Chapter 8
Second Order Circuits
(8.1 Introduction)
(8.2 Finding Initial and Final Values)
Chapter 8
Second Order Circuits
(8.3 Source-Free Series RLC Circuits)
The Source-Free Series RLC Circuit
The energy at t=0 is stored in the
capacitor, represented by 𝑽𝟎 and in
the inductor, represented by 𝑰𝟎
1 0
𝑣 0 = න 𝑖𝑑𝑡 = 𝑉0 , 𝑖 0 = 𝐼0
𝐶 −∞
𝑑𝑖 1 𝑡
Applying KVL around the loop 𝑅𝑖 + 𝐿 + න 𝑖 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝐶 −∞
𝑑 2 𝑖 𝑅 𝑑𝑖 𝑖
The integral can be eliminated by differentiation: + + =0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝐶
Here you can see the second order equation that results
Two initial conditions are needed for solving this problem. The initial current is given,
and the first derivative of the current can also be obtained:
𝑑𝑖(0) 𝑑𝑖(0) 1
𝑅𝑖 0 + 𝐿 + 𝑉0 = 0 = − 𝑅𝐼0 + 𝑉0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐿
Based on the first order solutions, we can expect that the solution will be in exponential
form
With this solution, the second order differential equation becomes
This quadratic equation is known as the characteristic equation of the
differential Eq. (8.4), since the roots of the equation dictate the character of i.
• For which the solutions are:
𝑅 1
𝑠1 = −𝛼 + 𝛼2 − 𝜔02 𝛼= 𝜔0 =
2𝐿 𝐿𝐶
𝑠2 = −𝛼 − 𝛼 2 − 𝜔02
The roots and are called natural frequencies, measured in nepers per second
(Np/s), because they are associated with the natural response of the circuit;
o is known as the resonant frequency or strictly as the undamped natural
frequency, expressed in radians per second (rad/s); and
is the neper frequency or the damping factor, expressed in nepers per second.
The characteristic equation can also be written as
Two possible solutions for i:
A complete or total solution would therefore require a linear combination of
two solutions. Thus, the natural response of the series RLC circuit is
where the constants are to be determined from the initial values of i(0)
and its first derivative di(0)dt.
We can infer that there are three types of solutions:
The response is overdamped when the roots of the circuit’s characteristic
equation are unequal and real, critically damped when the roots are equal
and real, and underdamped when the roots are complex.
Overdamped 𝛂 > 𝛚𝟎
• When 𝛂 > 𝛚𝟎 , the system is
overdamped
• In this case, both 𝐬𝟏 and 𝐬𝟐 are real
and negative.
• The response of the system is:
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐴1 𝑒 𝑠1 𝑡 + 𝐴2 𝑒 𝑠2𝑡
• From this, we should not expect to
see an oscillation
Critically Damped (𝛂 = 𝛚𝟎 )
• When 𝛂 = 𝛚𝟎 , the system is critically
damped.
• For which the solution is:
𝑖 𝑡 = (𝐴2 + 𝐴1 𝑡)𝑒 −𝛼𝑡
• There are two components to the
response, an exponential decay and an
exponential decay multiplied by a linear
term
Underdamped (𝛂 < 𝛚𝟎 )
• When 𝛂 < 𝛚𝟎 , the system is
considered to be underdamped
• In this case, the solution will be: The response has a time constant of
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 (𝐵1 cos𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝐵2 cos𝜔𝑑 𝑡) and a period of
• Where 𝑗 = −1 and 𝜔𝑑 = 𝜔02 − 𝛼 2
• 𝛚𝟎 is often called the undamped
natural frequency
• 𝛚𝐝 is called the damped natural
frequency
assumption for each case is that i(0)=0.
Once the inductor current i(t) is found for the RLC series circuit, other circuit
quantities such as individual element voltages can easily be found. For
example, vR = iR is the resistor voltage is an and vL = Ldi/dt is the inductor
voltage. The inductor current is selected as the key variable to be determined
first.
