Fawad et al.

(2022) developed a nonlinear finite element model for a real reinforced concrete bridge to investigate

damage behavior and suggest a structural health monitoring (SHM) system. Their model accounts for material

nonlinearity and damage accumulation, and they validated its predictions against case-study data. Based on their

analysis, they proposed sensor layouts and monitoring strategies to better detect future damage and improve

maintenance planning. Their work shows that combining detailed FE modeling with SHM can lead to more

reliable structural assessments and more informed interventions.

Reference:

Fawad, M., Koris, K., Salamak, M., Gerges, M., Bednarski, L., & Sienko, R. (2022). Nonlinear modelling of a

bridge: A case study-based damage evaluation and proposal of Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) system.

Vázquez, Hernando, de Santos, de Oña, and Aznar (2024) highlighted the educational benefits of integrating

commercial structural analysis software, SAP-2000, into civil engineering curricula. Their approach combines

hands-on exercises, a Massive Open Online Course for self-paced learning, and automated assessment tools to

enhance students’ understanding of structural behavior and design principles. By allowing students to directly

model structures and receive immediate feedback, this methodology bridges the gap between theoretical concepts

and practical application. For finite element-based bridge assessment, such software integration underscores the

importance of developing accurate structural models and understanding the response of elements under various

loading conditions, which can be directly applied to real-world bridge analysis.

Reference:

Vázquez, A., Hernando, J. I., de Santos, C., de Oña, A., & Aznar, A. (2024). Improving education in structural

analysis: Integration of SAP-2000 exercises and automated classroom assessment. IATED Digital Library.

[Link]

Tubaldi et al. (2020) investigated how variations in key mechanical parameters affect the behavior of masonry

arch bridges through nonlinear numerical simulations. They performed a sensitivity analysis, adjusting factors

such as stiffness, geometry and support conditions, and found that even moderate changes in these parameters can

significantly alter structural response—highlighting the importance of parameter selection in finite‐element

modelling of such historical structures. This work underscores that when analysing bridges (especially those with

unusual geometry or materials), careful calibration of mechanical and geometrical properties is critical for reliable

assessment under varying load conditions.

Reference:

Tubaldi, E., Macorini, L., & Izzuddin, B. A. (2020). Identification of critical mechanical parameters for advanced

analysis of masonry arch bridges. Structure and Infrastructure Engineering, 16(2), 328–345.

[Link]

Limongelli, Chatzi, and Anžlin (2018) argue that effective bridge management requires shifting from traditional

inspections to performance-based assessment frameworks. The authors explain that assessing a bridge’s condition

should include not only visual checks of elements but looking at overall structural safety and reliability by

integrating performance parameters (element-level data), performance indicators (system-level metrics), and

performance goals (network-oriented targets). They emphasise that the accuracy of a bridge assessment depends

on the chosen mathematical model and availability of reliable data. Their framework demonstrates how

acceptable structural performance can be defined, measured, and used to prioritise maintenance decisions over a

bridge’s life cycle — an approach relevant to finite element-based structural assessment of bridges under varied

loads.

Reference:

Limongelli, M. P., Chatzi, E., & Anžlin, A. (2018). Condition assessment of roadway bridges: From performance

parameters to performance goals.

“It shows that when tested, bridges do not necessarily behave as expected under load, particularly with respect to

boundary conditions. This is demonstrated via a load test performed on a healthy but ageing composite reinforced

concrete bridge in Exeter, UK.”

Huseynov, F., Brownjohn, J.M.W., O’Brien, E.J. et al. Analysis of load test on composite I-girder bridge. J Civil

Struct Health Monit 7, 163–173 (2017). [Link]

INTERNAL FORCES AND STRESSES

· DEFLECTION AND DEFORMATION

· Bridges have made significant contributions to social and economic development. However, they have

also brought inevitable safety issues, such as material deterioration due to corrosion, structural damage. These

problems can arise from overloads, environmental erosion, and natural disasters, posing a risk to the safety of the

structures. Service performance is attributed to structural Response in terms of deflections, cracking, and anelastic

deformations, so it is crucial to monitor certain structural parameters of bridges.

