Module 5

Genetics
By the end of this topic, you should be able to
-Define the following terms: genetics, chromosomes, alleles, gene, dominance, recessive,
homozygous, heterozygous, complete dominance, and co-dominance.
-Identify chromosomes, alleles, and genes in a cell
-Distinguish between phenotype and genotype
-Describe meiosis and mitosis
-Predict results of simple genetic cross with ratios of 3:1 and 1:1
-Explain variation in terms of genetic and environmental factors
Definitions and explanations of terms
Genetics- This is the study of the methods and mechanisms concerned with inheritable
characteristics (e.g. eye colour, blood group etc) of an organism and how they are passed on
from one generation to the next that is from parents to offsprings. Inheritance is the
transmission of genetic information from one generation to the other
Chromosome-These are strand-like/thread-like structures containing genes, found in the
nucleus of an organism. They are made up of smaller units called genes, which are arranged
in a particular sequence. These genes carry and transmit genetic information and therefore
control characteristics which are inherited. Chromosomes contain proteins and DNA
(Deoxyribonucleic acid). When a cell undergoes division, chromosomes shorten and can be
seen as rod-like structures in a cell nucleus. Usually chromosomes are found in homologous
(in similar pairs) in normal body cells and in singles in reproductive/sex cells/gametes.
Homologous chromosomes are a pair of chromosomes which carry genetic information for
similar characteristics. Homologous chromosomes are alike in size, shape and position of the
centromere. There are 23 pairs of chromosomes in humans,19 pairs in pigs, 22 pairs in
rabbits, 27 pairs in sheep, 30 pairs in cattle,31 pairs in donkeys, 32 pairs in horses and 39
pairs in chicken.
In crops there are 10 pairs of chromosomes in maize and sorghum, 12 pairs in rice and
tomatoes, 24 pairs in potatoes and tobacco and 40 pairs in sugar cane.
Genes- structures in chromosomes which a carry and transmit genetic information for
characteristics that are passed on from parents to off springs. Genes are units of inheritance
(hereditary units) , that is they carry information from one generation to the next and
therefore determine the characteristic of the offspring. Genes contain DNA. Some genes are
dominant while others are recessive or codominant. A gene that controls a particular
characteristic (e.g. height) may be in different forms. For example, a gene controlling height,
will be responsible for shortness or tallness of an organism. Genes occurs in pairs in somatic

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cells (body cells) and in singles in reproductive/sex cells/gametes/gonads. Genes occupy the
same position (locus) on homologous chromosomes are called alleles or allelomorphs.
Examples of characteristics or traits that are controlled by genes
-Colour of coat that an animal has
-Presence or absence of horns
-Colour of seeds
Alleles-Alternative forms of genes controlling the same characteristics or traits but not
necessarily producing the same effect, found in the same locus (position) on the different
chromosomes of the homologous pair, which occurs in pairs. For example, a pair of genes
controlling height, one gene controlling tallness and the other controlling shortness.
Another example is colour of maize seeds whereby one gene control yellow colour and the
other controls white colour.
For instance, one member of homologous pair of chromosomes, the gene for height may
give instructions or code for tall maize plant. If on the other hand the other member of
homologous pair of chromosomes, the gene for height codes that the plant should be short,
then the gene for tallness and shortness are alleles because they are alternatives forms of
the same character which is height.
Homozygous- This is the condition in which a pair of genes are identical. It means a pair of
genes contain the same genetic information for a particular characteristic or trait. In other
words, it refers to the situation in which the genes for a particular characteristic (trait) or a
pair of homologous chromosomes are identical.
E.g. BB- for brown eyes (homozygous brown eyes), and bb- for blue eyes (homozygous blue
eyes). In both cases the genotype is described as homozygous, and it is true breeding.
Heterozygous-This is the condition in which a pair of genes on homologous pair are not
identical. It means the pair of genes controls a particular characteristic or trait, but each
member of the pair is known to contain different genetic information for that trait
/characteristic (that is the genes or alleles). In other words, one gene will be dominant while
the other will be recessive. For example, a pair of genes Bb in which the capital B represents
brown eyes and small b represents blue eyes. This represents heterozygous brown eyes
since B is dominant to b.
Recessive- This is the condition in which the effect of a gene, usually a recessive gene is
hidden and not shown or expressed in an organism in the presence of a dominant gene.
Usually, recessive genes are expressed in the homozygous condition i.e. when the recessive
genes are found on the homologous pair of chromosomes. Recessive genes are represented
using lower case letters e.g. a, b, c, g
Dominance-This is a condition in which a gene masks or prevents another gene being a
recessive gene from producing itself in the observable features of an organism when they
are paired. In other words, dominance is the ability of a gene to express itself in the