1. The damping, which is the gradual loss of the initial stored energy, as
evidenced by the continuous decrease in the amplitude of the response. The
damping effect is due to the presence of resistance R. The damping factor
determines the rate at which the response is damped.
If R =0, then = 0 and we have an LC circuit with 1ൗ√𝐿𝐶 as the undamped
natural frequency. Since 𝛼 < 𝜔0 in this case, the response is not only
undamped but also oscillatory. The circuit is said to be loss-less, because the
dissipating or damping element (R) is absent. By adjusting the value of R, the
response may be made undamped, overdamped, critically damped, or
underdamped.
2. Oscillatory response is possible due to the presence of the two types of
storage elements. Having both L and C allows the flow of energy back and forth
between the two. The damped oscillation exhibited by the underdamped
response is known as ringing.
3. In general, it is difficult to tell from the waveforms the difference between the
overdamped and critically damped responses. The critically damped case is
the borderline between the underdamped and overdamped cases and it
decays the fastest.
With the same initial conditions, the overdamped case has the longest settling
time, because it takes the longest time to dissipate the initial stored energy.
If we desire the response that approaches the final value most rapidly without
oscillation or ringing, the critically damped circuit is the right choice.
Source-free series RLC circuit
𝑑𝑖(0) 1
= − 𝑅𝐼0 − 𝑣(0)
𝑑𝑡 𝐿
Therefore the complete solution is
Chapter 8
Second Order Circuits
(8.4 Source-Free Parallel RLC Circuits)
Applying KCL
Taking the derivative
The characteristic equation is obtained as
Again, there are three possible solutions
The constants A1 and A2 and in each case can be determined from the initial conditions.
The voltage waveforms are similar to those shown in Fig. 8.9 and will depend on whether the
circuit is overdamped, underdamped, or critically damped.
The capacitor voltage v(t) is the key variable to be determined first. Then the resistor current
and the capacitor current an be obtained.
Notice that we first found the inductor current i(t) for the RLC series circuit, whereas we first
found the capacitor voltage v(t) for the parallel RLC circuit.
Notice that by increasing the value of R, the degree of damping decreases and the responses differ
The parallel RLC circuit acts independently when the switch is closed at t=0
Comparison Table for Source-free RLC Circuit
Circuit Damping Undamped Response Initial
Type factor, α natural Conditions
frequency, 0
RLC 𝐿 1 𝑖 𝑡 𝑑𝑖(0)
𝑖 0 ,
Series 2𝑅 √𝐿𝐶 𝑑𝑡
Circuit
RLC 1 1 𝑣 𝑡 𝑑𝑣(0)
Parallel 2𝑅𝐶 √𝐿𝐶 𝑣 0 ,
𝑑𝑡
Circuit
Chapter 8
Second Order Circuits
(8.5 Step Response of Series RLC Circuits)
The step response is obtained by the sudden
application of a dc source. Applying KVL around
the loop for t > 0
(variable is different !!)
But, the characteristic equation for the series RLC circuit is not affected by the presence of the dc source.
The solution has two components: the transient response and the steady-state response
The transient response of the total response that dies out with time will remain the same as the
form of the solution obtained earlier:
Thus, the complete solutions for the overdamped, underdamped, and critically damped cases are:
The values of the constants A1 and A2 are obtained from the initial conditions
Keep in mind that v and i are, respectively, the voltage across the capacitor and the current
through the inductor.
But once the capacitor voltage is known, we can determine current
which is same current through the capacitor, inductor, and resistor. Hence, the voltage across the
resistor and the inductor can be easily determined.
overdamped natural response
critically damped natural response
underdamped response
Chapter 8
Second Order Circuits
(8.5 Step Response of Parallel RLC Circuits)
The complete solution consists of the transient response and the steady-state
response that is
we have a parallel RLC circuit with a current source. The voltage source is zero which means it acts
like a short-circuit.
Overdamped case
By the continuity of capacitor voltage and inductor current, we
know that
we obtain the characteristic equation as
Thus, the natural response is