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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Doggy" and "Pooch" redirect here. For other uses, see Dog
(disambiguation), Doggy (disambiguation), and Pooch (disambiguation).

Dog

Temporal range: 0.0142–0 Ma

PreꞒ

Pg

N
↓

Late Pleistocene (14,200 years

ago) to present[1]
 Conservation status

Domesticated

Scientific classification

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Mammalia
 Order: Carnivora

Family: Canidae

Genus: Canis

Species: C. familiaris

Binomial name

Canis familiaris

Linnaeus, 1758[2]

Synonyms[3]

List

The dog (Canis familiaris or Canis lupus familiaris) is a domesticated descendant

of the gray wolf. Also called the domestic dog, it was selectively bred from a
population of wolves during the Late Pleistocene by hunter-gatherers. Dogs were the
first species to be domesticated over 14,000 years ago, before the development of
agriculture. Due to their long association with humans, dogs have gained the ability
to thrive on a starch-rich diet that would be inadequate for other canids.

Dogs have been bred for desired behaviors, sensory capabilities, and physical
attributes. Dog breeds vary widely in shape, size, and color. They have the same
number of bones (with the exception of the tail), powerful jaws that house around 42
teeth, and well-developed senses of smell, hearing, and sight. Compared to humans,
dogs possess a superior sense of smell and hearing, but inferior visual acuity. Dogs
perform many roles for humans, such as hunting, herding, pulling
loads, protection, companionship, therapy, aiding disabled people, and assisting
police and the military.

Communication in dogs includes eye gaze, facial expression, vocalization, body

posture (including movements of bodies and limbs), and gustatory communication
(scents, pheromones, and taste). They mark their territories by urinating on them,
which is more likely when entering a new environment. Over the millennia, dogs
have uniquely adapted to human behavior; this adaptation includes being able to
understand and communicate with humans. As such, the human–canine bond has
been a topic of frequent study, and dogs' influence on human society has given them
the sobriquet of "man's best friend".

The global dog population is estimated at 700 million to 1 billion, distributed around
the world. The dog is the most popular pet in the United States, present in 34–40%
of households. Developed countries make up approximately 20% of the global dog
population, while around 75% of dogs are estimated to be from developing countries,
mainly in the form of feral and street dogs.

Taxonomy
Further information: Canis lupus dingo § Taxonomic debate – the domestic dog,
dingo, and New Guinea singing dog
Canine phylogeny with ages of
divergence

3.06 my 2.74 my 1.92 my 1.62

3.50 m
a a a a
ya

2.62 my
a
 Cladogram and divergence of the gray wolf
(including the domestic dog) among its
closest extant relatives[4]

Dogs are domesticated members of the family Canidae. They are classified as
a subspecies of Canis lupus, along with wolves and dingoes.[5][6] Dogs were
domesticated from wolves over 14,000 years ago by hunter-gatherers, before the
development of agriculture.[7][8] The remains of the Bonn–Oberkassel dog, buried
alongside humans between 14,000 and 15,000 years ago, are the earliest to be
conclusively identified as a domesticated dog.[9][7] Genetic studies show that dogs
likely diverged from wolves between 27,000 and 40,000 years ago.[10][11] The dingo
and the related New Guinea singing dog resulted from the geographic isolation and
feralization of dogs in Oceania over 8,000 years ago.[12][13]

Dogs, wolves, and dingoes have sometimes been classified as separate species.[6] In
1758, the Swedish botanist and zoologist Carl Linnaeus assigned
the genus name Canis (which is the Latin word for "dog")[14] to the domestic dog,
the wolf, and the golden jackal in his book, Systema Naturae. He classified the
domestic dog as Canis familiaris and, on the next page, classified the grey wolf
as Canis lupus.[2]Linnaeus considered the dog to be a separate species from the wolf
because of its upturning tail (cauda recurvata in Latin term), which is not found in any
other canid.[15] In the 2005 edition of Mammal Species of the World, mammalogist W.
Christopher Wozencraft listed the wolf as a wild subspecies of Canis lupus and
proposed two additional subspecies: familiaris, as named by Linnaeus in 1758,
and dingo, named by Meyer in 1793. Wozencraft included hallstromi (the New
Guinea singing dog) as another name (junior synonym) for the dingo. This
classification was informed by a 1999 mitochondrial DNA study.[3]