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presence of an alternative gene (recessive gene) in a heterogenous condition. It is also
called complete dominance. For example, if a cow has both alternative forms of
genes/alleles for the presence of horns i.e. one gene codes for polledness (absence of
horns) while the other one codes for presence of horns. If a gene for prescence of horns is
dominant, then the cow will have horns. Dominant genes are represented with upper case
letters eg AA, BB, RR, HH.
Homozygous dominant and homozygous recessive- When both genes in a pair are
dominant eg AA, BB, GG they are known as homozygous dominant, when both pairs of
genes are recessive they are known as homozygous recessive. Usually, recessive genes
express themselves when they are in a homozygous condition.
Genotype- The genetic makeup of an organism especially with reference to trait or
characteristic. E.G., BB or Bb for brown eyes or bb for blue eyes. In other words, genotype
refers to the set of genes an organism possesses. Some of the genes may be dominant and
therefore determine the observable features in an organism in homozygous or
heterozygous condition, while others are recessive and can only determine observable
features in homozygous condition.

Phenotype-This is the observable features of an organism/the physiological expression of an

organism. For example, an animal phenotype for height is tall or short, and for size is fat and
thin. An organism phenotype is determined by its genes and the environment thus
Phenotype= genotype+ environment
For some traits phenotype is determined by genes/genotype only e.g. colour of eyes, coat
colour, for other traits phenotype is determined by both genes and environment e.g. milk
output, growth rate.
Dominant genes as well as homozygous recessive genes are expressed in the phenotype. In
codominance, both genes both genes are expressed in the phenotype.
Identification of
gene, allele
chromosomes in a
cell

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Prediction of a results of simple genetic crosses with ratios 1:1 and 3: 1 with monohybrid
crosses
Monohybrid cross-A cross which involve only one trait of interest being studied such as
seed colour, plant height, animal size, fruit colour, and pod shape
Steps involve in doing the genetic crosses
1. Choose a letter to represent the allele in the cross, using capital letters fot dominant
genes and small letters for recessive genes
2. Write the genotypes and phenotypes of the parents
3. Determine the possible gametes that the parents can produce using appropriate
letters
4. Determine the genotypes and phenotypes of the offsprings by crossing the gametes
5. Determine the phenotypic and genotypic ratios of the cross

Example 1. The ripe fruits of a certain plant are white if they have at least one allele
“R” otherwise they are yellow represented by the allele “r”. Explain with full genetic
diagrams in each case how one could obtain a generation of these plants with fruits
in the following ratios.
a) 3 white: 1 yellow
b) 1 white: 1 yellow

The Punnett square

A diagram/chart/grid that is used to predict an outcome of a particular cross or experiment.
It is named after Reginald C. Punnett, who devised the approach, and is used by biologists
to determine the probability of offspring having a particular genotype. The punnet square is
tabular summary of every possible combination of one maternal (mother’s) allele with one
paternal (father’s) allele for each gene being studied in the cross. The table give the correct
probabilities for the genotype outcomes of independent crosses, where the probability of
inheriting copies of each parental allele is independent. The Punnett square is a visual
representation of inheritance.
Example of Punnett square;

R R
R RR Rr
R Rr Rr

Question : The colour of maize seeds may be white or yellow. The gene for yellow colour is
dominant over that of white colour. What is the genotype of the following maize plants.