· Reference:

· Mariniello, G., Coluccino, D., Bilotta, A., & Asprone, D. (2024). Real-time evaluation of bridge girder

deflection under heavy vehicles. Structural Health Monitoring. [Link]

· Purba et al. (2023) found that the long-term deflection of the prestressed concrete balanced-cantilever

box-girder bridge increases continuously over decades, mainly due to creep and shrinkage. Using the B3 time-

dependent model, they showed that deflection does not stabilize even after 30 years, because moisture loss in the

concrete persists, causing ongoing deformation. Among all the prediction models they compared, the B3 model

produced the largest long-term deflection values, highlighting that the water-cement ratio significantly influences

creep-shrinkage behavior. Despite the high predicted deflection, the researchers confirmed that the values still fall

within allowable limits according to ACI and CEB design codes.

· Reference:

· Purba, L. H., Supriyadi, B., & Suhendro, B. (2023). Long-term deflection of prestressed concrete box

girder bridges due to creep and shrinkage. International Journal of Geomate, 25(107), 17–24.

[Link]
· Tang et al. (2024) showed that bridge deflection can be accurately estimated using only mid-span strain

measurements, which are then converted to deflection using the displacement reciprocal theorem. Their results

demonstrated that the proposed method can predict deflection with high accuracy, showing about 5% error in

finite element simulations and around 8% error in field tests. They also found that structural damage—especially

at hinge joints—can increase deflection-prediction error to over 10%, but overall the method still captures the

deflection behavior reliably. Their work confirms that strain-based monitoring provides a practical and efficient

way to track real-time deflection in simply supported girder bridges.

· Reference:

· Tang, Y., Cang, J., Zheng, B., & Tang, W. (2024). “Deflection Monitoring Method for Simply Supported

Girder Bridges Using Strain Response under Traffic Loads.” Buildings, 14(1), 70.

[Link]

· PRESTRESS LOSSES
· Bonopera, Chang, and Lee (2020) reviewed the mechanisms and measurement of prestress losses in

prestressed concrete girders, highlighting that losses arise primarily from tendon relaxation, concrete creep,

shrinkage, and environmental effects such as temperature and humidity. They emphasize that accurate estimation

of prestress losses is critical because these losses directly influence long-term deflection, cracking potential, and

overall structural performance. The authors note that dynamic methods based on vibration are generally unreliable

for detecting prestress reductions, as changes in prestress have minimal effect on natural frequencies. In contrast,

static, deflection-based measurements provide a more direct and practical way to quantify prestress loss, with

laboratory and field studies showing that mid-span deflections can be correlated effectively to the reduction in

prestressing force. They conclude that monitoring deflection over time is the most promising method for assessing

prestress losses in both research and practical bridge applications.

· Reference:

· Bonopera, M., Chang, K.-C., & Lee, Z.-K. (2020). State-of-the-Art Review on Determining Prestress

Losses in Prestressed Concrete Girders. Applied Sciences, 10(20), 7257. [Link]

· Dang, Almohammedi, Murray, and Hale (2021) investigated the actual prestress losses in full-scale

precast, prestressed concrete bridge girders of AASHTO Types II, III, IV, and VI and compared them with the

predictions from the 2017 AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications. The purpose of their study was to

assess whether design assumptions regarding concrete properties, elastic shortening, and other factors accurately

represent real-world prestress behavior. Their results showed that the measured prestress losses were often

significantly lower than the design predictions—at deck placement, measured losses were 146%, 86%, 71%, and

14% of the predicted values for Types II, III, IV, and VI girders, respectively. A major reason for this discrepancy

was that the actual concrete compressive strength and modulus of elasticity at prestress transfer were higher than

the conservative values assumed in the design, reducing elastic shortening and overall prestress losses. The study

concludes that incorporating actual material properties into calculations can improve the accuracy of prestress loss

predictions, as design assumptions may tend to overestimate losses.

· Reference:

· Dang, C. N., Almohammedi, A., Murray, C. D., & Hale, W. M. (2021). Investigation of measured prestress

losses compared with design prestress losses in AASHTO Types II, III, IV, and VI bridge girders. PCI Journal,

66(3), 32–48. [Link]

· Mantelli’s work emphasizes that long-term prestress losses are a critical factor contributing to the

unexpected shear cracking seen in older precast prestressed bridge girders. His review of historical Italian bridges

shows that many structures built in the 1970s–1980s relied heavily on prestressing for shear capacity and were

often constructed with minimal or no web reinforcement. Over time, significant prestress losses due to creep,

shrinkage, and relaxation reduced the effective compressive force in the concrete, thereby decreasing the shear

capacity that designers had originally assumed. This progressive reduction in prestress explains why shear cracks

are now appearing in many of these aging bridges. Mantelli also evaluated methods for determining in-situ

residual prestress, including saw-cutting and trepanning, and concluded that his proposed web saw-cut method

produced the most reliable measurements for quantifying remaining prestress in existing girders.