The classification of dingoes is disputed and a political issue in Australia. Classifying

dingoes as wild dogs simplifies reducing or controlling dingo populations that
threaten livestock. Treating dingoes as a separate species allows conservation
programs to protect the dingo population.[16] Dingo classification affects wildlife
management policies, legislation, and societal attitudes.[17] In 2019, a workshop
hosted by the IUCN/Species Survival Commission's Canid Specialist Group
considered the dingo and the New Guinea singing dog to be feral Canis familiaris.
Therefore, it did not assess them for the IUCN Red List of threatened species.[18]

Domestication
Main article: Domestication of the dog
 Wolves (left) were domesticated by
humans into dogs (right)
The earliest remains generally accepted to be those of a domesticated dog were
discovered in Bonn-Oberkassel, Germany. Contextual, isotopic, genetic,
and morphological evidence shows that this dog was not a local wolf.[19] Dated to
14,223 years ago, the dog was found buried along with a man and a woman; all
three had been sprayed with red hematite powder and buried under large, thick
basalt blocks. The dog had died of canine distemper.[20] This timing indicates that the
dog was the first species to be domesticated[21][22] during the hunter-gatherer era,
[23]
predating agriculture.[1] Earlier remains dating back 30,000 years have been
described as Paleolithic dogs, but their status as dogs or wolves remains
debated[24] because considerable morphological diversity existed among wolves
during the Late Pleistocene.[1]

DNA sequences show that all ancient and modern dogs share a common ancestry
and descended from an ancient, extinct wolf population that was distinct from
any modern wolf lineage. Some studies have posited that all living wolves are more
closely related to each other than to dogs,[25][23] while others have suggested that dogs
are more closely related to modern Eurasian wolves than to American wolves.[26]

The dog is a domestic animal that likely travelled a commensal pathway into
domestication (i.e. humans initially neither benefitted nor were harmed by wild dogs
eating refuse from their camps).[24][27] The questions of when and where dogs were
first domesticated remains uncertain.[21] Genetic studies suggest a domestication
process commencing over 25,000 years ago, in one or several wolf populations in
either Europe, the high Arctic, or eastern Asia.[28] In 2021, a literature review of the
current evidence infers that the dog was domesticated in Siberia 23,000 years ago
by ancient North Siberians, then later dispersed eastward into the Americas and
westward across Eurasia,[19] with dogs likely accompanying the first humans to
inhabit the Americas.[19] Some studies have suggested that the extinct Japanese
wolf is closely related to the ancestor of domestic dogs.[26]

In 2018, a study identified 429 genes that differed between modern dogs and
modern wolves. As the differences in these genes could also be found in ancient dog
fossils, these were regarded as being the result of the initial domestication and not
from recent breed formation. These genes are linked to neural crest and central
nervous system development. These genes affect embryogenesis and can confer
tameness, smaller jaws, floppy ears, and diminished craniofacial development, which
distinguish domesticated dogs from wolves and are considered to reflect
domestication syndrome. The study concluded that during early dog domestication,
the initial selection was for behavior. This trait is influenced by those genes which act
in the neural crest, which led to the phenotypes observed in modern dogs.[29]

Breeds
Main article: Dog breed
Further information: Dog type
There are around 450 official dog breeds, the most of any mammal.[28][30] Dogs began
diversifying in the Victorian era, when humans took control of their natural selection.
[22]
Most breeds were derived from small numbers of founders within the last 200
years.[22][28]Since then, dogs have undergone rapid phenotypic change and have been
subjected to artificial selection by humans. The skull, body, and limb proportions
between breeds display more phenotypic diversity than can be found within the
entire order of carnivores. These breeds possess distinct traits related to
morphology, which include body size, skull shape, tail phenotype, fur type, and
colour.[22] As such, humans have long used dogs for their desirable traits to complete
or fulfill a certain work or role. Their behavioural traits include guarding, herding,
hunting,[22] retrieving, and scent detection. Their personality traits include hypersocial
behavior, boldness, and aggression.[22] Present-day dogs are dispersed around the
world.[28] An example of this dispersal is the numerous modern breeds of European
lineage during the Victorian era.[23]

Morphological variation in six dogs

 