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 i) Homozygous yellow_____________________________________
ii) White maize ________________________________________
iii) Heterozygous ________________________________________
Use the following statements to answer the questions
1) What will be the expected genotype and phenotype ratio when a homozygous
yellow maize is crossed with a white maize?
2) What are the expected offspring genotypes and phenotype when two heterozygous
maize plants are crossed?
3) What is the expected genotype and phenotype ratio when a heterozygous maize
plant is crossed with a white maize?
4) If the crossing of heterozygous maize and white maize results in 200 offspring maize
seeds
i) How many seeds are expected to be white?
ii) How many seeds are expected to be yellow?
5) If the crossing of heterozygous maize results in 600 maize seeds.
i) How many seeds are expected to be homozygous yellow?
ii) How many seeds are expected to be heterozygous yellow?
iii) How many seeds are expected to be white in colour?

Complete dominance
A condition in which one allele (dominant gene) masks the presence of other (recessive)
allele and expresses itself in the phenotype of the individual in a heterozygote state.

Example The trait for round seeds in pea plants is dominant, while the trait for wrinkled
seeds is recessive. The letter R will be used to represent the shape of the seed in this case.
Round seeds can be represented as RR and wrinkled seeds represented as rr. Remember,
during meiosis the alleles separate therefore each gamete will be represented by one letter.
Example predict the outcome between a purebred plant with round seeds and a pure breed
plant with wrinkled seeds.

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All the offsprings have the same genetic composition (genotype) and they have the
same physical appearance (phenotype). Since the allele are different this organism is
referred to as the hybrid. The offspring (f1 generation) can be described as:

Genotype ratio 100% heterozygous

Phenotype ratio 100 round seeds

Example 2: If all the plants will have round seeds, and are crossed among themselves what
will be the result?

Genotype ratio RR: Rr : rr

1 : 2: 1
Phenotype ratio round: wrinkled
3 : 1

Example 3: Predict the outcome between a cross between plants with heterozygous round
seeds plants with homozygous wrinkled seeds

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Genotype ratio = Rr: rr
2: 2
1: 1
Phenotype ratio round : wrinkled
2 : 2
1 : 1

Codominance
This refers to a situation whereby the phenotype of the offspring shows a mixture of effects
of two genes and both phenotypes of the parents express themselves in the offspring. There
is no dominance of one individual gene over the other, in a heterozygous state. This is also
happening in incomplete dominance whereby the phenotype of offsprings lies between the
two.

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Incomplete dominance

Genotype ratio 100% heterozygous

Phenotype ratio 100% pink

CELL DIVISION METHODS

Mitosis
A process of cell division during which one cell give s rise to two genetically
identical daughter cells, each of which contains the same number of
chromosomes as the original cell. Mitosis takes place only in body or somatic
cells in all parts of a plant or an animal, which produce new cells for growth.
It is involved in the growth of roots, stems and leaves as well as the formation
of horns and other tissues in an animal. Mitosis is used by single celled
organisms (eg amoeba) to reproduce, it is also used for the organic growth of
tissues, fibres and membranes.

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Schematic representation of mitosis

Meiosis
A process in which cells divide to form reproductive cells/gametes. It only
takes place in reproductive organs. Meiosis separates the chromosomes of
each homologous pairs (pairs of chromosomes in the cells of plants and
animals that look exactly alike) and directs them into different gametes. The
gametes (sex cells) are said to be haploid. In meiosis 4 new cells (daughter
cells) are produced with each daughter cell having half the number of
chromosomes as the original parent. This reduction is very important so that
when the sex cells later fuse during fertilisation, the normal chromosome
number is restored. For example, there are 46 chromosomes in normal
human being body cell, it is termed diploid number (2N). Meiosis educes the
number of chromosomes in each sex cell to 23 termed as haploid number.

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 During fertilisation, the sperm and the ovum fuse to form a zygote which will
have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs of chromosomes) as in the figure below.

