LECTURE-17

STATIC DATA MEMBER:

A data member of a class can be qualified as static . The

properties of a static member variable are similar to that of a static variable. A static member variable
has contain special characteristics.
Variable has contain special characteristics:-
1) It is initialized to zero when the first object of its class is [Link] other
initialization is permitted.
2) Only one copy of that member is created for the entire class and is shared by
all the objects of that class, no matter how many objects are created.
3) It is visible only with in the class but its life time is the entire program. Static
variables are normally used to maintain values common to the entire class.
For example a static data member can be used as a counter that records the
occurrence of all the objects.

int item :: count; // definition of static data member

Note that the type and scope of each static member variable must be defined outside
the class definition .This is necessary because the static data members are stored separately rather
than as a part of an object.
Example :-
#include<iostream.h>
class item
{
static int count; //count is static
int number;
public:
void getdata(int a)
. {
number=a;
count++;
}
void getcount(void)
{
cout<<”count:”;
cout<<count<<endl;
}
};
int item :: count ; //count defined
int main( )
{
item a,b,c;
a.get_count( );
b.get_count( );
c.get_count( ):
[Link]( ):
[Link]( );

51 P.T.O
 [Link]( );
cout«"after reading data : "«endl;
a.get_count( );
b.gel_count( );
[Link] count( );
return(0);
}

The output would be

count:0
count:0
count:0
After reading data
count: 3
count:3
count:3

The static Variable count is initialized to Zero when the objects created . The count is
incremented whenever the data is read into an object. Since the data is read into objects three times
the variable count is incremented three times. Because there is only one copy of count shared by all
the three object, all the three output statements cause the value 3 to be displayed.

STATIC MEMBER FUNCTIONS:-

A member function that is declared static has following properties :-

1. A static function can have access to only other static members declared in the
same class.
2. A static member function can be called using the class name as follows:-
class - name :: function - name;
Example:-
#include<iostream.h>
class test
{
int code;
static int count; // static member variable
public:
void set(void)
{
code=++count;
}
void showcode(void)
{
cout<<”object member : “<<code<<end;
}
static void showcount(void)
{ cout<<”count=”<<count<<endl; }
};
int test:: count;
int main()
{

52 P.T.O
 test t1,t2;
[Link]( );
[Link]( );
test :: showcount ( ); '
test t3;
[Link]( );
test:: showcount( );
[Link]( ) ;
[Link]( );
[Link]( );
return(0);

output:- count : 2
count: 3
object number 1
object number 2
object number 3

OBJECTS AS FUNCTION ARGUMENTS

Like any other data type, an object may be used as A function argument. This can cone in two ways
1. A copy of the entire object is passed to the function.
2. Only the address of the object is transferred to the function
The first method is called pass-by-value. Since a copy of the object is passed to the function, any
change made to the object inside the function do not effect the object used to call the function.
The second method is called pass-by-reference . When an address of the object is passed, the called
function works directly on the actual object used in the call. This means that any changes made to the
object inside the functions will reflect in the actual object .The pass by reference method is more
efficient since it requires to pass only the address of the object and not the entire object.

Example:-
#include<iostream.h>
class time
{
int hours;
int minutes;
public:
void gettime(int h, int m)
{
hours=h;
minutes=m;
}
void puttime(void)
{
cout<< hours<<”hours and:”;

cout<<minutes<<”minutes:”<<end;
}

53 P.T.O
 void sum( time ,time);
};
void time :: sum (time t1,time t2) .
{
minutes=[Link] + [Link];
hours=minutes%60;
minutes=minutes%60;
hours=hours+t [Link]+[Link];
}

int main()
{
time T1,T2,T3;
[Link](2,45);
[Link](3,30);
[Link](T1,T2);
cout<<”T1=”;
[Link]( );
cout<<”T2=”;
[Link]( );
cout<<”T3=”;
[Link]( );
return(0);
}

54 P.T.O
 LECTURE-18

FRIENDLY FUNCTIONS:-
We know private members can not be accessed from outside the class. That is a non -
member function can't have an access to the private data of a class. However there could be a case
where two classes manager and scientist, have been defined we should like to use a function income-
tax to operate on the objects of both these classes.
In such situations, c++ allows the common function lo be made friendly with both the classes , there
by following the function to have access to the private data of these classes .Such a function need not
be a member of any of these classes.
To make an outside function "friendly" to a class, we have to simply declare this function as a friend
of the classes as shown below :

class ABC
{
---------
---------
public:
--------
----------
friend void xyz(void);
};

The function declaration should be preceded by the keyword friend , The function is defined else
where in the program like a normal C ++ function . The function definition does not use their the
keyword friend or the scope operator :: . The functions that are declared with the keyword friend are
known as friend functions. A function can be declared as a friend in any no of classes. A friend
function, as though not a member function , has full access rights to the private members of the class.

A friend function processes certain special characteristics:

a. It is not in the scope of the class to which it has been declared as friend.
b. Since it is not in the scope of the class, it cannot be called using the object of that
class. It can be invoked like a member function without the help of any object.
c. Unlike member functions.

Example:

#include<iostream.h>
class sample
{
int a;
int b;
public:
void setvalue( ) { a=25;b=40;}
friend float mean( sample s);
}
float mean (sample s)
{
return (float(s.a+s.b)/2.0);
}
int main ( )
{

55 P.T.O
 sample x;
x . setvalue( );
cout<<”mean value=”<<mean(x)<<endl;
return(0);

output:
mean value : 32.5

A function friendly to two classes

#include<iostream.h>
class abc;
class xyz
{
int x;
public:
void setvalue(int x) { x-= I; }
friend void max (xyz,abc);
};
class abc
{
int a;
public:
void setvalue( int i) {a=i; }
friend void max(xyz,abc);
};

void max( xyz m, abc n)

{
if(m . x >= n.a)
cout<<m.x;
else
cout<< n.a;
}

int main( )
{
abc j;
j . setvalue( 10);
xyz s;
[Link](20);
max( s , j );
return(0);
}
SWAPPING PRIVATE DATA OF CLASSES:

#include<iostream.h>

class class-2;
class class-1
{

56 P.T.O
 int value 1;
public:
void indata( int a) { value=a; }
void display(void) { cout<<value<<endl; }
friend void exchange ( class-1 &, class-2 &);
};

class class-2
{
int value2;
public:
void indata( int a) { value2=a; }
void display(void) { cout<<value2<<endl; }
friend void exchange(class-l & , class-2 &);
};
void exchange ( class-1 &x, class-2 &y)
{
int temp=x. value 1;
x. value I=y.valuo2;
y.value2=temp;
}

int main( )
{
class-1 c1;
class-2 c2;
[Link](l00);
[Link](200);
cout<<”values before exchange:”<<endl;
[Link]( );
[Link]( );
exchange (c1,c2);
cout<<”values after exchange :”<< endl;
c1. display ( );
c2. display ( );
return(0);
}
output:
values before exchange
100
200
values after exchange
200
100

57 P.T.O
PROGRAM FOR ILLUSTRATING THE USE OF FRIEND FUNCTION:

#include< iostream.h>
class account1;
class account2
{
private:
int balance;
public:
account2( ) { balance=567; }
void showacc2( )
{
cout<<”balanceinaccount2 is:”<<balance<<endl;
friend int transfer (account2 &acc2, account1 &acc1,int amount);
};
class acount1
{
private:
int balance;
public:
account1 ( ) { balance=345; }

void showacc1 ( )
{
cout<<”balance in account1 :”<<balance<<endl;
}
friend int transfer (account2 &acc2, account1 &acc1 ,int amount);
};

int transfer ( account2 &acc2, account1 & acc1, int amount)

{
if(amount <=accl . bvalance)
{
acc2. balance + = amount;
acc1 .balance - = amount;
}
else
return(0);
}
int main()
{
account1 aa;
account2 bb;

cout << “balance in the accounts before transfer:” ;

aa . showacc1( );
bb . showacc2( );
cout << “amt transferred from account1 to account2 is:”;
cout<<transfer ( bb,aa,100)<<endl;