Phenotypic variation in four dogs

Anatomy and physiology
Main article: Dog anatomy
Size and skeleton

A lateral view of a dog

skeleton
Dogs are extremely variable in size, ranging from one of the largest breeds,
the Great Dane, at 50–79 kg (110–174 lb) and 71–81 cm (28–32 in), to one of the
smallest, the Chihuahua, at 0.5–3 kg (1.1–6.6 lb) and 13–20 cm (5.1–7.9 in).[31][32]All
healthy dogs, regardless of their size and type, have the same number of bones
(with the exception of the tail), although there is significant skeletal variation between
dogs of different types.[33][34] The dog's skeleton is well adapted for running;
the vertebrae on the neck and back have extensions for back muscles, consisting
of epaxial muscles and hypaxial muscles, to connect to; the long ribs provide room
for the heart and lungs; and the shoulders are unattached to the skeleton, allowing
for flexibility.[33][34][35]
Compared to the dog's wolf-like ancestors, selective breeding since domestication
has seen the dog's skeleton increase in size for larger types such as mastiffs and
miniaturised for smaller types such as terriers; dwarfism has been selectively bred
for some types where short legs are preferred, such as dachshunds and corgis.
[34]
Most dogs naturally have 26 vertebrae in their tails, but some with naturally short
tails have as few as three.[33]

Skulls of different breeds, from left to

right: pug; boxer; rottweiler; wolf; collie; standard poodle
The dog's skull has identical components regardless of breed type, but there is
significant divergence in terms of skull shape between types.[34][36] The three basic
skull shapes are the elongated dolichocephalic type as seen in sighthounds, the
intermediate mesocephalic or mesaticephalic type, and the very short and broad
brachycephalic type exemplified by mastiff type skulls.[34][36] The jaw contains around
42 teeth, and it has evolved for the consumption of flesh. Dogs use their carnassial
teeth to cut food into bite-sized chunks, more especially meat.[37]

Senses
Further information: Dog anatomy § Senses

The left half of the image shows the

estimated difference in a dog's vision.
Dogs' senses include vision, hearing, smell, taste, touch, and magnetoreception.
One study suggests that dogs can feel small variations in Earth's magnetic field.
[38]
Dogs prefer to defecate with their spines aligned in a north–south position in
calm magnetic field conditions.[39]

Dogs' vision is dichromatic; their visual world consists of yellows, blues, and grays.
[40]
They have difficulty differentiating between red and green,[41] and much like other
mammals, the dog's eye is composed of two types of cone cells compared to the
human's three. The divergence of the eye axis of dogs ranges from 12 to 25°,
depending on the breed, which can have different retina configurations.[42]
[43]
The fovea centralis area of the eye is attached to a nerve fiber, and is the most
sensitive to photons.[44] Additionally, a study found that dogs' visual acuity was up to
eight times less effective than a human, and their ability to discriminate levels
of brightness was about two times worse than a human.[45]

While the human brain is dominated by a large visual cortex, the dog brain is
dominated by a large olfactory cortex. Dogs have roughly forty times more smell-
sensitive receptors than humans, ranging from about 125 million to nearly 300 million
in some dog breeds, such as bloodhounds.[46] This sense of smell is the most
prominent sense of the species; it detects chemical changes in the environment,
allowing dogs to pinpoint the location of mating partners, potential stressors,
resources, etc.[47] Dogs also have an acute sense of hearing up to four times greater
than that of humans. They can pick up the slightest sounds from about 400 m
(1,300 ft) compared to 90 m (300 ft) for humans.[48]

Dogs have stiff, deeply embedded hairs known as whiskers that sense atmospheric
changes, vibrations, and objects not visible in low light conditions. The lower most
part of whiskers hold more receptor cells than other hair types, which help in alerting
dogs of objects that could collide with the nose, ears, and jaw. Whiskers likely also
facilitate the movement of food towards the mouth.[49]

Coat
Main article: Dog coat
The coats of domestic dogs are of two varieties: "double" being common in dogs (as
well as wolves) originating from colder climates, made up of a coarse guard hair and
a soft down hair, or "single", with the topcoat only. Breeds may have an occasional
"blaze", stripe, or "star" of white fur on their chest or underside. [50] Premature graying
can occur in dogs as early as one year of age; this is associated with impulsive
behaviors, anxiety behaviors, and fear of unfamiliar noise, people, or animals.
[51]
Some dog breeds are hairless, while others have a very thick corded coat. The
coats of certain breeds are often groomed to a characteristic style, for example,
the Yorkshire Terrier's "show cut".[37]

Dewclaw
A dog's dewclaw is the fifth digit in its forelimb and hind legs. Dewclaws on the
forelimbs are attached by bone and ligament, while the dewclaws on the hind legs
are attached only by skin. Most dogs are not born with dewclaws in their hind legs,
and some are without them in their forelimbs. Dogs' dewclaws consist of the proximal
phalanges and distal phalanges. Some publications theorize that dewclaws in
wolves, who usually do not have dewclaws, were a sign of hybridization with dogs.[52]
[53]

