Linkage Mapping
Gene mapping determines the relative positions of genes on a chromosome based on
recombination frequency. The relationship between RF and physical distance is expressed in map
units or centimorgans (cM), where 1% RF corresponds to 1 cM. This means that a recombination
frequency of 1% indicates that two genes are approximately 1 cM apart on the chromosome
(Consider Examples Given in Class)
Two-Point Cross
A two-point cross is a genetic mapping technique used to determine the distance between two
linked genes on a chromosome. This method relies on measuring the recombination frequency
(RF) of the two genes, which indicates how often crossovers occur between them during meiosis.
Formula
Recombination Frequency = (Number of Recombinant Offspring / Total Number of Offspring) x
100%
Example
In an experiment, if a scientist conducts a two-point cross between genes A and B and obtains
the following offspring:
Phenotype Number of Progeny
Parental Type (AB/ab) 3700
Parental Type (ab/ab) 3700
Recombinant Type (Ab/ab) 1300
Recombinant Type (aB/ab) 1300
The total progeny is 10,000. The RF can be calculated as follows:
RF = (1300 +1300 / 10000) ×100% = 26%; Thus, genes A and B are 26 map units apart.
Double Crossovers
A double crossover occurs when two separate crossover events happen in the same chromosome
pair during meiosis. This results in a gamete that has undergone genetic recombination at two
distinct points, which can be challenging to detect without knowing the gene order. Double
crossovers are less frequent than single crossovers and their occurrence increases with the
distance between loci.
Three-Point Cross
A three-point cross involves studying three genes simultaneously to determine their order and
relative distances on a chromosome. This technique is more efficient than multiple two-point
crosses because it provides both gene order and distance.
Formula
Between genes A and B: P+R/T×100
Between genes B and C: Q+R/T×100
Where:
• P=Number of crossover progeny between A and B.
• Q= Number of crossover progeny between B and C.
• R= Number of double crossover progeny.
• T= Total number of progeny.
Example
Genotype Observed Type of Gamete
v cv+ ct+ 580 Parental
v+ cv ct 592 Parental
v cv ct+ 45 Single-crossover between genes ct and cv
v+ cv+ ct 40 Single-crossover between genes ct and cv
v cv ct 89 Single-crossover between genes v and ct
v+ cv+ ct+ 94 Single-crossover between genes v and ct
v cv+ ct 3 Double-crossover
v+ cv ct+ 5 Double-crossover
Total 1448
Step 1: Determine the parental genotypes.
The most abundant genotypes are the parental types. These genotypes are v cv+ ct+ and v+ cv ct.
Step 2: Determine the gene order
To determine the gene order, we need the parental genotypes as well as the double crossover
genotypes. The least frequent genotypes are the double-crossover genotypes. These genotypes
are v cv+ ct and v+ cv ct+. From this information we can determine the order by asking the
question: In the double-crossover genotypes, which parental allele is not associated with the
two parental alleles it was associated with in the original parental cross. From the first double
crossover, v cv+ ct, the ct allele is associated with the v and cv+ alleles, two alleles it was not
associated with in the original cross. Therefore, ct is in the middle, and the gene order is v ct cv.
Step 3: Determing the linkage distances.
• v - ct distance calculation. This distance is derived as follows: 100*((89+94+3+5)/1448) =
13.2 cM
• ct - cv distance calculation. This distance is derived as follows: 100*((45+40+3+5)/1448) =
6.4 cM
Step 4. Draw the map.
Sex-Linkage
Sex linkage refers to the association of certain traits or characteristics with genes located
on the sex chromosomes. Sex chromosomes are a pair of chromosomes that determine
the biological sex of an organism. In most organisms, sex is determined by a pair of sex
chromosomes, which differ between males and females. For example, in humans, females have
two X chromosomes (XX), while males have one X and one Y chromosome (XY). Traits
influenced by these genes are often expressed differently in males and females due to the
distinct genetic configurations of these chromosomes.
Types of Sex Linkage
1. X-Linked Traits: These traits are associated with genes on the X chromosome. These traits
can be dominant or recessive. Since males have only one X chromosome, any recessive
allele on this chromosome will manifest in their phenotype. In contrast, females, having
two X chromosomes, may be carriers of a recessive allele without expressing the trait if
they possess a dominant allele on their other X chromosome.
Examples of X-Linked Traits
X-linked recessive traits: Hemophilia, Red-Green Color Blindness.
X-linked dominant traits: Rett syndrome, Fragile X Syndrome.
2. Y-Linked Traits: These traits are associated with genes on the Y chromosome. Since only
males possess a Y chromosome, Y-linked traits are exclusively passed from father to son
and do not affect females at all.
Examples:
SRY gene (responsible for male sex determination), Auricular Hypertrichosis
Sex-Influenced Traits
Sex-influenced traits are autosomal traits whose expression is influenced by the sex of an
individual. This means that the same genotype can lead to different phenotypes in males and
females (due to the effects of sex hormones).
Examples:
Male Pattern Baldness: Dominant in males, requiring only one allele for expression, while
females need two alleles to express baldness.
Body Hair and Muscle Mass: These traits are often more pronounced in males due to higher
testosterone levels.
Genotype Phenotype
Male Female
BB Bald Bald
Bb Bald Non-Bald
bb Non-Bald Non-Bald
Sex-Limited Traits
Sex-limited traits are characteristics that are expressed exclusively in one sex, despite both sexes
carrying the genes responsible for these traits. These traits are controlled by autosomal genes but
are influenced by the organism's sex.
Examples:
Milk Production in Cattles: This trait is expressed only in cows due to their ability to produce
milk.
Egg Production in Chickens: Only hens exhibit this trait, as it is related to female reproductive
functions.
Horn Production in Sheep: Only rams exhibit this trait.