SECTION B: ELECTROLOGY (ECG, EEG & EMG)/ NUCLEAR MEDICINE (25 MARKS)
1. Explanation of ECG, EEG, and EMG:
ECG (Electrocardiogram):
An ECG records the heart's electrical activity. Sticky patches called electrodes are placed on the
chest, arms, and legs. These detect the heart's electrical signals, which are shown as lines on paper
or a screen. This test checks for irregular heartbeats, heart attacks, and heart size.
EEG (Electroencephalogram):
An EEG checks the brain's electrical activity. Electrodes placed on the head pick up brain signals.
This test is used to detect seizures, epilepsy, brain injuries, or sleep disorders.
EMG (Electromyography):
EMG checks how muscles and the nerves controlling them work. Tiny needle-like electrodes are
placed into the muscle. It is used to diagnose muscle weakness, nerve damage, or disorders like
carpal tunnel syndrome.
Summary:
ECG = Tests heart's electricity.
EEG = Tests brain's electricity.
EMG = Tests nerves and muscle coordination.
2. Nuclear Scintigraphy:
a) 2 examples of radioisotopes used in PET:
- Fluorine-18 (F-18)
- Carbon-11 (C-11)
b) 4 types of collimators:
- Parallel-hole collimator
- Pinhole collimator
- Converging collimator
- Diverging collimator
c) 2 therapeutic radionuclides:
- Iodine-131 (I-131)
- Lutetium-177 (Lu-177)
d) 2 SPECT radionuclides:
- Technetium-99m (Tc-99m)
- Thallium-201
SECTION C: RADIOLOGICAL PHYSICS / RADIOPHARMACOLOGY (25 MARKS)
1. Image Quality and Image Contrast:
Image quality refers to how clear and accurate the image is. Good image quality includes
sharpness, correct brightness, and low noise. It is essential for correct diagnosis and reduces repeat
exposure.
Image contrast means the difference in brightness between different parts. High contrast shows
bones clearly; low contrast helps see soft tissues. Contrast agents help make images clearer.
2. Iodinated Contrast Media:
These are liquids containing iodine, used to highlight organs during scans. They are water-soluble,
excreted by kidneys, and come in ionic and non-ionic types. Low-osmolality, non-ionic types are
safer and preferred.
3. Importance of Contrast Media:
- Improves organ visibility
- Helps detect diseases
- Assists in procedures
- Shows blood flow and organ function
SECTION D: X-RAY CIRCUIT / RADIATION PROTECTION (30 MARKS)
1. Radiation Protection:
For Patients:
- Use only when necessary
- Use low doses (ALARA)
- Use lead shields
- Avoid repeats
- Special care for pregnant patients
For Staff:
- Use time, distance, shielding
- Wear protective gear
- Monitor exposure (dosimeters)
- Use control rooms
- Get regular training
For Public:
- Shielded rooms
- Limit access
- Use warning signs and lights
- Keep waiting areas safe
2. X-ray Circuit Diagram:
Key parts:
- Control panel
- Exposure timer
- Step-up transformer
- Filament transformer
- X-ray tube
- Image receptor
3. Effects of Radiation During Gestation:
- Miscarriage
- Birth defects
- Growth retardation
- Mental retardation
- Childhood cancer risk