58 P.T.O
 cout<< “ balance in the accounts after the transfer:”;
aa . showacc 1 ( );
bb. showacc 2( );
return(0);
}
output:
balance in the accounts before transfer
balance in account 1 is 345
balance in account2 is 567
and transferred from account! to account2 is 100
balance in account 1 is 245
balance in account2 is 667

59 P.T.O
 LECTURE-19

RETURNING OBJECTS:
# include< iostream,h>
class complex
{
float x;
float y;
public:
void input( float real , float imag)
{
x=real;
y=imag;
}
friend complex sum( complex , complex);
void show ( complex );
};
complex sum ( complex c1, complex c2)
{
complex c3;
c3.x=c1.x+c2.x;
c3.y=c1.y+c2.y;
return c3;}

void complex :: show ( complex c)

{
cout<<c.x<<” +j “<<c.y<<endl;
}

int main( )
{
complex a, b,c;
[Link](3.1,5.65);
[Link](2.75,1.2);
c=sum(a,b);
cout <<” a=”; [Link](a);
cout <<” b= “; [Link](b);
cout <<” c=” ; [Link](c);
return(0);
}
output:
a =3.1 + j 5.65
b= 2.75+ j 1.2
c= 5.55 + j 6.85

60 P.T.O
POINTER TO MEMBERS;
It is possible to take the address of a member of a class and assign it to a pointer. The address
of a member can be obtained by applying the operator & to a “fully qualified” class member name.

A class member pointer can be declared using the operator :: * with the class name.
For Example:
class A
{
private:
int m;
public:
void show( );
};
We can define a pointer to the member m as follows :
int A :: * ip = & A :: m
The ip pointer created thus acts like a class member in that it must be invoked with a class object. In
the above statement. The phrase A :: * means “pointer - to - member of a class” . The phrase & A ::
m means the “ Address of the m member of a class”

The following statement is not valid :

int *ip=&m ; // invalid
This is because m is not simply an int type data. It has meaning only when it is associated
with the class to which it belongs. The scope operator must be applied to both the pointer and the
member.

The pointer ip can now be used to access the m inside the member function (or
friend function).

Let us assume that “a” is an object of “ A” declared in a member function . We can

access "m" using the pointer ip as follows.
cout<< a . * ip;
cout<< a.m;
ap=&a;
cout<< ap-> * ip;
cout<<ap->a;
The deferencing operator ->* is used as to accept a member when we use pointers to
both the object and the member. The dereferencing operator. .* is used when the object itself is used
with the member pointer. Note that * ip is used like a member name.
We can also design pointers to member functions which ,then can be invoked using
the deferencing operator in the main as shown below.
(object-name.* pointer-to-member function)
(pointer-to -object -> * pointer-to-member function)
The precedence of ( ) is higher than that of .* and ->* , so the parenthesis are
necessary.

61 P.T.O
DEREFERENCING OPERATOR:
#include<iostream.h>
class M
{
int x;
int y;
public:
void set_xy(int a,int b)
{
x=a;
y=b;
}
friend int sum(M);
};

int sum (M m)
{
int M :: * px= &M :: x; //pointer to member x

int M :: * py- & m ::y;//pointer to y

M * pm=&m;
int s=m.* px + pm->py;
return(s);
}
int main ( )
{
M m;
void(M::*pf)(int,int)=&M::set-xy;//pointer to function set-xy (n*pf)( 10,20);
//invokes set-xy
cout<<”sum=:”<<sum(n)<<cncil;
n *op=&n; //point to object n
( op->* pf)(30,40); // invokes set-xy
cout<<”sum=”<<sum(n)<<end 1 ;
return(0);
}
output:
sum= 30
sum=70

62 P.T.O
 LECTURE-20

CONSTRUCTOR:
A constructor is a special member function whose task is to initialize the objects of its class .
It is special because its name is the same as the class name. The constructor is invoked when ever an
object of its associated class is created. It is called constructor because it construct the values of data
members of the class.

A constructor is declared and defined as follows:

//'class with a constructor
class integer
{
int m,n:
public:
integer! void);//constructor declared
------------
------------
};
integer :: integer(void)
{
m=0;
n=0;
}

When a class contains a constructor like the one defined above it is guaranteed that an
object created by the class will be initialized automatically.

For example:-
Integer int1; //object int 1 created
This declaration not only creates the object int1 of type integer but also initializes its
data members m and n to zero.

A constructor that accept no parameter is called the default

constructor. The default constructor for class A is A :: A( ). If no such constructor is
defined, then the compiler supplies a default constructor .
Therefore a statement such as :-
A a ;//invokes the default constructor of the compiler of the
compiler to create the object "a" ;

Invokes the default constructor of the compiler to create the object a.

The constructor functions have some characteristics:-
 They should be declared in the public section .
 They are invoked automatically when the objects are created.
 They don't have return types, not even void and therefore
they cannot return values.
 They cannot be inherited , though a derived class can call
63 P.T.O
 the base class constructor .
 Like other C++ function , they can have default arguments,
 Constructor can't be virtual.
 An object with a constructor can't be used as a member of
union.
Example of default constructor:

#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>

class abc
{
private:
char nm[];
public:
abc ( )
{
cout<<”enter your name:”;
cin>>nm;
}
void display( )

{
cout<<nm;
}

};

int main( )
{
clrscr( );
abc d;
[Link]( );
getch( );
return(0);
}
PARAMETERIZED CONSTRUCTOR:-
the constructors that can take arguments are called parameterized constructors.
Using parameterized constructor we can initialize the various data elements of different objects with
different values when they are created.
Example:-
class integer
{
int m,n;
public:
integer( int x, int y);
--------
---------
};
64 P.T.O
 integer:: integer (int x, int y)
{
m=x;n=y;
}
the argument can be passed to the constructor by calling the constructor
implicitly.
integer int 1 = integer(0,100); // explicit call
integer int 1(0,100); //implicite call

CLASS WITH CONSTRUCTOR:-

#include<iostream.h>
class integer
{
int m,n;
public:
integer(int,int);
void display(void)

{
cout<<”m=:”<<m ;
cout<<”n=”<<n;
}
};
integer :: integer( int x,int y) // constructor defined
{
m=x;
n=y;
}
int main( )
{
integer int 1(0, 100); // implicit call
integer int2=integer(25,75);
cout<<” \nobjectl “<<endl;
[Link]( );
cout<<” \n object2 “<<endl;
[Link]( );
}
output:
object 1
m=0
n=100
object2
m=25
n=25

65 P.T.O
 Example:-
#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
class abc
{
private:
char nm [30];
int age;
public:
abc ( ){ }// default
abc ( char x[], int y);
void get( )
{
cout<<”enter your name:”;
cin>>nm;
cout<<” enter your age:”;
cin>>age;
}
void display( )
{
cout<<nm«endl;
cout«age;
}
};
abc : : abc(char x[], int y)
{
strcpy(nm,x);
age=y;
}
void main( )
{
abc 1;
abc m=abc("computer",20000);
[Link]();
[Link]( );
[Link] ( );
getch( );
}