· Reference:

· Mantelli, F. (2023). Prestress losses and shear behaviour in existing prestressed concrete bridges

(Doctoral dissertation). University of Brescia. Retrieved from [Link]

· Singh and Yazdani (2013) found that the assumed behavior of the concrete modulus of elasticity (MOE)

significantly affects calculated prestress losses in prestressed bridge girders. When a time-dependent MOE is used

instead of a constant one, the concrete stiffness increases as the concrete matures, which in turn reduces elastic

shortening losses at transfer. Their results show that this also leads to smaller total long-term prestress losses

(including creep, shrinkage, and relaxation) during the early service period—particularly up to deck placement.

Among the variable-MOE models studied, the Dischinger model predicts higher MOE values, resulting in larger

computed prestress losses, while the ACI 209 and CEB-FIP models predict slightly lower losses and closely

match each other. Over long durations, however, the differences narrow, and the losses predicted using variable

MOE gradually converge toward those obtained using the traditional constant-MOE assumption.

· Reference:
· Singh, B. P., Yazdani, N., & Ramirez, G. (2013). Effect of a Time Dependent Concrete Modulus of

Elasticity on Prestress Losses in Bridge Girders. International Journal of Concrete Structures and Materials, 7(3),

183–191. [Link]

· RELIABILITY AND SAFETY METRICS

· Guo et al. (2016) investigated how time-dependent deterioration mechanisms—including concrete creep,

shrinkage, aging, and especially prestress losses—affect the long-term reliability of strengthened prestressed

concrete (PSC) box-girder bridges. Their results show that even after strengthening, the structural reliability of

PSC box girders gradually decreases over time as prestress losses accumulate and material properties degrade.

These losses reduce the effective prestressing force, lowering the bridge’s resistance and causing a steady decline

in the reliability index. The study emphasizes that without incorporating time-dependent prestress losses into

strengthening design and maintenance planning, the expected long-term performance of strengthened PSC bridges

may be overestimated.

· Reference:

· Guo, T., Gu, X., & Zeng, D. (2016). Time-dependent reliability of strengthened PSC box-girder bridges.

Engineering Structures, 112, 206–217. [Link]

· Zemed et al. (2025) emphasize that long-term reliability of reinforced concrete bridge girders depends

heavily on accounting for time-dependent deterioration mechanisms, including creep, shrinkage, and traffic

growth. Their two-stage RBDO framework integrates reliability constraints directly into the design process by

using surrogate models (ANN, RBF, SVR) to estimate the probability of exceeding serviceability limits, such as
maximum long-term deflection. The study demonstrates that incorporating reliability-based constraints ensures

that the optimized girder will maintain acceptable performance over its intended service life, while also reducing

unnecessary material usage. Their results showed that neglecting these reliability considerations could lead to

underestimating deflections and overestimating structural performance, potentially compromising long-term

serviceability.

· Reference:

· Zemed, N., Moulay Abdelali, H., Mouzoun, K., Cherradi, T., & Bouyahyaoui, A. (2025). Optimization of

reinforced concrete bridge girders using reliability-based design and active learning to ensure long-term

serviceability. Advances in Bridge Engineering, 6, Article 37. [Link]

· Bridges play an indispensable role in the public road network. They can improve the regional road

network, thus promoting inter-regional economic development. Bridge management departments around the

world have been working for a long time to develop and improve various bridge management systems (BMS),

attempting to provide timely and effective bridge maintenance, repair, and rehabilitation (MR&R) through

standardized and continuous technical-condition data collection and performance evaluation The prediction of

bridge service performance is essential for bridge maintenance, operation, and decision making. As a key

component of the superstructure, the performance of the main girders is critical to the structural safety of the

bridge. The results show that the deterioration rate of main girders increases with age, with an average life of 87

years for main girders in Shanghai. The grade of the road on which the bridge is located and the position of the

main girder in the bridge superstructure have a significant impact on the probability of survival of the main girder.