Comparison between mitosis and meiosis

Mitosis Meiosis
A one division process of four/five A two-division process of
stages four/five stages each
Function is for cellular Function is for sexual
reproduction and general growth reproduction involved in the
and repair of the body production of sex cells / gametes
Occurs in reproductive cells
Occurs in body/somatic cells /gametes/gonads
Results is genetically two identical Results in genetically 4 diverse
daughter cells daughter cells
Chromosome makeup of daughter Chromosome makeup of
cells is the same as that of the daughter cells is
parent cell/No crossing over/no different from that of the
variations parent/there is crossing over/on
variations
No pairing/no synapsis/no There is pairing /synapsis
bivalent formed /bivalent formed
New organisms produced are New organisms produced are
produced asexually and resemble produced sexually and show
each other and their parents variations from each other and
their parents

Variation
Variation means the existence of the differences in traits between individuals of the same
population. Thus, plants and animals could be of the same cultivar or breed or of different
cultivars or breed. This is because each individual organism inherits a different set of genes
from the parents (except identical twins). Furthermore, differences in organisms within a
species, could also be due to other environmental factors.
Examples of instances of variation
a) Why is that a Friesian cow produces more milk than a Tswana cow even if they graze
in the same pasture?
b) Why is that a particular Friesian cow consistently produces more milk than other
Friesian cows from the same kraal?

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 c) Why is that a commercial farmer in Botswana always produces more than 10 times
maize than a subsistence farmer from the same area of land?
d) Why is that there is a lot of milk produced by cows at the cattle posts during rainy
season as compared to the quantity produced during the dry season?
The above factors a and b shows differences due to genetic factors and c and shows
differences due to environmental factors.
Types of variation
a) Continuous variation- This type of variation is said to exist for traits that have
intermediate forms between two extremes. Examples of these traits include height,
weight, skin colour, intelligence. Inheritance in this type of traits is controlled
by many genes and are referred to as polygenic traits.
b) Discontinuous variation- This type of variation is said to exist for traits that have no
intermediate forms. For example, blood groups, sex
How genetic factors could bring about variation in organisms

Genetic
Factors Explanation
Mutation Spontaneous change of a gene or a chromosome. In the process of
breeding some genes mutates resulting in the formation of new genes
which are different from the original genes, and this results in a
change in the characteristic of an organism
Random The rearranging of chromosomes of parental chromosomes or genes
assortment/gene in the zygote after fertilisation. The chromosomes reshuffle and pair
shuffling up after fertilisation and the new pairs may be different from those of
the parents resulting in variation in the offspring
Crossing over During meiosis some of the homologous pairs of chromosomes
(recombination) exchange some sections of their strands of chromosomes just before
the sex cell divides. The process is known as crossing over.
Epistasis Gene interaction where one gene determines whether another gene
will be expressed in a different chromosome
Fertilisation The two gametes combine to form a diploid zygote

How environmental factors could bring about variation

Environmental
Factors Explanation
Extreme low temperature Animals which live in areas where temperature in most of the
times is extremely low tend to develop thick fur than those which
normally reside in areas with high temperatures. Plants which grow
in areas with extremely high temperatures tend to develop small
sized, fleshy leaves with waxy cuticle to reduce transpiration rate

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 while those which grow in areas with high temperatures tend to
have large thin leaves.
Soil fertility Plants which grow in infertile soils tend to have rapid and healthy
growth compared to the ones which grow in infertile soils which
grow thin and stunted.
Animals which are properly fed enough balanced ration tend to
likeAnimal nutrition grow healthy and fast compared to those which are normally
supplied adequate unbalanced ration which grow emaciated.
Pests/pathogens/ Animals which live in areas prone to diseases are likely to
diseases experience slow growth and emaciation compared to those which
lives in disease free areas which normally grows healthily and
rapidly
Photoperiod Increases growth especially for long day plants which live in an area
which experience that duration of light compared to plants which
grows in an area which experience short days of light

Uses of variation
Genetic variation leads to improvement in the genetic makeup of a species and that can
make the organism in the population adapt to the environment in which they live, be
more resistant to pests and diseases and be more productive.
Bad effects of environmental variation may lead to deterioration of the good
characteristics in a species, and this may cause problems in their development. For
farmers to get the best output from their crops and animals, they will have to use
organisms with the best genes in relation to what they intend to produce. Also by
carefully improving the environment of selected desirable indigenous species of plant
and animal will result in better performance of those organisms

Breeding
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
-Define the word breeding
-Explain the importance of breeding
-Describe cross breeding, selection, upgrading and hybridisation in plants and animals

Definition of breeding
-The systematic process of mating selected individuals (males and females) of plants and
animals in order to get or transmit the most desirable traits to the off springs.
-The development of new plants and animal types with improved traits by controlled
crossing or mating of the parent organisms.