OVERLOADED CONSTRUCTOR:-
#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
class sum
{
private;
int a;
int b;
int c;
float d;
double e;
public:
sum ( )
 {
cout<<”enter a;”;
cin>>a;
cout<<”enter b;”;
cin>>b;
cout<<”sum= “<<a+b<<endl;
}
sum(int a,int b);
sum(int a, float d,double c);
};
sum :: sum(int x,int y)
{
a=x;
b=y;
}
sum :: sum(int p, float q ,double r)
{
a=p;
d=q;
e=r;
}
void main( )
{
clrscr( );
sum 1;
sum m=sum(20,50);
sum n= sum(3,3.2,4.55);
getch( );
}

output:
enter a : 3
enter b : 8
sum=11
sum=70
sum=10.75

COPY CONSTRUCTOR:
A copy constructor is used to declare and initialize an object from another object.
Example:-
the statement
integer 12(11);
would define the object 12 and at the same time initialize it to the values of 11.
Another form of this statement is : integer 12=11;
The process of initialization through a copy constructor is known as copy initialization.
Example:-
#incliide<iostream.h>
class code
{
int id;
 public
code ( ) { } //constructor
code (int a) { id=a; } //constructor
code(code &x)
{
Id=[Link];
}
void display( )
{
cout<<id;
}
};
int main( )
{
code A(100);
code B(A);
code C=A;
code D;
D=A;
cout<<” \n id of A :”; [Link]( );
cout<<” \nid of B :”; [Link]( );
cout<<” \n id of C:”; [Link]( );
cout<<” \n id of D:”; [Link]( );
}

output :-
id of A:100
id of B:100
id of C:100
id of D:100

DYNAMIC CONSTRUCTOR:-
The constructors can also be used to allocate memory while creating objects .
This will enable the system to allocate the right amount of memory for each object when the objects
are not of the same size, thus resulting in the saving of memory.
Allocate of memory to objects at the time of their construction is known as dynamic
constructors of objects. The memory is allocated with the help of new operator.
Example:-
#include<iostream.h>
#include<string.h>
class string
{
char *name;

int length;
public:
string ( )
 {
length=0;
name= new char [length+1]; /* one extra for \0 */
}
string( char *s) //constructor 2
{
length=strlen(s);
name=new char [length+1];
strcpy(name,s);
}
void display(void)
{
cout<<name<<endl;
}
void join(string &a .string &b)
{
length=a. length +b . length;
delete name;
name=new char[length+l]; /* dynamic allocation */
strcpy(name,[Link]);
strcat(name,[Link]);
}
};
int main( )
{
char * first = “Joseph” ;
string name1(first),name2(“louis”),naine3( “LaGrange”),sl,s2;
[Link](name1,name2);
[Link](s1,name3);
[Link]( );
[Link]( );
[Link]( );
[Link]( );
[Link]( );
}
output :-
Joseph
Louis
language
Joseph Louis
Joseph Louis Language
 LECTURE-21

DESTRUCTOR:-

A destructor, us the name implies is used to destroy the objects that have been created by a
constructor. Like a constructor, the destructor is a member function whose name is the same as the
class name but is preceded by a tilde.

For Example:-
~ integer( ) { }
A destructor never takes any argument nor does it return any value. It will be invoked
implicitly by the compiler upon exit from the program to clean up storage that is no longer
accessible. It is a good practice to declare destructor in a program since it releases memory space for
future use.
Delete is used to free memory which is created by new.
Example:-
matrix : : ~ matrix( )
{
for(int i=0; i<11;i++)
delete p[i];
delete p;
}

IMPLEMENTED OF DESTRUCTORS:-
#include<iostream.h>
int count=0;
class alpha
{
public:
alpha( )
{
count ++;
cout<<”\n no of object created :”<<endl;
}
~alpha( )
{
cout<<”\n no of object destroyed :” <<endl;
coutnt--;
}
};

int main( )
{

cout<<” \n \n enter main \n:”;

alpha A1,A2,A3,A4;
{
cout<<” \n enter block 1 :\n”;
 alpha A5;
}
{
cout<<” \n \n enter block2 \n”;
alpha A6;
}
cout<<\n re-enter main \n:”;
return(0);
}

output:-
enter main
no of object created 1
no of object created 2
no of object created 3
no of object created 4
enter block 1
no of object created 5
no of object destroyed 5
enter block 2
no of object created 5
no of object destroyed 5
re-enter main
no of object destroyed 4
no of object created 3
no of object created 2
no of object created 1

Example :-
#include<iostream.h>
int x=l;
class abc
{
public:
abc( )
{
x--;
cout<<”construct the no”<<x<<endl;
}
~abc( )
{
cout<<”destruct the no:”<<x<<endl;
x--;
}
};
int main( )
{
abc I1,I2,I3,I4;
cout«ll«12«13«l4«endl;
return(0);
}
 LECTURE-22 & 23

OPERATOR OVERLOADING:-
Operator overloading provides a flexible option for the creation of new definations for most
of the C++ operators. We can overload all the C++ operators except the following:

 Class members access operator (. , .*)

 Scope resolution operator (: :)
 Size operator(sizeof)
 Condition operator (? :)
Although the semantics of an operator can be extended, we can't change its syntax, the
grammatical rules that govern its use such as the no of operands precedence and associativety. For
example the multiplication operator will enjoy higher precedence than the addition operator.
When an operator is overloaded, its original meaning is not lost. For example,
the operator +, which has been overloaded to add two vectors, can still be used to add two integers.

DEFINING OPERATOR OVERLOADING:

To define an additional task to an operator, we must specify what it means in
relation to the class to which the operator is applied . This is done with the help of a special function
called operator function, which describes the task.
Syntax:-
return-type class-name :: operator op( arg-list)
{
function body
}
Where return type is the type of value returned by the specified operation and
op is the operator being overloaded. The op is preceded by the keyword operator, operator op is the
function name.
operator functions must be either member function, or friend
function. A basic defference between them is that a friend function will have only one argument for
unary operators and two for binary operators, This is because the object used to invoke the member
function is passed implicitly and therefore is available for the member functions. Arguments may be
either by value or by reference.

operator functions are declared in. the class using prototypes as follows:-
vector operator + (vector); /./ vector addition
vector operator-( ); //unary minus
friend vector operator + (vuelor, vector); // vector add
friend vector operator -(vector); // unary minus
vector operator - ( vector &a); // substraction
int operator = =(vector); //comparision
friend int operator = =(vector ,vrctor); // comparision
vector is a data type of class and may represent both magnitude and direction or a series
of points called elements.
The process of overloading involves the following steps:-
1. Create a class that defines the data type that is used in the overloading operation.
2. Declare the operator function operator op() in the public part of the class
3. It may be either a member function or friend function.
4. Define the operator function to implement the required operations.
 Overloaded operator functions can be invoked by expressions such as
op x or x op;
for unary operators and
x op y
for binary opearators.
operator op(x);
for unary operator using friend function
operator op(x,y);
for binary operator usinf friend function.

Unary – operator overloading(using member function):

class abc
{
int m,n;
public:
abc()
{
m=8;
n=9;
}
void show()
{
cout<<m<<n;
}
operator -- ()
{
--m;
--n;
}
};
void main()
{
abc x;
[Link]();
--x;
[Link]();
}

Unary – - operator overloading(using friend function):

class abc
{
int m,n;
public:
abc()
{
m=8;
n=9;
}
void show()
{
cout<<m<<n;
}
friend operator --(abc &p);
};
operator -- (abc &p)
{
--p.m;
--p.n;
}
};
void main()
{
abc x;
[Link]();
operator--(x);
[Link]();
}
Unary operator+ for adding two complex numbers (using member function)

class complex
{
float real,img;
public:
complex()
{
real=0;
img=0;
}
complex(float r,float i)
{
real=r;
img=i;
}
void show()
{
cout<<real<<”+i”<<img;
}
complex operator+(complex &p)
{
complex w;
[Link]=real+[Link];
[Link]=img+[Link];
return w;
}
};
void main()
{
complex s(3,4);
complex t(4,5);
complex m;
m=s+t;
[Link]();
[Link]();
[Link]();
}
Unary operator+ for adding two complex numbers (using friend function)
class complex
{
float real,img;
public:
complex()
{
real=0;
img=0;
}
complex(float r,float i)
{
real=r;
img=i;
}
void show()
{
cout<<real<<”+i”<<img;
}
friend complex operator+(complex &p,complex &q);
};
complex operator+(complex &p,complex &q)
{
complex w;
[Link]=[Link]+[Link];
[Link]=[Link]+[Link];
return w;
}
};
void main()
{
complex s(3,4);complex t(4,5);
complex m;
m=operator+(s,t);
[Link]();[Link]();
[Link]();
}

Overloading an operator does not change its basic meaning. For example assume the +
operator can be overloaded to subtract two objects. But the code becomes unreachable.
class integer
{
intx, y;
public:
int operator + ( ) ;
}
int integer: : operator + ( )
{
return (x-y) ;
}
Unary operators, overloaded by means of a member function, take no explicit argument and
return no explicit values. But, those overloaded by means of a friend function take one
reference argument (the object of the relevant class).
Binary operators overloaded through a member function take one explicit argument and those
which are overloaded through a friend function take two explicit arguments.

