs together over a large
Network geographical area and make use of Transmission Media: Wired connections are faster
(WAN) infrastructure from telecommunications than wireless. Fibre optic cables are faster than
companies. copper cables.
Bandwidth The amount of data that can pass between Wireless Factors: wireless can be affected by
network devices per second walls, distance, signal quality and interference
Server A device that provides services for other from other devices.
devices (eg file server or print server)
Topology: The layout of a network can impact on its
Client A computer or workstation that receives
information from a central server performance.
Peer to peer All of the computers in the network are
Network equal. They connect directly to each other. VIRTUAL NETWORKS
Standalone A computer not connected to a network
computers A virtual network is part of a LAN or WAN where
only certain devices can “see” and communicate with
each other.
NETWORK HARDWARE
Network Interface Controller (NIC): built in hardware that
allows a device to connect to a network.
EXAM QUESTIONS
Switches: connect devices on a LAN 1. Give 3 items of hardware needed for a network
Router: Transmits the data (packets) between the networks (eg: 2. Explain the difference between a peer-to-peer
the internet and your LAN) network and a client server network.
Wireless Access Point (WAP): a switch that allows devices to 3. The school’s network has become very slow.
connect wirelessly. Explain two different reasons why this might be.
Cables: the cables in a network can be twisted pair cables, 4. Evaluate the benefits of using a wired
coaxial cables or fibre optic cables. connection rather than a wireless one.
1.4 NETWORK SECURITY CONTINUED
TYPES OF ATTACK NETWORK SECURITY KEY TERMS
Malware: malicious software intended to cause harm.
Attack How it works How to prevent it Penetration Testing: Organisations employ
Passive Network traffic is Encryption so that professionals to try and hack their network so that
monitored and then data intercepted data they can find areas of weakness.
is intercepted cannot be understood User Access Levels: Different employees have
Active Someone deliberately A firewall and different levels of access to programs, websites and
attacks a network with antivirus software data.
malware (eg: a virus) Encryption: data is scrambled so that it cannot be
Insider Someone with network User access levels to understood if intercepted. It can only be decrypted
access abuses this to control how much data with a key.
steal information people can access. Network Forensics: Data packets are captured as they
Brute Force Trial an error until a Making passwords enter the network and analysed to find out the cause
password is attacked difficult to guess. of a network attack.
Locking accounts after
Virus - attach themselves to files and
Types of Malware
failed attempts.
Denial of The network is flooded This attack is hard to copy themselves when the user copies
Service with useless data so it prevent but a firewall or opens a file.
is too slow to use can help.
Worm - copy themselves without the
SQL SQL commands are typed Having strong
user doing anything.
Injection into the input boxes on validation on all
a website to access input boxes so that
data or alter the only expected data can Trojan - malicious software pretending
database be entered to be a legitimate program.
Phishing Emails with links that Looking for signs that
trick people into an email is not from a
entering their personal real company.
information EXAM QUESTIONS
Social When a person Policies and rules for 1. Describe what is meant by “Malware”
Engineering manipulates someone staff about handing 2. Describe how a brute force attack works and how
else into handing over over data. Staff to prevent it.
F sensitive information training. 3. Explain how to keep a network secure.
4. Evaluate the benefits and drawbacks of a business
using penetration testing
1.5 SYSTEMS SOFTWARE
Utility Software
Utilities are the programs that help maintain and configure a program.
Most utility software is installed with the Operating system.
Operating Systems: runs the Defragmentation: Defragging a magnetic hard drive groups all of the
computer, manages the hardware and files for each program together and all of the free space together.
applications. This makes it read and write quicker.
Device Drivers: communicate with the Back Up Utilities: Schedules and manages back ups. Full back ups = all
peripherals and internal hardware. data is backed up. Incremental = only files since the last back up are
copied.
User Interface: allows the user to
interact with the device. This can Compression: reduces the size of large files so that they take up less
be a Graphical User Interface (GUI) space. Files then need to be extracted before they are used.
which are visual and easy for
someone to use or a command line Encryption: scrambles the data to protect it so that if someone else
interface where the user needs to gets hold of it they cannot access it.
type in commands to make it work.
Multitasking: The operating system Open Source and Proprietary Software
manages the programs so that you can
Open Source Proprietary
run several at the same time.
It’s usually free and the source Usually has to be paid for
File and Disk Management: The code is available so it can be Only the compiled code is
operating system manages the adapted for individual needs released so it cannot be edited
movement, editing and deletion of Others can improve the code Good customer support
data. Strong online support communities May not fit the users exact needs
User Accounts: The operating system
manages the accounts of the EXAM QUESTIONS
different users. 1. Evaluate the benefits and drawbacks of releasing a piece of software
as open source rather than proprietary.
2. Explain three functions of the operating system in a computer
3. Evaluate the difference between doing an incremental back up and a
full back up.
1.6 ETHICAL, LEGAL, CULTURAL & ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
Ethical Legal
➢ Ethics is about what is considered right and wrong by ➢ Data Protection Act: controls how personal data is
society. used. Eg: it has to be accurate and up to date, kept
➢ If a company does not behave in an ethical way it secure, should not be kept longer than needed
might make their customers lose trust in them. ➢ Freedom of information Act: gives the public the right
➢ Issues such as cyberbullying, trolling and the use of to see information about public organisations
social media can raise ethical issues. ➢ Computer Misuse Act: makes it illegal to hack a
➢ Privacy: Users trust companies to keep their data network or create a virus.
private so companies need to take care of it ➢ Copyright, Designs & Patents Act: protects things you
➢ Censorship: is when a country or organisation have created from being used without permission
controls what people can access on the internet. ➢ Creative Commons: lets people release their work to be
➢ Surveillance: surveillance is when someone is used and shared legally and sometimes modified.
monitored using technology.
➢
➢
Stakeholders:
The people or groups affected
by a particular situation
Environmental Cultural
➢ Computing devices contain raw materials ➢ One cultural issue in computing is the Digital Divide.
➢ Devices use lots of energy when turned on Some people do have access to technology, others don’t
➢ Ewaste is when we throw away devices because they are ➢ Not having access to technology can be a disadvantage
broken or because we want to upgrade as it limits access to information, online learning,
➢ Ewaste can lead to pollution online banking, communication etc.
➢ The Waste Electric and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) ➢ The digital divide can be due to people not having
directive has rules for how devices should be enough money to buy devices or due to living in places
disposed so that they’re recycled/disposed of safely without internet access, or not having the skills to
➢ Devices can also have a positive impact on the use the technologies available.
environment – eg video calls rather than travelling a ➢ Technology has also impacted how businesses run as
long distance causing pollution. many now use online shops and services