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Importance of breeding
-To develop new breeds of animals and new varieties (cultivars) of plants
-To develop resistance of plants and animals to pests and diseases, and harsh environmental
conditions such as drought
-To maintain pure breeds of animals and new varieties of plants
-To eliminate (get rid of) undesirable characteristics
-To increase performance of plants and animals in terms of better yield production
-To increase shelf life of its crop, produce eg production of tomatoes can be stored for along
time without getting bad
-To produce plants and animals which adapt quit well to climate in which they live
-To improve the quality and nutritional value of the products of plants and animals
-To produce plants and animals that grow fast and matures early

Methods of breeding
-Cross breeding
-Inbreeding
-Selection
-Upgrading
-Selection

[Link]
This is the mating of two or more different breeds of animals of the same species. Example
mating brahman bull with a Simmental cow, mating a karakul ram and a merino ewe, mating
an Orpington cock and a black Australorp hen etc. Cross breeding aims to achieve
heterosis/hybrid vigour (Which means the better performance of offsprings compared to
their mid-parents).

Advantages of cross breeding

-Leads to hybrid vigour
-Combines desirable characteristics of both parents in the offspring

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-It helps to make animals resistant to parasites, diseases and drought conditions
-Results in increased production with regards to growth rate, feed conversion efficiency and
fertility
-The offsprings of crossbreeding are usually better performers than pure breed animals
-Problems of deformities in offsprings are rare

Disadvantages of cross breeding

-It is expensive and difficult to keep pure breed bulls and cows in the same farm
-It requires specialised skills and knowledge to successfully cross the animals in order to
obtain the desired yields
-Cross breed animals do not show the same degree of hybrid vigour, some crosses usually
disappoint.
-Cross breed animals are not suitable to be used for breeding because they do not breed
true to type

[Link]
This is the mating of mating of mating of animals that are closely related such as parents
and their offspring (mother and son and father and daughter or siblings (son and daughter).
This form of breeding is generally unacceptable because of several disadvantages that go
along with it. It has however been useful in some cases where it has produced animals that
have a homogenous (similar) characteristic. For example, it has been used tin dairy animals
producing animals of high and similar milk yield.

Advantages
-It helps to concentrates desirable traits in the herd (concentrates best genes in the breed)

-It leads to creation of herds of animals which are uniform and distinct with respect to
certain traits

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-It helps to maintain pure lines of animals by reducing genetic variation ( produce a
population of animals that will be having the same genetic structure)
-It increases the ability of an animal to pass on its characteristics to the offsprings
-It exposes undesirable traits that can be selected and thus eliminated from the herd

Disadvantages
-Some undesirable traits may build up in the herd (encourages the transmission of
undesirable characteristics to the offsprings eg some diseases may be inherited)
-It often gives rise to deformed animals (increase in defects in the offspring)
-It results in decline of hybrid vigour
-It reduces variability mong species of animals
-It causes decreased resistance to diseases and parasites as a result of reduced genetic
diversity
-It results in decline of fertility of the offspring

[Link]
The practice of choosing the best animals and plants with desirable traits to be used as
parents of the next or future generation. The breeding stock thus selected should be able to
pass on the desirable traits to the offsprings to improve their performance. Selection of
breeding stock can be based on some of the following factors:
-Growth rate
-yield
-Production of quality products
-Tolerant to harsh environmental factors
-Heritability of traits i.e. ability to pass on traits

In plants selection is done using seeds or planting materials from plants that show much of
the desirable characteristics. This selection is usually done before sowing or planting seeds.
A common characteristic selected is high yield.

In animals, selection involves identifying the animals that have the desirable traits and using
them as the breeding stock of the future generation. Usually the records (pedigree) of the
animals’ ancestors are used for the selection.