Table 7.2
Operator to Arguments passed to the Arguments passed to the Friend
Overload Member Function Function
Unary Operator No 1
Binary Operator 1 2
 LECTURE-24

Type Conversions
In a mixed expression constants and variables are of different data types. The assignment operations
causes automatic type conversion between the operand as per certain rules.

The type of data to the right of an assignment operator is automatically converted to the data type of
variable on the left.

Consider the following example:

int x;
float y = 20.123;
x=y ;

This converts float variable y to an integer before its value assigned to x. The type conversion is
automatic as far as data types involved are built in types. We can also use the assignment operator in
case of objects to copy values of all data members of right hand object to the object on left hand. The
objects in this case are of same data type. But of objects are of different data types we must apply
conversion rules for assignment.

There are three types of situations that arise where data conversion are between incompatible types.
1. Conversion from built in type to class type.
2. Conversion from class type to built in type.
3. Conversion from one class type to another.

Basic to Class Type

A constructor was used to build a matrix object from an int type array. Similarly, we used another
constructor to build a string type object from a char* type variable. In these examples constructors
performed a defacto type conversion from the argument's type to the constructor's class type

Consider the following constructor:

string :: string (char*a)

{
length = strlen (a);
name=new char[len+1];
strcpy (name,a);
}

This constructor builds a string type object from a char* type variable a. The variables length and
name are data members of the class string. Once you define the
constructor in the class string, it can be used for conversion from char* type to string type.

Example
string si , s2;
char* namel = “Good Morning”;
char* name2 = “ STUDENTS” ;
s1 = string(namel);
s2 = name2;
The program statement

si = string (namel);

first converts name 1 from char* type to string type and then assigns the string type values to the
object s1. The statement

s2 = name2;

performs the same job by invoking the constructor implicitly.

Consider the following example
class time
{
int hours;
int minutes;
public:
time (int t) // constructor
{
hours = t / 60; //t is inputted in minutes
minutes = t % 60;
}
};

In the following conversion statements :

time Tl; //object Tl created

int period = 160;
Tl = period; //int to class type
The object Tl is created. The variable period of data type integer is converted into class type time by
invoking the constructor. After this conversion, the data member hours ofTl will have value 2 arid
minutes will have a value of 40 denoting 2 hours and 40 minutes.

Note that the constructors used for the type conversion take a single argument whose type is to be
converted.

In both the examples, the left-hand operand of = operator is always a class object. Hence, we can
also accomplish this conversion using an overloaded = operator.
 LECTURE-25
Class to Basic Type
The constructor functions do not support conversion from a class to basic type. C++ allows us to
define a overloaded casting operator that convert a class type data to basic type. The general form of
an overloaded casting operator function, also referred to as a conversion function, is:
operator typename ( )
{
//Program statmerit .
}

This function converts a class type data to typename. For example, the operator double( ) converts a
class object to type double, in the following conversion function:
vector:: operator double ( )
{
double sum = 0 ;
for(int I = 0; ioize;
sum = sum + v[i] * v[i ] ; //scalar magnitude
return sqrt(sum);
}

The casting operator should satisfy the following conditions.

 It must be a class member.
 It must not specify a return type.
 It must not have any arguments. Since it is a member function, it is invoked
by the object and therefore, the values used for, Conversion inside the
function belongs to the object that invoked the function. As a result function
does not need an argument.

In the string example discussed earlier, we can convert the object string to char* as follows:
string:: operator char*( )
{
return (str) ;
}

One Class to Another Class Type

We have just seen data conversion techniques from a basic to class type and a class to basic type. But
sometimes we would like to convert one class data type to another class type.

Example
Obj1 = Obj2 ; //Obj1 and Obj2 are objects of different classes.
Objl is an object of class one and Obj2 is an object of class two. The class two type data is converted
to class one type data and the converted value is assigned to the Objl. Since the conversion takes
place from class two to class one, two is known as the source and one is known as the destination
class.
Such conversion between objects of different classes can be carried out by either a
constructor or a conversion function. Which form to use, depends upon where we want the type-
conversion function to be located, whether in the source class or in the destination class.
We studied that the casting operator function
Operator typename( )
Converts the class object of which it is a member to typename. The type name may be a built-in type
or a user defined one(another class type) . In the case of conversions between objects,
typename refers to the destination class. Therefore, when a class needs to be converted, a
casting operator function can be used. The conversion takes place in the source class and the result is
given to the destination class object.
Let us consider a single-argument constructor function which serves as an instruction for
converting the argument's type to the class type of which it is a member. The argument belongs to
the source class and is passed to the destination class for conversion. Therefore the conversion
constructor must be placed in the destination class.
Table 7.3

Conversion Conversion takes place in

Source class Destination class
Basic to class Not applicable Constructor
Class to Basic Casting operator Not applicable
Class to class Casting operator Constructor

When a conversion using a constructor is performed in the destination class, we must be able to
access the data members of the object sent (by the source class) as an argument. Since data members
of the source class are private, we must use special access functions in the source class to facilitate
its data flow to the destination class.

Consider the following example of an inventory of products in a store. One way of keeping record of
the details of the products is to record their code number, total items in the stock and the cost of each
item. Alternatively we could just specify the item code and the value of the item in the stock. The
following program uses classes and shows how to convert data of one type to another.

#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
class stock2;
class stock1
{
int code, item;
float price;
public:
stockl (int a, int b, float c)
{
code=a;
item=b;
price=c;
}
void disp( )
{
cout<<”code”<<code <<”\n”;
cout<<”Items”<<item <<”\n”;
cout<<”Price per item Rs . “<<price <<”\n”;
}
int getcode( )
{return code; }
int getitem( )
{return item; }
int getprice( )
{return price;}
 operator float( )
{
return ( item*price );
}
};

class stock2
{
int code;
float val;
public:
stock2()
{
code=0; val=0;
}
stock2(int x, float y)
{
code=x; val=y;
}
void disp( )
{
cout<< “code”<<code << “\n”;
cout<< “Total Value Rs . “ <<val <<”\n”
}
stock2 (stockl p)
{
code=p . getcode ( ) ;
val=[Link]( ) * p. getprice ( ) ;
}
};

void main ( )
{ '
Stockl il(101, 10,125.0);
Stock2 12;
float tot_val;
tot_val=i1 ;
i2=il ;
cout<<” Stock Details-stockl-type” <<”\n”;
i 1 . disp ( ) ;
cout<<” Stock value”<<”\n”;
cout<< tot_val<<”\n”;
cout<<” Stock Details-stock2-type”<< “\n”;
i2 .disp( ) ;
getch ( ) ;
}

You should get the following output.

Stock Details-stock1-type
code 101
Items 10
Price per item Rs. 125
Stock value
1250

Stock Details-stock2-type
code 10 1
Total Value Rs. 1250
 LECTURE-26

Inheritance:

Reaccessability is yet another feature of OOP's. C++ strongly supports the concept of reusability.
The C++ classes can be used again in several ways. Once a class has been written and tested, it can
be adopted by another programmers. This is basically created by defining the new classes, reusing
the properties of existing ones. The mechanism of deriving a new class from an old one is called
'INHERTTENCE'. This is often referred to as IS-A' relationship because very object of the class
being defined "is" also an object of inherited class. The old class is called 'BASE' class and the new
one is called'DERIEVED'class.

Defining Derived Classes

A derived class is specified by defining its relationship with the base class in addition to its own
details. The general syntax of defining a derived class is as follows:

class d_classname : Access specifier baseclass name

{
__
__ // members of derived class
};
The colon indicates that the a-class name is derived from the base class name. The access specifier or
the visibility mode is optional and, if present, may be public, private or protected. By default it is
private. Visibility mode describes the status of derived features e.g.

class xyz //base class

{
members of xyz
};
class ABC : public xyz //public derivation
{
members of ABC
};
class ABC : XYZ //private derivation (by default)
{
members of ABC
};
In the inheritance, some of the base class data elements and member functions are inherited into the
derived class. We can add our own data and member functions and thus extend the functionality of
the base class. Inheritance, when used to modify and extend the capabilities of the existing classes,
becomes a very powerful tool for incremental program development.