Tail
A dog's tail is the terminal appendage of the vertebral column, which is made up of a
string of 5 to 23 vertebrae enclosed in muscles and skin that support the dog's back
extensor muscles. One of the primary functions of a dog's tail is to communicate their
emotional state.[54] The tail also helps the dog maintain balance by putting its weight
on the opposite side of the dog's tilt, and it can also help the dog spread its anal
gland's scent through the tail's position and movement.[55] Dogs can have a violet
gland (or supracaudal gland) characterized by sebaceous glands on the dorsal
surface of their tails; in some breeds, it may be vestigial or absent. The enlargement
of the violet gland in the tail, which can create a bald spot from hair loss, can be
caused by Cushing's disease or an excess of sebum from androgens in the
sebaceous glands.[56]

A black Standard Schnauzer with a

docked tail
A study suggests that dogs show asymmetric tail-wagging responses to different
emotive stimuli. "Stimuli that could be expected to elicit approach tendencies seem
to be associated with [a] higher amplitude of tail-wagging movements to the right
side".[57][58] Dogs can injure themselves by wagging their tails forcefully; this condition
is called kennel tail, happy tail, bleeding tail, or splitting tail.[59] In some hunting dogs,
the tail is traditionally docked to avoid injuries. Some dogs can be born without tails
because of a DNA variant in the T gene, which can also result in a congenitally short
(bobtail) tail.[60] Tail docking is opposed by many veterinary and animal welfare
organisations such as the American Veterinary Medical Association[61] and the British
Veterinary Association.[62] Evidence from veterinary practices
and questionnaires showed that around 500 dogs would need to have their tail
docked to prevent one injury.[63]

Health
Main article: Dog health
Numerous disorders have been known to affect dogs. Some are congenital and
others are acquired. Dogs can acquire upper respiratory tract diseases including
diseases that affect the nasal cavity, the larynx, and the trachea; lower respiratory
tract diseases which includes pulmonary disease and acute respiratory
diseases; heart diseases which includes any cardiovascular inflammation or
dysfunction of the heart; haemopoietic diseases including anaemia and clotting
disorders; gastrointestinal disease such as diarrhoeaand gastric dilatation
volvulus; hepatic disease such as portosystemic shunts and liver failure; pancreatic
disease such as pancreatitis; renal disease; lower urinary tract disease such
as cystitis and urolithiasis; endocrine disorders such as diabetes mellitus, Cushing's
syndrome, hypoadrenocorticism, and hypothyroidism; nervous system diseases such
as seizures and spinal injury; musculoskeletal disease such
as arthritis and myopathies; dermatological disorders such
as alopecia and pyoderma; ophthalmological diseases such
as conjunctivitis, glaucoma, entropion, and progressive retinal atrophy;
and neoplasia.[64]

Common dog parasites are lice, fleas, fly larvae, ticks, mites, cestodes, nematodes,
and coccidia. Taenia is a notable genus with 5 species in which dogs are
the definitive host.[65] Additionally, dogs are a source of zoonoses for humans. They
are responsible for 99% of rabies cases worldwide;[66] however, in some developed
countries such as the UK, rabies is absent from dogs and is instead only transmitted
by bats.[67] Other common zoonoses are hydatid
disease, leptospirosis, pasteurellosis, ringworm, and toxocariasis.[67] Common
infections in dogs include canine adenovirus, canine distemper virus, canine
parvovirus, leptospirosis, canine influenza, and canine coronavirus. All of these
conditions have vaccines available.[67]

Dogs are the companion animal most frequently reported for exposure to toxins.
Most poisonings are accidental; in the US more than 80% of reports of exposure to
the ASPCA animal poisoning hotline are due to oral exposure. The most common
substances people report exposure to are: pharmaceuticals, toxic foods,
and rodenticides.[68] Data from the Pet Poison Helpline shows that human drugs are
the most frequent cause of toxicosis death. The most common household products
ingested are cleaning products. Most food related poisonings involved theobromine
poisoning (chocolate). Other common food poisonings include xylitol, Vitis (grapes,
raisins, etc.), and Allium (garlic, onions, etc.). Pyrethrin insecticides were the most
common cause of pesticide poisoning. Metaldehyde, a common pesticide for snails
and slugs, typically causes severe outcomes when ingested by dogs.[69]