It can be concluded that more attention should be paid to the inspection and maintenance of side girders on branch

roads to reduce the pressure on bridge management in the future. Furthermore, the analysis in this study found

that the deterioration rate of the main girders is faster than the deterioration rate whole bridge and superstructure,

and, therefore, more attention and necessary preventive maintenance measures should be taken in the maintenance

and management of the main girders.

· Reference:

· Li, L., Lu, Y., & Peng, M. (2022). Deterioration model for reinforced concrete bridge girders based on

survival analysis. Mathematics, 10(23), 4436. [Link]

The study by Patil (2018) presents a comparative analysis of prestressed concrete (PSC) box girder bridges

using two major design codes: IRC and AASHTO. It focuses on trapezoidal and rectangular box girders,

analyzing parameters such as shear force, bending moment, and torsion under heavy moving loads

modeled in SAP Bridge software. The results indicate that the AASHTO code generally yields lower values

for these parameters compared to the IRC code, suggesting differences in design conservatism or load

assumptions. The study emphasizes the importance of safety and economy in bridge design, given the

significant material and steel usage in PSC box girders. This codal comparison helps in understanding how

different standards influence the structural behavior and design efficiency of box girder bridges. Overall,

the analysis supports informed decision-making for bridge design by highlighting the variations between

IRC and AASHTO provisions.

Patil, J. (2018). Codal comparative analysis of PSC box girder with IRC and AASHTO code. Unpublished

manuscript.

The study by Dong et al. (2020) conducted dynamic and static load tests on a deteriorated and repaired

concrete highway bridge to support engineering decisions about its operation. Static tests determined the

live load distribution factor (DF), load-rating factor (RF), and serviceability through deflection limits, while

dynamic tests identified modal properties and impact factors (IM) under various truck loads and speeds.

Results showed that the AASHTO code provides more conservative DF and RF values compared to

experimental and finite element model (FEM) approaches. Maximum deflections in both static and

dynamic tests were within AASHTO’s allowable limits (L/800), and the measured impact factors were

significantly lower than the 33% recommended by AASHTO. The calibrated FEM confirmed that the
bridge’s load-carrying capacity remains adequate after repairs. The study highlights that experimental

data combined with computer vision technology can effectively support load rating with minimal

disruption to bridge operations.

Dong, C., Bas, S., Debees, M., Alver, N., & Catbas, F. (2020). Bridge load testing for identifying live load

distribution, load rating, serviceability and dynamic response. Unpublished manuscript.

The internal forces, stresses, deflection behavior, and prestress losses of the aging prestressed concrete girder

bridge described in the study are strongly influenced by time-dependent concrete behavior and stochastic vehicle

loading. The stochastic traffic model (developed using WIM data and applied through Monte Carlo simulations)

produced realistic variations in axle loads, vehicle spacing, and speed, leading to fluctuating internal forces and

dynamic stress responses in the finite element model.

The bridge experienced its highest bending moments and stress concentrations at mid-span, where the combined

effects of heavy axle loads and dynamic amplification were most pronounced. Over time, concrete shrinkage and

creep caused internal force redistribution and progressive increases in deformation, raising tensile stresses in the

girder deck and reducing the effectiveness of the initial prestressing. These mechanisms also contributed to

growing long-term deflection, which remained within acceptable limits d—driven by shrinkage, creep, and

material degradation such as corrosion—further reduced the bridge’s stiffness and load-carrying capacity,

elevating stress demand and accelerating mid-span deflection. As the structure aged beyond 50 years, these

combined factors led to a significant reduction in load-carrying capacity reliability, highlighting the critical role of

prestress loss and time-dependent deformation in the long-term performance of PC girder bridges.

-Heng Zhou, Xueping Fan, Yuefei Liu, Dynamic serviceability and safety reliability analysis of aging PC girder

bridges with non-prestressed reinforcement considering concrete shrinkage, creep and stochastic vehicle load

flows, Structures, Volume 64, 2024, 106515,

Study show that selecting appropriate materials plays a crucial role in the performance and longevity of steel

frame bridges, "mixed steel/concrete bridge as the most suitable option, despite its higher construction and

assembly cost."