Single Inheritance
When a class inherits from a single base class, it is known as single inheritance. Following program
shows the single inheritance using public derivation.

#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
class worker
{
 int age;
char name [10];
public:
void get ( );
};
void worker : : get ( )
{
cout <<”yout name please”
cin >> name;
cout <<”your age please” ;
cin >> age;
}
void worker :: show ( )
{
cout <<”In My name is :”<<name<<”In My age is :”<<age;
}
class manager :: public worker //derived class (publicly)
{
int now;
public:
void get ( ) ;
void show ( ) ;
};
void manager : : get ( )
{
worker : : get ( ) ; //the calling of base class input fn.
cout << “number of workers under you”;
cin >> now;
cin>>name>>age;
} ( if they were public )
void manager :: show ( )
{
worker :: show ( ); //calling of base class o/p fn.
cout <<“in No. of workers under me are: “ << now;
}
main ( )
{
clrscr ( ) ;
worker W1;
manager M1;
M1 .get ( );
[Link] ( ) ;
}
If you input the following to this program:
Your name please
Ravinder
Your age please
27
number of workers under you
30
Then the output will be as follows:
My name is : Ravinder
My age is : 27
No. of workers under me are : 30
The following program shows the single inheritance by private derivation.
#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
class worker //Base class declaration
{
int age;
char name [10] ;
public:
void get ( ) ;
void show ( ) ;
};
void worker : : get ( )
{
cout << “your name please” ;
cin >> name;
cout << “your age please”;
cin >>age;
}
void worker : show ( )
{
cout << “in my name is: “ <<name<< “in” << “my age is : “ <<age;
}
class manager : worker //Derived class (privately by default)
{
int now;
public:
void get ( ) ;
void show ( ) ;
};
void manager : : get ( )
{
worker : : get ( ); //calling the get function of base
cout << “number of worker under you”; class which is
cin >> now;
}
void manager : : show ( )
{
worker : : show ( ) ;
cout << “in no. of worker under me are : “ <<now;
}
main ( )
{
 clrscr ( ) ;
worker wl ;
manager ml;
[Link] ( ) ;
[Link] ( );
}
The following program shows the single inheritance using protected derivation
#include<conio.h>
#include<iostream.h>
class worker //Base class declaration
{ protected:
int age; char name [20];
public:
void get ( );
void show ( );
};
void worker :: get ( )
{
cout >> “your name please”;
cin >> name;
cout << “your age please”;
cin >> age;
}
void worker :: show ( )
{
cout << “in my name is: “ << name << “in my age is “ <<age;
}
class manager:: protected worker // protected inheritance
{
int now;
public:
void get ( );
void show ( ) ;
};
void manager : : get ( )
{
cout << “please enter the name In”;
cin >> name;
cout<< “please enter the age In”; //Directly inputting the data
cin >> age; members of base class
cout << “ please enter the no. of workers under you:”;
cin >> now;
}
void manager : : show ( )

{
cout « "your name is : "«name«" and age is : "«age;
cout «"In no. of workers under your are : "«now;
main ( )
{
clrscr ( ) ;
manager ml;
[Link] ( ) ;
 cout « "\n \n";
[Link] ( );
}

Making a Private Member Inheritable

Basically we have visibility modes to specify that in which mode you are deriving the another class
from the already existing base class. They are:

a. Private: when a base class is privately inherited by a derived class, 'public

members' of the base class become private members of the derived class and
therefore the public members of the base class can be accessed by its own
objects using the dot operator. The result is that we have no member of base
class that is accessible to the objects of the derived class.
b. Public: On the other hand, when the base class is publicly inherited, 'public
members' of the base class become 'public members' of derived class and
therefore they are accessible to the objects of the derived class.
c. Protected: C++ provides a third visibility modifier, protected, which serve a
little purpose in the inheritance. A member declared as protected is accessible
by the member functions within its class and any class immediately derived
from it. It cannot be accessed by functions outside these two classes.

The below mentioned table summarizes how the visibility of members undergo modifications when
they are inherited

Base Class Visibility Derived Class Visibility

Public Private Protected
Private X X X
Public Public Private Protected
Protected Protected Private Protected

The private and protected members of a class can be accessed by:

a. A function i.e. friend of a class.
b. A member function of a class that is the friend of the class.
c. A member function of a derived class.
Student Activity
1. Define Inheritance. What is the inheritance mechanism in C++?
2. What are the advantage of Inheritance?
3. What should be the structure of a class when it has to be a base for other classes?
 LECTURE-27

Multilevel Inheritance
When the inheritance is such that, the class A serves as a base class for a derived class B which in
turn serves as a base class for the derived class C. This type of inheritance is called ‘MULTILEVEL
INHERITENCE’. The class B is known as the ‘INTERMEDIATE BASE CLASS’ since it provides a
link for the inheritance between A and C. The chain ABC is called ‘ITNHERITENCE*PATH’ for
e.g.

A Base class

Inheritance path B Intermediate base

class

C Derived class

The declaration for the same would be:

Class A
{
//body
}
Class B : public A
{
//body
}
Class C : public B
{
//body
}

This declaration will form the different levels of inheritance.

Following program exhibits the multilevel inheritance.

#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
class worker // Base class declaration
{
int age;
char name [20] ;
public;
void get( ) ;
 void show( ) ;
}

void worker: get ( )

{
cout << “your name please” ;
cin >> name;
cout << “your age please” ;
}
void worker : : show ( )
{
cout << “In my name is : “ <<name<< “ In my age is : “ <<age;
}
class manager : public worker //Intermediate base class derived
{ //publicly from the base class
int now;
public:
void get ( ) ;
void show( ) ;
};
void manager :: get ( )
{
worker : :get () ; //calling get ( ) fn. of base class
cout << “no. of workers under you:”;
cin >> now;
}
void manager : : show ( )
{
worker : : show ( ) ; //calling show ( ) fn. of base class
cout << “In no. of workers under me are: “<< now;
}
class ceo: public manager //declaration of derived class
{ //publicly inherited from the
int nom; //intermediate base class
public:
void get ( ) ;
void show ( ) ;
};
void ceo : : get ( )
{
manager : : get ( ) ;
cout << “no. of managers under you are:”; cin >> nom;
}
void manager : : show ( )
{
cout << “In the no. of managers under me are: In”;
cout << “nom;
}
main ( )
{
clrscr ( ) ;
ceo cl ;
[Link] ( ) ; cout << “\n\n”;
[Link] ( ) ;
}
Worker

Private:
int age;
char name[20];

Protected:

Private:
int age;
char name[20];

Manager:Worker

Private:
int now;

Protected:

Public:
void get()
void show()
worker ::get()
worker ::get()

Ceo: Manager

Public:

Protected:

Public:
All the inherited
members
Multiple Inheritances
A class can inherit the attributes of two or more classes. This mechanism is known as ‘MULTIPLE
INHERITENCE’. Multiple inheritance allows us to combine the features

of several existing classes as a starring point for defining new classes. It is like the child inheriting
the physical feature of one parent and the intelligence of another. The syntax of the derived class is
as follows:

Class base1 Class base2

{ {
//body1 // body2
} }

Class derived : visibility basel, visibility base2

{
//body3
}

Where the visibility refers to the access specifiers i.e. public, private or protected. Following
program shows the multiple inheritance.