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 Methods/Types of selection
a)Pedigree selection-Which focuses on the quality of ancestors rather than the quality of
the individual itself
b)Mass selection/indvidual- Which is based solely on individual merit
c)Family selection-Which is based on the qualities of the collateral relatives e.g half siblings
d)Progeny selection-Selecting an individual based on the records of their
progenies/offsprings
Advantages
-It does not require introduction of new genes into herd and thus there is no need to buy
different animals than those the farmer already has
-It can easily be used with other forms of breeding
Disadvantages
-It takes a long time to select and establish the trait in the herd
-Some desirable traits are not easy to isolate and select for and by trying to select for such
desirable traits, the other undesirable traits may unintentionally also be selected
-Well planned selection program needs a thorough knowledge of genetics as well as proper
record keeping.

[Link]
A form of crossbreeding, which involves crossing and back crossing of cows of inferior breed
with bulls of superior breed for successive generation to improve the offsprings until the
superior breed is well established in the herd. For example, if a farmer has a Twana herd
(inferior breed of low grade but are hardy and can withstand harsh climatic conditions) but
wants but wants to change it to brahman herd (superior breed of high grade), instead of
buying the whole brahman herd to replace the Twana herd, he can buy a pure breed
brahman bull or bulls for use to improving the Twana herd. The brahman bulls will be used
to cross with the Twana cows (inferior breed). The female offsprings of the crosses, will then
have to be backcrossed with pure breed brahman bulls for several generations until the
whole Twana herd is improved in to the superior brahman herd or their genes are removed
from the herd. That is 1st,2nd,3rd,4th,4th,5t and 6th female offsprings of a cross backcrossed
with a pure breed brahman bull. It takes about seven generations to cross and backcross the
inferior and superior breeds to establish the superior breed as illustrated by the diagram
below:
Advantages of upgrading
-It produces hybrid vigour in the upgraded animals

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-It improves the quality of the offspring
-It is a simple or cheap way of improving a herd of inferior breed since artificial insemination
can be used for upgrading rather than buying herd of superior animals
-The upgraded animals retain some proportions of their good traits
-There is danger of producing deformed offsprings since traits of the offspring are known
even before birth
Disadvantages of upgrading
-It is expensive than random mating as pure breed animals are involved which are expensive
-It takes a long time to improve the inferior breed
-It requires proper knowledge of breeding which may not be available at the farmer’s level
-It may be difficult to get good quality bulls in rural areas for the process
-If only one bull is used in upgrading as it is often the case problems associated with
inbreeding may occur as the bull mates with its offsprings

[Link]
This is the crossing of different breeds, varieties or species of animals or plants to produce
hybrids similar words to hybridisation are crossbreeding, inter breeding. Hybridisation
however includes crossing of different species of animals or plants. Species crossing readily
occurs in plants than in animals. Plants in the same family readily cross pollinates to form
new forms of plants that are fertile. An example is found in citrus plants. Eg Tangelo (a citrus
fruit) has been produced by crossing pomelo (a large yellow citurs fruit native to Southern
Asia and Malaysia) and tangerine (a variety of Mandarian orange). In some animal species
crossing when successful often results in infertile animals like the mule which is produced by
crossing a donkey and a horse.
A hybrid is a plant or animal produced by crossing parents that re not closely related. Plant
and animal breeders cross two different strains of plants of the same species or two
different breeds of animals of the same species with the hope of producing hybrids that
have the best that have the best characteristic of both parents.

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For example, suppose to strains of tomatoes have the following characteristics
Strain 1 -large fruits strain 2-small fruits
-Poor resistance to diseases -High resistance to diseases
If the two strains are crossed, their characteristic will appear in the offspring in the following
manner. Some of the hybrids may have small fruits and show poor resistance to diseases
but others might produce fruits of good size and also disease resistant. The second group of
hybrids will be better than either of their parents because they have combined the good
qualities of the two.
Advantages of hybridisation
-It helps to blend good characteristics of two different types of breeds
-It produces new species, varieties and breeds of plants and animals
-It enhances hybrid vigour in the offspring, that is the offspring shows improved productivity
over either parent
-Problems of deformities in the offspring are rare with hybridisation
Disadvantages of hybridisation
-Hybrids are not suitable for breeding because they do not breed true to type
-It requires great specialised skill to produce a desired hybrid
-Cross bred organisms do not show the same degree of hybrid vigour, some hybrids
disappoint by having by having the worst characteristics of their parents
-Different species of animals do not readily mate and thus it is difficult to get them to do so
-Where crossing of different animals between species is achieved, the resultant offspring is
often infertile