Neoplasia is the most common cause of death for dogs.[70][71][72] Other common causes
of death are heart and renal failure.[72] Their pathology is similar to that of humans, as
is their response to treatment and their outcomes. Genes found in humans to be
responsible for disorders are investigated in dogs as being the cause and vice versa.
[28][73]

Lifespan
Further information: Aging in dogs
The typical lifespan of dogs varies widely among breeds, but the median longevity
(the age at which half the dogs in a population have died and half are still alive) is
about 12.7 years.[74][75] Obesity correlates negatively with longevity with one study
finding obese dogs to have a life expectancy approximately a year and a half less
than dogs with a healthy weight.[74]

A 2024 UK study analyzing 584,734 dogs concluded that purebred dogs live longer
than crossbred dogs, challenging the previous notion of the latter having the higher
life expectancies. The authors noted that their study included "designer dogs" as
crossbred and that purebred dogs were typically given better care than their
crossbred counterparts, which likely influenced the outcome of the study.[76] Other
studies also show that fully mongrel dogs live about a year longer on average than
dogs with pedigrees.[77]Furthermore, small dogs with longer muzzles have been
shown to have higher lifespans than larger medium-sized dogs with much more
depressed muzzles.[78] For free-ranging dogs, less than 1 in 5 reach sexual maturity,
 and the median life expectancy for feral dogs is less than half of dogs living with
[79]

humans.[80]

Reproduction
Main article: Canine reproduction

Two dogs tied after mating

In domestic dogs, sexual maturity happens around six months to one year for both
males and females, although this can be delayed until up to two years of age in
some large breeds. This is the time at which female dogs will have their first estrous
cycle, characterized by their vulvas swelling and producing discharges, usually
lasting between 4 and 20 days.[81][82]They will experience subsequent estrous cycles
semiannually, during which the body prepares for pregnancy. At the peak of the
cycle, females will become estrous, mentally and physically receptive to copulation.
Because the ova survive and can be fertilized for a week after ovulation, more than
one male can sire the same litter.[83] Fertilization typically occurs two to five days after
ovulation. After ejaculation, the dogs are coitally tied for around 5–30 minutes
because of the male's bulbus glandis swelling and the female's constrictor
vestibuli contracting; the male will continue ejaculating until they untie naturally due
to muscle relaxation.[84] 14–16 days after ovulation, the embryo attaches to
the uterus, and after seven to eight more days, a heartbeat is detectable.[85][86] Dogs
bear their litters roughly 58 to 68 days after fertilization,[83][87] with an average of 63
days, although the length of gestation can vary. An average litter consists of about
six puppies.[88]

Neutering
Neutering is the sterilization of animals via gonadectomy, which is
an orchidectomy (castration) in dogs and ovariohysterectomy(spay) in bitches.
Neutering reduces problems caused by hypersexuality, especially in male dogs.
[89]
Spayed females are less likely to develop cancers affecting the mammary
glands, ovaries, and other reproductive organs.[90] However, neutering increases the
risk of urinary incontinence and pyometra in bitches,[91] prostate cancer in dogs,
[92]
and osteosarcoma, hemangiosarcoma, cruciate ligament rupture, obesity,
and diabetes mellitus in either sex.[93]

Neutering is the most common surgical procedure in dogs less than a year old in the
US and is seen as a control method for overpopulation. Neutering often occurs as
early as 6–14 weeks in shelters in the US.[94] The American Society for the
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA) advises that dogs not intended for further
breeding should be neutered so that they do not have undesired puppies that may
later be euthanized.[95][96] However, the Society for Theriogenology and the American
College of Theriogenologists made a joint statement that opposes mandatory
neutering; they said that the cause of overpopulation in the US is cultural. [94]

Neutering is less common in most European countries, especially in Nordic countries

—except for the UK, where it is common. In Norway neutering is illegal unless for the
benefit of the animal's health (e.g., ovariohysterectomy in case of ovarian or uterine
neoplasia). Some European countries have similar laws to Norway, but their wording
either explicitly allows for neutering for controlling reproduction or it is allowed in
practice or by contradiction through other laws. Italy and Portugal have passed
recent laws that promote it. Germany forbids early-age neutering, but neutering is
still allowed at the usual age. In Romania neutering is mandatory except for when a
pedigree to select breeds can be shown.[94][97]