#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio . h>
class father //Declaration of base classl
{
int age ;
char flame [20] ;
public:
void get ( ) ;
void show ( ) ;
};
void father : : get ( )
{
cout << “your father name please”;
cin >> name;
cout << “Enter the age”;
cin >> age;
}
void father : : show ( )
{
cout<< “In my father’s name is: ‘ <<name<< “In my father’s age is:<<age;
}
class mother //Declaration of base class 2
{
char name [20] ;
int age ;
 public:
void get ( )
{
cout << “mother’s name please” << “In”;
cin >> name;
cout << “mother’s age please” << “in”;
cin >> age;
}
void show ( )
{
cout << “In my mother’s name is: “ <<name;
cout << “In my mother’s age is: “ <<age;
}
class daughter : public father, public mother //derived class inheriting
{ //publicly
char name [20] ; //the features of both the base class
int std;
public:
void get ( ) ;
void show ( ) ;
};
void daughter :: get ( )
{
father :: get ( ) ;
mother :: get ( ) ;
cout << “child's name: “;
cin >> name;
cout << “child's standard”;
cin >> std;
}
void daughter :: show ( )
{
father :: show ( );
nfather :: show ( ) ;
cout << “In child’s name is : “ <<name;
cout << “In child's standard: “ << std;
}
main ( )
{
clrscr ( ) ;
daughter d1;
[Link] ( ) ;
[Link] ( ) ;
}
Diagrammatic Representation of Multiple Inheritance is as follows:

Father Mother

Private: Private:
int age; int age;
char name[20]; char name[20];

Protected: Protected:

Public: Public:
void get() void get()
void show() void show()

Class daughter: public Father, public Mother

Private: char name[20]; int age;

Protected:

Public:
//self
void get(); void showQ;
//from Father
void get(); void show();
//from Mother
void get(); void show();
 LECTURE-28

Hierarchical Inheritance
Another interesting application of inheritance is to use is as a support to a hierarchical design of a
class program. Many programming problems can be cast into a hierarchy where certain features of
one level are shared by many others below that level for e.g.

Accounts

Saving Accounts Current Accounts

Fixed deposit

Short term Long term

Mid term

In general the syntax is given as

Class A
{
// body A
}

Class B: public A Class C: public A

{ {
//body B //body B
} }

In C++, such problems can be easily converted into hierarchies. The base class will include all the
features that are common to the subclasses. A sub-class can be constructed by inheriting the features
of base class and so on.

// Program to show the hierarchical inheritance

#include<iostream.h>
# include<conio. h>
class father //Base class declaration
{
int age;
char name [15];
public:
void get ( )
{
cout<< “father name please”; cin >> name;
 cout<< “father’s age please”; cin >> age;
}
void show ( )
{
cout << “In father’s name is ‘: “<<name;
cout << “In father’s age is: “<< age;
}
};
class son : public father //derived class 1
{
char name [20] ;
int age ;
public;
void get ( ) ;
void show ( ) ;
};
void son : : get ( )

{
father :: get ( ) ;
cout << “your (son) name please” << “in”; cin >>name;
cout << “your age please” << “ln”; cin>>age;
}
void son :: show ( )
{
father : : show ( ) ;
cout << “In my name is : “ <<name;
cout << “In my age is : “ <<age;
}
class daughter : public father //derived class 2.
{
char name [15] ;
int age;
public:
void get ( )
{
father : : get ( ) ;
cout << “your (daughter’s) name please In” cin>>name;
cout << “your age please In”; cin >>age;
}
void show ( )
{
father : : show ( ) ;
cout << “in my father name is: “ << name << “
In and his age is : “<<age;
}
};
main ( )
{
clrscr ( ) ;
 son S1;
daughter D1 ;
S1. get ( ) ;
D1. get ( ) ;
S1 .show( ) ;
D1. show ( ) ;
}
Hybrid Inheritance
There could be situations where we need to apply two or more types of inheritance to design a
program. Basically Hybrid Inheritance is the combination of one or more types of the inheritance.
Here is one implementation of hybrid inheritance.

//Program to show the simple hybrid inheritance

#include<i sos t ream. h>
#include<conio . h>
class student //base class declaration
{
protected:
int r_no;
public:
void get _n (int a)
{
r_no =a;
}
void put_n (void)
{
cout << “Roll No. : “<< r_no;
cout << “In”;
}
};
class test : public student
{ //Intermediate base class
protected : int parti, par 2;

public :
void get_m (int x, int y) {
parti = x; part 2 = y; }
void put_m (void) {
cout << “marks obtained: “ << “In”
<< “Part 1 = “ << part1 << “in”
<< “Part 2 = “ << part2 << “In”;
}
};
class sports // base for result
{
protected : int score;
public:
void get_s (int s) {
score = s }
void put_s (void) {
cout << “ sports wt. : “ << score << “\n\n”;
 }
};
class result : public test, public sports //Derived from test
& sports
{
int total;
public:
void display (void);
};

void result : : display (void)

{
total = part1 + part2 + score;
put_n ( ) ;.
put_m ( );
put_S ( );
cout << “Total score: “ <<total<< “\n”
}
main ( )
{
clrscr ( ) ;
result S1;
S1.get_n (347) ;
S1.get_m (30, 35);
S1.get_s (7) ;
[Link] ( ) ;
}

Student Activity
1. What is the major use of multilevel Inheritance?
2. How are arguments sent to the base constructors in multiple inheritance? Whose
responsibility is it.
3. What is the difference between hierarchical and hybrid Inheritance.
 LECTURE-29
Virtual Base Classes
We have just discussed a situation which would require the use of both multiple and multi level
inheritance. Consider a situation, where all the three kinds of inheritance, namely multi-level,
multiple and hierarchical are involved.

Let us say the 'child' has two direct base classes ‘parent1’ and ‘parent2’ which themselves has a
common base class ‘grandparent’. The child inherits the traits of ‘grandparent’ via two separate
paths. It can also be inherit directly as shown by the broken line. The grandparent is sometimes
referred to as ‘INDIRECT BASE CLASS’. Now, the inheritance by the child might cause some
problems. All the public and protected members of ‘grandparent’ are inherited into ‘child’ twice, first
via ‘parent1’ and again via ‘parent2’. So, there occurs a duplicacy which should be avoided.

The duplication of the inherited members can be avoided by making common base class as the
virtual base class: for e.g.
class g_parent
{
//Body
};
class parent1: virtual public g_parent
{
// Body
};

class parent2: public virtual g_parent

{
// Body
};
class child : public parent1, public parent2
{
// body
};

When a class is virtual base class, C++ takes necessary care to see that only one copy
of that class is inherited, regardless of how many inheritance paths exists between
virtual base class and derived class. Note that keywords ‘virtual’ and ‘public’ can be
used in either order.

//Program to show the virtual base class

#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio . h>
class student // Base class declaration
{
protected:
int r_no;
public:
void get_n (int a)
{ r_no = a; }
void put_n (void)
{ cout << “Roll No. “ << r_no<< “ln”;}
};
 class test : virtual public student // Virtually declared common
{ //base class 1
protected:
int part1;
int part2;
public:
void get_m (int x, int y)
{ part1= x; part2=y;}
void putm (void)
{
cout << “marks obtained: “ << “\n”;
cout << “part1 = “ << part1 << “\n”;
cout << “part2 = “<< part2 << “\n”;
}
};
class sports : public virtual student // virtually declared common
{ //base class 2
protected:
int score;
public:
void get_s (int a) {
score = a ;
}
void put_s (void)
{ cout << “sports wt.: “ <<score<< “\n”;}
};
class result: public test, public sports //derived class
{
private : int total ;
public:
void show (void) ;
};
void result : : show (void)
{ total = part1 + part2 + score ;
put_n ( );
put_m ( );
put_s ( ) ; cout << “\n total score= “ <<total<< “\n” ;
}
main ( )
{
clrscr ( ) ;
result S1 ;
S1.get_n (345)
S1.get_m (30, 35) ;
[Link]-S (7) ;
S1. show ( ) ;
}

//Program to show hybrid inheritance using virtual base classes

#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
Class A
{
 protected:
int x;
public:
void get (int) ;
void show (void) ;
};
void A : : get (int a)
{x=a;}
void A : : show (void)
{ cout << X ;}
Class A1 : Virtual Public A
{

protected:
int y ;
public:
void get (int) ;
void show (void);
};
void A1 :: get (int a)
{ y = a;}
void A1 :: show (void)
{
cout <<y ;
{
class A2 : Virtual public A
{
protected:
int z ;
public:
void get (int a)
{ z =a;}
void show (void)
{ cout << z;}
};
class A12 : public A1, public A2
{
int r, t ;
public:
void get (int a)
{ r = a;}
void show (void)
{t=x+y+z+r;
cout << “result =” << t ;
}
};
main ( )
{
clrscr ( ) ;
 A12 r ;
r.A : : get (3) ;
r.A1 : : get (4) ;
r.A2 : : get (5) ;
[Link] (6) ;
r . show ( ) ;
}
 LECTURE-30

Polymorphism:
Introduction
When an object is created from its class, the member variables and member functions are allocated
memory spaces. The memory spaces have unique addresses. Pointer is a mechanism to access these
memory locations using their address rather than the name assigned to them. You will study the
implications and applications of this mechanism in detail in this chapter.