BIOTECHNOLOGY
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
-Define the terms biotechnology and genetic engineering
-Distinguish between modern and traditional biotechnology
-List 4 examples of biotechnology as they apply in agriculture
-Describe one application of biotechnology as it applies in agriculture
-State advantages and disadvantages of using biotechnology in agriculture
Definition

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Biotechnology is any technique that uses biological processes or living organisms or
substances from those living organisms to (i) make or modify product (ii) to improve plants
and animals or (iii) to develop microorganisms for specific purposes.
Generally, biotechnology is aimed at producing materials and services for the benefit of
mankind. Some of the more commonly known products of biotechnology are antibiotics,
vaccines, enzymes, hormones, and some types of food.
For example, some single celled organisms such as bacteria have been used to produce new
vaccines for deadly animal diseases such as foot and mouth diseases and scours (diarrhoea
in cattle and horses caused by intestinal infections)
Also, some enzymes have been developed that improve digestion of feed by animals.

Water purification and sewage treatment are also some of the services of biotechnology.
Biotechnology research has led to development of techniques such as artificial insemination,
super ovulation, embryo transfer, hybridisation of plants and animals and production of
genetically modified seeds.

GENETIC ENGINEERING- This is the scientific modification (alteration) of genes or the

genetic material of an organism to produce desirable new traits or eliminate undesirable in
the organism. In other words, it is a process by which undesirable traits are removed and
desirable genes are spliced into the chromosomes. The changes can also be made on the
structure of genes.
How genetic engineering is accomplished
-A desired DNA/gene from a particular organism say from a microorganism is isolated
-DNA is inserted into the new organism’s host cell (usually a plant or animal cell)
-to produce an organism with high growth rate
Advantages of genetic engineering
-Results in increased animal and crop production
-Results in rapid genetic improvement of crops and animals
-Results in quick maturity or increased growth rate of crops and animals
Disadvantages of genetic engineering
-Loss of crop and animal diversity
-Risk of allergic reactions in humans when engineered products are consumed
-May results in production of new toxins
-Required specialised skilled personnel to accomplish

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-May cause harmful mutations
-The ecosystem may be disturbed
Gene splicing is the process of removing a gene from its location on a chromosome and
replacing it with another gene, with the aid of proper enzyme. It involves taking genes from
their normal location in one organism and either transferring them elsewhere (another
unrelated species) or putting them back into the original organism in different combinations.
For example, genetically modified seeds are produced in the same way by introducing new
types of genes into seeds.
Traditional and Modern biotechnology
Traditional biotechnology are techniques that are old, conventional and well established
and have been used for many years and passed from generation to generation as traditional
practices. It refers to ancient ways of using living organisms to make new useful products or
modify existing ones eg the use of yeast in bread making and the manufacture of traditional
beer. Traditionally biotechnology can be traced back to human transition from hunter
gatherer to farmer. As farmers, humans collected wild plants and cultivated them, and the
best yielding strains were selected for growing the following seasons.
A lot of biotechnology has been used in the past to produce different products especially
using microorganisms. It has also been used to manipulate plants and animals to suit the
purposes of man. For example, man has been able to breed cattle for beef and milk from the
wild ancestor cattle. This has been achieved through the process of selection of cattle with
desirable characteristics for breeding.
Morden biotechnology
These are techniques which involve the application of scientific knowledge (biochemistry
and, genetic engineering) towards developing exciting new biotechnological processes on a
large scale and it operates at DNA or molecular level. For example, the cells of microbes
(bacteria and fungi) are being used to produce antibiotics, which have proved to be of great
medical value to both humans and animals.
Modern biotechnology is used in conjunction with genetic engineering and when properly
applied, can lead to an improvement in agricultural products e.g. the application of
genetically modified crops that are high yielding, early maturing and highly resistant to
diseases and pests. The results of modern biotechnology are accurate and predictable.
Examples of traditional biotechnological practices
-Brewing traditional beer
-Production of sour milk
-Production of fermented sour porridge
-Cross breeding/any form of breeding
Examples of modern biotechnological practices