- M. Kripka, V. Yepes and C. J. Milani, "Selection of sustainable short-span bridge design in Brazil,"

Sustainability, vol. 11, no. 5, p. 1307, 2019.

Due to the influence of load, fatigue, corrosion, natural material aging and other long-term adverse factors, the

state of the internal force of a cable-stayed bridge will be changed. These long-term effects can result in the bridge

not meeting specified functional requirements, and potentially resulting in structural failure.

These changes affect the girder’s stiffness, which in turn modifies its stress state and deflection profile. By

comparing displacement and cable-force measurements taken years apart, the researchers identify that shifts in

stiffness cause additional deformation of the girder, revealing changes in internal forces that cannot be ignored.

Under dead load, the girder generally remains in compression, but under normal service conditions, parts of the

bottom flange may begin to experience tensile stress, which is not allowed by design codes for pre-stressed

concrete girders. Compression stresses under certain load combinations can also approach their allowable limits,

indicating a critically stressed condition.

The standard prestress-loss calculations from code provisions, incorporating long-term prestress reduction into the

evaluation of internal forces. To restore proper structural behavior, the authors optimize the cable forces using a

bending-energy-based method, which rebalances the internal forces, reduces excessive stresses, and brings

deflection and geometric shape closer to the bridge’s intended form. This optimization ensures that both tensile

and compressive stresses remain within allowable code limits and that the girder deflects consistently with

expected structural performance.

-Ye, X., Sun, Z., & Huang, G. (2017). Assessment of the current state of internal force and the optimization of

cable force for an existing long-span pre-stressed concrete (PC) cable-stayed bridge. The Open Civil Engineering

Journal, 11, 572–585.

Globally, over 60% of record-span segmentally constructed prestressed concrete (PC) bridges exhibit excessive

deflection, severe cracking, and underestimated prestressing losses. Decades of practice in continuous girder and

rigid-frame PC bridge design have limited the maximum span capacity to about 350 m, mainly due to unreliable

design methodologies and software constraints.

- Tong, T., Zhao, C., Wu, S. et al. Lessons from time-dependent deflection in record span prestressed concrete

bridges. Sci Rep 15, 39446 (2025). [Link]

Vehicle Overloading: Due to the increasing competition in the transportation market, vehicle overloading has

become more and more common and has raised serious concerns around the world (Fu and Hag-Elsafi

2000).Truck overloading usually causes fatigue problems in bridge com-ponents and can shorten the service life

of bridges (Wardhana and Hadipriono 2003;Biezma and Schanack 2007). In some extreme cases, the weight of

the overloaded trucks may even exceed the load-carrying capacity of the bridge and directly cause bridge collapse

- Deng, Lu & Wang, Wei & Yu, Yang. (2015). State-of-The-Art Review on the Causes and Mechanisms of Bridge

Collapse. Journal of Performance of Constructed Facilities. 30. 04015005. 10.1061/(ASCE)CF.1943-

5509.0000731.

With increasing service time and the variability of service scenarios, the mechanical properties of numerous

established Continuous prestressed concrete rigid-frame (CPCR) bridges are deteriorating, resulting in mid-span

deflection that will continue to increase through the years, without convergence.

- Han, X., Li, W., & Li, P. (2023). Long-Term Deflection Analysis of Large-Span Continuous Prestressed

Concrete Rigid-Frame Bridges Based on a Refined Modeling Approach. Applied Sciences, 13(17), 9727.

[Link]
Reliability indices for prestressed concrete girders fall in the range of roughly 3.5 to 4, indicating relatively high

reliability compared with some other girder types.

The system-level reliability (bridge as a whole) tends to be higher than single-girder reliability due to redundancy,

but PC girders contribute significantly to overall system robustness because of their higher structural resistance in

bending

-Vurpillot, S., Krueger, G., Benouaich, D., Clement, D., & Inaudi,D. (1998). Vertical Deflection of a Pre-Stressed

Concrete Bridge Obtained Using Deformation Sensors and Inclinometer Measurements. ACI Structural Journal,