Pointer is a variable which can hold the address of a memory location rather than the value at the
location. Consider the following statement

int num =84;

This statement instructs the compiler to reserve a 2-byte of memory location and puts the value 84 in
that location. Assume that the compiler allocates memory location 1001 to num. Diagrammatically,
the allocation can be shown as:

num Variable name

84 Value

1001 Address of memory location

Figure 9.1

As the memory addresses are themselves numbers, they can be assigned to some other variable For
example, ptr be the variable to hold the address of variable num.

Thus, we can access the value of num by the variable ptr. We can say “ptr points to num” as shown
in the figure below.

num num

84 1001

1001 2057
Fig 9.2
Pointers to Objects
An object of a class behaves identically as any other variable. Just as pointers can be defined in case
of base C++ variables so also pointers can be defined for an object type. To create a pointer variable
for the following class
class employee {
int code;
char name [20] ;
public:
inline void getdata ( )= 0 ;
inline void display ( )= 0 ;
};
The following codes is written
employee *abc;
This declaration creates a pointer variable abc that can point to any object of employee type.

this Pointer
C++ uses a unique keyword called "this" to represent an object that invokes a member function. 'this'
is a pointer that points to the object for which this function was called. This unique pointer is called
and it passes to the member function automatically. The pointer this acts as an implicit argument to
all the member function, for e.g.
class ABC
{
int a ;
-----
-----
};
The private variable ‘a’ can be used directly inside a member function, like
a=123;
We can also use the following statement to do the same job.
this → a = 123
e.g.
class stud
{
int a;
public:
void set (int a)
{
this → a = a; //here this point is used to assign a class level
} ‘a’ with the argument ‘a’
void show ( )
{
cout << a;
}
};
main ( )
{
stud S1, S2;
 [Link] (5) ;
[Link] ( );
}
o/p = 5

Pointers to Derived Classes

Polymorphism is also accomplished using pointers in C++. It allows a pointer in a base class to point
to either a base class object or to any derived class object. We can have the following Program
segment show how we can assign a pointer to point to the object of the derived class.

class base
{
//Data Members
//Member Functions
};
class derived : public base
{
//Data Members
//Member functions
};

void main ( ) {
base *ptr; //pointer to class base
derived obj ;
ptr = &obj ; //indirect reference obj to the pointer
//Other Program statements

}
The pointer ptr points to an object of the derived class obj. But, a pointer to a derived class object
may not point to a base class object without explicit casting.

For example, the following assignment statements are not valid

void main ( )
{
base obja;
derived *ptr;
ptr = &obja; //invalid.... .explicit casting required
//Other Program statements
}
A derived class pointer cannot point to base class objects. But, it is possible by using explicit casting.
void main ( )
{
base obj ;
derived *ptr; // pointer of the derived class
ptr = (derived *) & obj; //correct reference
//Other Program statements
}

Student Activity
1. Define Pointers.
2. What are the various operators of pointer? Describe their usage.
3. How will you declare a pointer in C++?
 LECTURE-31

Virtual Functions
Virtual functions, one of advanced features of OOP is one that does not really exist but it« appears
real in some parts of a program. This section deals with the polymorphic features which are
incorporated using the virtual functions.

The general syntax of the virtual function declaration is:

class use_detined_name{
private:
public:
virtual return_type function_name1 (arguments);
virtual return_type function_name2(arguments);
virtual return_type function_name3( arguments);
------------------
};
To make a member function virtual, the keyword virtual is used in the methods while it is declared in
the class definition but not in the member function definition. The keyword virtual precedes the
return type of the function name. The compiler gets information from the keyword virtual that it is a
virtual function and not a conventional function declaration.

For. example, the following declararion of the virtual function is valid.

class point {
intx;
inty;
public:
virtual int length ( );
virtual void display ( );
};
Remember that the keyword virtual should not be repeated in the definition if the definition occurs
outside the class declaration. The use of a function specifier virtual in the function definition is
invalid.

For example
class point {
intx ;
inty ;
public:
virtual void display ( );
};
virtual void point: : display ( ) //error
{
Function Body
}
A virtual function cannot be a static member since a virtual member is always a member of a
particular object in a class rather than a member of the class as a whole.
class point {
int x ;
int y ;
public:
virtual static int length ( ); //error
 };
int point: : length ( )
{
Function body
}
A virtual function cannot have a constructor member function but it can have the destructor member
function.
class point {
int x ;
int y ;
public:
virtual point (int xx, int yy) ; // constructors, error
void display ( ) ;
int length ( ) ;
};
A destructor member function does not take any argument and no return type can be specified for it
not even void.
class point {
int x ;
int y ;
public:
virtual point (int xx, int yy) ; //invalid
void display ( ) ;
int length ( ) ;
It is an error to redefine a virtual method with a change of return data type in the derived class with
the same parameter types as those of a virtuall method in the base class.
class base {
int x,y ;
public:
virtual int sum (int xx, int yy ) ; //error
};
class derived: public base {
intz ;
public:
virtual float sum (int xx, int yy) ;
};
The above declarations of two virtual functions are invalid. Even though these functions take
identical arguments note that the return data types are different.
virtual int sum (int xx, int IT) ; //base class
virtual float sum (int xx, int IT) ; //derived class
Both the above functions can be written with int data types in the base class as well as in the derived
class as
virtual int sum (int xx, int yy) ; //base class
virtual int sum (int xx, int yy) ; //derived class
Only a member function of a class can be declared as virtual. A non member function (nonmethod)
of a class cannot be declared virtual.
virtual void display ( ) //error, nonmember function
{
Function body
}
 Student Activity
1. What are virtual functions
2. What are pure virtual functions
3. Define Virtual destructors.

Late Binding
As we studied in the earlier unit, late binding means selecting functions during the execution.
Though late binding requires some overhead it provides increased power and flexibility. The late
binding is implemented through virtual functions as a result we have to declare an object of a class
either as a pointer to a class or a reference to a class.

For example the following shows how a late binding or run time binding can be carried out with the
help of a virtual function.
class base {
private :
int x;
float y;
public:
virtual void display ( ) ;
int sum ( ) ;
};
class derivedD : public baseA
{
private :
int x ;
float y;
public:
void display ( ); //virtual
int sum ( ) ;
};
void main ( )
{
baseA *ptr ;
derivedD objd ;
ptr = &objd ;
Other Program statements
ptr- >di splay ( ) ; //run time binding
ptr->sum ( ) ; //compile time binding
}

Note that the keyword virtual is be followed by the return type of a member function if a run time is
to be bound. Otherwise, the compile time binding will be effected as usual. In the above program
segment, only the display ( ) function has been declared as virtual in the base class, whereas the sum
( ) is nonvirtual. Even though the message is given from the pointer of the base class to the objects of
the derived class, it will not

access the sum ( ) function of the derived class as it has been declared as nonvirtual. The sum ( )
function compiles only the static binding.

The following program demonstrates the run time binding of the member functions of a class. The
same message is given to access the derived class member functions from the array of pointers. As
function are declared as virtual, the C++ compiler invokes the dynamic binding.
 #include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
class baseA {
public :
virtual void display () {
cout<< “One \n”;
}
};
class derivedB : public baseA
{
public:
virtual void display(){
cout<< “Two\n”; }
};
class derivedC: public derivedB
{
public:
virtual void display ( ) {
cout<< “Three \n”; }
};
void main ( ) {
//define three objects
baseA obja;
derivedB objb;
derivedC objc;
base A *ptr [3]; //define an array of pointers to baseA
ptr [0] = &obja;
ptr [1] = &objb;
ptr [2] = &objc;
for ( int i = 0; i <=2; i ++ )
ptr [i]->display ( ); //same message for all objects
getche ( ) ;
}
Output
One
Two
Three

The program listed below illustrates the static binding of the member functions of a class. In program
there are two classes student and academic. The class academic is derived from class student. The
two member function getdata and display are defined for both the classes. *obj is defined for class
student, the address of which is stored in the object of the class academic. The functions getdata ( )
and display ( ) of student class are invoked by the pointer to the class.