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-Vaccine production
-Embryo transfer
Cloning of animals
-production of genetically modified organisms
One way/instance in which biotechnology is used in Agriculture
a) Production of sour milk/fermented milk
Sour milk is a good product produced from acidification of milk. It is not the same as spoiled
milk that has gone bad naturally and which may contain toxins. Acidification which gives
milk a tarte taste, is achieved either through, addition of an acid, such as lemons and or
vinegar or through bacterial fermentation.
Fermentation or souring milk is caused by bacteria or cultured bacteria. Fresh milk from a
cow normally contains many bacteria. Since milk is an excellent source of food, the bacteria
will grow and multiply if the milk is left untreated.
During the souring of milk, the bacteria growing in the milk respire anaerobically. The
bacteria feed on the sugar (lactose) in the milk and break it down into an acid, which turns
the milk sour. The acid also causes the milk to coagulate or curdle and form a thicker
consistency and inhibits the growth of harmful bacteria and thus improve the shelf life of
the fermented milk.
b) Embryo transfer
This is a procedure for placing living embryos obtained from a donor animal in the
reproductive tract of the recipient animals. Just before the donor female is due to ovulate,
she is treated with a hormone (follicle stimulating hormone) in order to increase the
number of eggs or ova that are produced. The purpose of this treatment is to produce
several embryos which are to be given to recipient animals. At the appropriate time the
donor female is mated to fertilise the ova. The growing embryos are recovered from the
donor female 6 to 8 days after fertilisation. This is done by flushing the reproductive tract of
the donor female with fluids.
An embryo may then be transferred to the uterus of a recipient female or frozen for future
use. Through this procedure or practice of embryo transfer, a livestock farmer is able to
produce many more offspring from his best female animals than he would be able to
produce under natural conditions.
Distinction between modern and traditional biotechnology

Traditional biotechnology Modern biotechnology

It is practised without knowledge of the It applies a lot of knowledge from different
underlying scientific processes specialised scientific processes
It often involves cheap and readily available It often requires the use of expensive and

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 materials, equipment, and structures in the sophisticated equipment
farm
Although it may involve the transfer of Too often it involves the manipulation of
genes, it does not involve manipulation of the chromosome or gene structure
structure of chromosome or genes
It involves trial and error Its techniques are far more precise
(accurate) and it is viewed as being far
safer.

Advantages and disadvantages of the use of biotechnology in Agriculture

Advantages
-It helps in improving the quality of crops eg tomatoes through delayed ripening and
therefore increasing the shelf life
-It helps in developing tolerance in plants and animals to harsh weather conditions such as
drought, heat and cold
-It leads to the production of crops and animals that are resistant to diseases and pests
-It leads to increased crop and livestock production
-It leads to better use of some agricultural waste materials eg the use of cattle
droppings/dung in the production of biogas
-It helps in the modification/alteration of genes for beneficial purposes
Disadvantages
-Health risks-There is the fear that some of the new genes from plants and animals that
man consumes may trigger some medical problems such as (i) allergies and (ii) development
of diseases that are resistant to medication
-Risk to the environment-That is some of the modified genes could be passed on to
untargeted organisms like (i)weeds, and this may cause them to be resistant to herbicides
(i.e., creation of super weeds) (ii)pests and this may make them to become resistant to
pesticides and (iii) pathogens, which may develop resistance to drugs that are resistant to
drugs that are used for controlling them
-Loss or reduction of biodiversity in plants/crops; Newly engineered plants may be
unattractive to pollinators that are supposed to help to pollinate them to produce many
more new plants (In other words only new few varieties of plants/crops that meets human
needs are improved.
-Loss of flavour/texture some agricultural produce eg genetically modified seeds may not
produce crops with desirable taste. The use of modern biotechnology methods /techniques
requires a high degree of knowledge and skill f scientists.
Ways in which modern biotechnology improves the growth of crops

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-It improves the ability of crops to adapt to environmental factors
-It increases yield of crops
-It increases the nutritional value of crops
-It ensures early maturity of crops
-It enables mass production of crops
-It increases crop resistance to herbicides/diseases /pests
-it improves shelf life of crop produce, that is the crop produce may be kept for along time
without getting spoilt.

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