Inbreeding depression
See also: Inbreeding depression
A common breeding practice for pet dogs is to mate them between close
relatives (e.g., between half- and full-siblings).[98] In a study of seven dog breeds
(the Bernese Mountain Dog, Basset Hound, Cairn Terrier, Brittany, German
Shepherd Dog, Leonberger, and West Highland White Terrier), it was found that
inbreeding decreases litter size and survival.[99] Another analysis of data on
42,855 Dachshund litters found that as the inbreeding coefficient increased, litter
size decreased and the percentage of stillborn puppies increased, thus indicating
inbreeding depression.[100] In a study of Boxer litters, 22% of puppies died before
reaching 7 weeks of age. Stillbirth was the most frequent cause of death, followed by
infection. Mortality due to infection increased significantly with increases in
inbreeding.[101]

Behavior
Main article: Dog behavior
See also: Dog intelligence
See also: Dog behavior § Behavior compared with other canids
Dog behavior has been shaped by millennia of contact with humans. They have
acquired the ability to understand and communicate with humans and are uniquely
attuned to human behaviors.[102][103] Behavioral scientists suggest that a set of social-
cognitive abilities in domestic dogs that are not possessed by the dog's canine
relatives or other highly intelligent mammals, such as great apes, are parallel to
children's social-cognitive skills.[104] Dogs have about twice the number of neurons in
their cerebral cortexes than what cats have, which suggests they could be about
twice as intelligent.[105]

Most domestic animals were initially bred for the production of goods. Dogs, on the
other hand, were selectively bred for desirable behavioral traits.[106][107] In 2016, a study
found that only 11 fixed genes showed variation between wolves and dogs.[108] These
gene variations indicate the occurrence of artificial selection and the subsequent
divergence of behavior and anatomical features. These genes have been shown to
affect the catecholamine synthesis pathway, with the majority of the genes affecting
the fight-or-flight response[107][109] (i.e., selection for tameness) and emotional
processing.[107] Compared to their wolf counterparts, dogs tend to be less timid and
less aggressive, though some of these genes have been associated with aggression
in certain dog breeds.[110][107]Traits of high sociability and lack of fear in dogs may
include genetic modifications related to Williams-Beuren syndrome in humans, which
cause hypersociability at the expense of problem-solving ability.[111] In a 2023 study of
58 dogs, some dogs classified as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder-like showed
lower serotonin and dopamine concentrations.[112] A similar study claims that
hyperactivity is more common in male and young dogs.[113] A dog can become
aggressive because of trauma or abuse, fear or anxiety, territorial protection, or
protecting an item it considers valuable.[114] Acute stress reactions from post-traumatic
stress disorder (PTSD) seen in dogs can evolve into chronic stress.[115] Police dogs
with PTSD can often refuse to work.[116]

Duration: 30 seconds.0:30Dog swimming over to catch a ball

Dogs have a natural instinct called prey drive (the term is chiefly used to
describe training dogs' habits) which can be influenced by breeding. These instincts
can drive dogs to consider objects or other animals to be prey or drive possessive
behavior. These traits have been enhanced in some breeds so that they may be
used to hunt and kill vermin or other pests.[117] Puppies or dogs sometimes bury food
underground. One study found that wolves outperformed dogs in finding food
caches, likely due to a "difference in motivation" between wolves and dogs.[118] Some
puppies and dogs engage in coprophagy out of habit, stress, for attention, or
boredom; most of them will not do it later in life. A study hypothesizes that the
behavior was inherited from wolves, a behavior likely evolved to lessen the presence
of intestinal parasites in dens.[119] Most dogs can swim. In a study of 412 dogs,
around 36.5% of the dogs could not swim; the other 63.5% were able to swim
without a trainer in a swimming pool.[120] A study of 55 dogs found a correlation
between swimming and 'improvement' of the hip osteoarthritis joint.[121]

Nursing

A bitch nursing her newborn puppies

The female dog (bitch) may produce colostrum, a type of milk high in nutrients and
antibodies, 1–7 days before giving birth. Milk production lasts for around three
months,[122][123] and increases with litter size.[123] The dog can sometimes vomit and
refuse food during child contractions.[124] In the later stages of the dog's
pregnancy, nesting behaviour may occur.[125] Puppies are born with a protective fetal
membrane that the mother usually removes shortly after birth. Dogs can have the
maternal instincts to start grooming their puppies, consume their puppies' feces, and
protect their puppies, likely due to their hormonal state.[126][127] While male-parent dogs
can show more disinterested behaviour toward their own puppies,[128] most can play
with the young pups as they would with other dogs or humans.[129] A bitch may
abandon or attack her puppies or her male partner dog if she is stressed or in pain.
[130]