#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
class student {
private:
int rollno;
char name [20];
public:
void getdata ( );
void display ( );
 };
class academic: public student {
private:
char stream;
public:
void getdata ( );
void display ( ) ;
};
void student:: getdata ( )
{
cout<< “enterrollno\n”;
cin>>rollno;
cout<< “enter name \n”;
cin>>name;
}
void student:: display ( )
{
cout<< “the student’s roll number is “<<rollno<< “and name is”<<name ;
cout<< endl;
}
void academic :: getdata ( )
{
cout<< “enter stream of a student? \n”;
cin >>stream;
}
void academic :: display ( ) {
cout<< “students stream \n”;
cout <<stream<< endl;
}
void main ( )
{
student *ptr ;
academic obj ;
ptr=&obj;
ptr->getdata ( ) ;
ptr->display ( ) ;
getche ( );
}
output
enter rollno
25
enter name
raghu
the student’s roll number is 25 and name is raghu

The program listed below illustrates the dynamic binding of member functions of a class. In this
program there are two classes student and academic. The class academic is derived from student.
Student function has two virtual functions getdata ( ) and display (). The pointer for student class is
defined and object . for academic class is created. The pointer is assigned the address of the object
and function of derived class are invoked by pointer to student.
#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
class student {
private:
introllno;
char name [20];
public:
virtual void getdata ( );
virtual void display ( );
};
class academic: public student {
private :
char stream[10];
public:
void getdata { };
void display ( ) ;
};
void student: : getdata ( )
{
cout<< “enter rollno\n”;
cin >> rollno;
cout<< “enter name \n”;
cin >>name;
}
void student:: display ( )
{
cout<< “the student’s roll number is”<<rollno<< “and name is”<<name;
cout<< end1;
}
void academic: : getdata ( )
{
cout << “enter stream of a student? \n”;
cin>> stream;
}
void academic:: display ( )
{
cout<< “students stream \n”;
cout<< stream << endl;
}
void main ( )
{
student *ptr ;
academic obj ;
ptr = &obj ;
ptr->getdata ( );
ptr->dlsplay ( );
getch ( );
}
output
enter stream of a student?
Btech
students stream
Btech
 LECTURE-32

Pure Virtual Functions

Generally a function is declared virtual inside a base class and we redefine it the derived classes. The
function declared in the base class seldom performs any task.

The following program demonstrates how a pure virtual function is defined, declared and invoked
from the object of a derived class through the pointer of the base class. In the example there are two
classes employee and grade. The class employee is base class and the grade is derived class. The
functions getdata ( ) and display ( ) are declared for both the classes. For the class employee the
functions are defined with empty body or no code inside the function. The code is written for the
grade class. The methods of the derived class are invoked by the pointer to the base class.

#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
class employee {
int code
char name [20] ;
public:
virtual void getdata ( ) ;
virtual void display ( ) ;
};
class grade: public employee
{
char grd [90] ;
float salary ;
public :
void getdata ( ) ;
void display ( );
};
void employee :: getdata ( )
{
}
void employee:: display ( )
{
}
void grade : : getdata ( )
{
cout<< “ enter employee’s grade “;
cin> > grd ;
cout<< “\n enter the salary “ ;
cin>> salary;
}
void grade : : display ( )
{
cout«" Grade salary \n";
cout« grd« " "« salary« endl;
 }
void main ( )
{
employee *ptr ;
grade obj ;
ptr = &obj ;
ptr->getdata ( ) ;
ptr->display ( ) ;
getche ( ) ;
}
Output
enter employee’s grade A
enter the salary 250000
Grade salary
A 250000

Object Slicing:

In C++, a derived class object can be assigned to a base class object, but the other way is not
possible.

class Base { int x, y; };

class Derived : public Base { int z, w; };

int main()
{
Derived d;
Base b = d; // Object Slicing, z and w of d are sliced off
}

Object Slicing happens when a derived class object is assigned to a base class object, additional
attributes of a derived class object are sliced off to form the base class object.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

class Base
{
protected:
int i;
public:
Base(int a) { i = a; }
virtual void display()
{ cout << "I am Base class object, i = " << i << endl; }
};

class Derived : public Base

{
int j;
public:
Derived(int a, int b) : Base(a) { j = b; }
virtual void display()
{ cout << "I am Derived class object, i = "
<< i << ", j = " << j << endl; }
};
// Global method, Base class object is passed by value
void somefunc (Base obj)
{
[Link]();
}

int main()
{
Base b(33);
Derived d(45, 54);
somefunc(b);
somefunc(d); // Object Slicing, the member j of d is sliced off
return 0;
}

Output:

I am Base class object, i = 33

I am Base class object, i = 45

We can avoid above unexpected behavior with the use of pointers or references. Object slicing
doesn’t occur when pointers or references to objects are passed as function arguments since a pointer
or reference of any type takes same amount of memory. For example, if we change the global
method myfunc() in the above program to following, object slicing doesn’t happen.

// rest of code is similar to above

void somefunc (Base &obj)
{
[Link]();
}
// rest of code is similar to above

Output:

I am Base class object, i = 33

I am Derived class object, i = 45, j = 54

We get the same output if we use pointers and change the program to following.

// rest of code is similar to above

void somefunc (Base *objp)
{
objp->display();
}
int main()
{
Base *bp = new Base(33) ;
Derived *dp = new Derived(45, 54);
somefunc(bp);
somefunc(dp); // No Object Slicing
return 0;
}

Output:

I am Base class object, i = 33

I am Derived class object, i = 45, j = 54

Object slicing can be prevented by making the base class function pure virtual there by disallowing
object creation. It is not possible to create the object of a class which contains a pure virtual method.
 LECTURE-33

C++ Function Overriding

If base class and derived class have member functions with same name and arguments. If you create
an object of derived class and write code to access that member function then, the member function
in derived class is only invoked, i.e., the member function of derived class overrides the member
function of base class. This feature in C++ programming is known as function overriding.

Accessing the Overridden Function in Base Class From Derived Class

To access the overridden function of base class from derived class, scope resolution operator ::. For
example: If you want to access get_data() function of base class from derived class in above
example then, the following statement is used in derived class.

A::get_data; // Calling get_data() of class A.

It is because, if the name of class is not specified, the compiler thinks get_data() function is calling
itself.
Abstract Class

Abstract Class is a class which contains atleast one Pure Virtual function in it. Abstract classes are
used to provide an Interface for its sub classes. Classes inheriting an Abstract Class must provide
definition to the pure virtual function, otherwise they will also become abstract class.

Characteristics of Abstract Class

1. Abstract class cannot be instantiated, but pointers and refrences of Abstract class type can be
created.
2. Abstract class can have normal functions and variables along with a pure virtual function.
3. Abstract classes are mainly used for Upcasting, so that its derived classes can use its
interface.
4. Classes inheriting an Abstract Class must implement all pure virtual functions, or else they
will become Abstract too.

Pure Virtual Functions

Pure virtual Functions are virtual functions with no definition. They start with virtual keyword and
ends with = 0. Here is the syntax for a pure virtual function,

virtual void f() = 0;

Example of Abstract Class

class Base //Abstract base class

{
public:
virtual void show() = 0; //Pure Virtual Function
};

class Derived:public Base

{
public:
void show()
{ cout << "Implementation of Virtual Function in Derived class"; }
};

int main()
{
Base obj; //Compile Time Error
Base *b;
Derived d;
b = &d;
b->show();
}

Output : Implementation of Virtual Function in Derived class

In the above example Base class is abstract, with pure virtual show() function, hence we cannot
create object of base class.

Why can't we create Object of Abstract Class ?

When we create a pure virtual function in Abstract class, we reserve a slot for a function in the
VTABLE(studied in last topic), but doesn't put any address in that slot. Hence the VTABLE will be
incomplete.

As the VTABLE for Abstract class is incomplete, hence the compiler will not let the creation of
object for such class and will display an errror message whenever you try to do so.