95(5). DO 10.14359/566

Long-term prestress losses in prestressed concrete girders arise primarily from tendon relaxation, concrete creep,

and concrete shrinkage, with additional modulation by environmental conditions and construction details. Over

time, the steel tendons gradually lose force as they relax under sustained strain, while the surrounding concrete

continues to deform creep under the sustained prestressing load and slowly contracts through shrinkage. These

time-dependent phenomena reduce the effective prestress that resists applied service and live loads, shifting the

equilibrium state of the member toward greater deflection and larger crack widths under typical service

conditions. The net effect is a progressive decrease in the bending resistance provided by prestress, which

manifests as increasing long-term deflections (including camber loss evolving toward a flatter or even negative

camber) and potentially wider or more persistent cracks, especially in regions of high tensile stress such as

midspan girders or near co

Construction details matter: friction losses along ducts, transfer losses at anchorage, and the chosen tendon profile

(pre-tensioned vs. post-tensioned, harped versus straight) influence how quickly and how much prestress is

dissipated over time. In terms of structural behavior, the long-term reduction in prestress translates into a gradual

degradation of stiffness and a shift in serviceability limits, with deflection becoming a more dominant concern

than immediate strength. From a practical perspective, this means that design and maintenance strategies should

emphasize accurate time-dependent loss predictions (including creep and shrinkage models calibrated to the

concrete mix and local environmental conditions), conservative serviceability limits that anticipate accumulated

deflections, and a robust field monitoring plan. Static, deflection-based assessment remains a robust tool for

tracking effective prestress over the life of the girder, since deflection directly aggregates the effects of all long-

term l

- Bonopera, M., Chang, K.-C., & Lee, Z.-K. (2020). State-of-the-Art Review on Determining Prestress Losses in

Prestressed Concrete Girders. Applied Sciences, 10(20), 7257. [Link]

The prestressed concrete girders in the study experienced progressive changes in internal forces, stresses, and

deflection as loading increased under four-point bending. Prestress levels influenced the internal stress state by
increasing diagonal compressive stress, delaying crack initiation, and raising the first-crack and diagonal-crack

load, which occurred at roughly 45% and 70% of ultimate capacity, respectively. Load-deflection responses

showed bilinear behavior, with high-prestress girders maintaining greater stiffness and exhibiting later softening,

while lower-prestress specimens lost stiffness earlier due to tensile cracking.

After diagonal cracking, the girders showed significant reductions in residual stiffness, demonstrating the impact

of internal stress redistribution and shear-induced tension zones. Prestress losses were considered in the design

through elastic shortening, creep, shrinkage, and relaxation, as recommended by AASHTO and FHWA, and

residual prestress was noted as a factor influencing shear capacity.

Higher effective prestress reduced tensile stresses, improved crack control, enhanced shear transfer, and resulted

in smaller deflections compared to lower-prestress girders, while slender webs exhibited reduced capacity due to

less favorable internal force paths.

-Reinhardt, L., Vogt, E., & Keller, J. (2025). Experimental and numerical study on shear behavior of prestressed

concrete girders. International Journal of Research in Civil Engineering and Technology, 6(2), 37–41.

[Link]

They consist of two bridges. The first one is old and it was constructed in 1976 for forward and backward traffic

in the period from 1976 to 2021. The second bridge is new and it was constructed in 2021. In this time, the old

bridge is used to transport traffic loads from south to south of city (Backward). The new bridge is transported

traffic loads from north to south of city (forward).

Evaluates a precast prestressed concrete I-girder bridge by examining damage conditions and analyzing internal

forces under various load types, including dead load, prestressed load, moving load, temperature load, and load

combinations.

The static analysis results show that the first span of the bridge experiences the highest positive bending moments,

tensile stresses, and downward vertical deflection, indicating that the existing prestress level is insufficient to

counteract the combined loading effects and long span length. In contrast, negative bending moments and

compression stresses are lower in the critical spans, revealing that the girder tends to behave predominantly in

positive bending due to its geometry and loading. Axial forces and vertical shear forces between the design stage

(new bridge condition) and service stage (after deterioration and long-term use) change only moderately, with

shear forces showing minimal sensitivity to the reduction in concrete strength over time.

Tensile stresses tend to increase and compressive stresses decrease as the bridge ages, reflecting the reduced

stiffness of concrete and the large dead-load effects typical of long-span I-girders. Vertical deflection becomes

excessive in the service stage, exceeding allowable limits, indicating a decline in structural performance with time

and repeated loading.

To improve behavior, the study suggests increasing the number of strands and prestressing force; after

enhancement, deflections significantly decrease and stress distribution improves, demonstrating that additional

prestress can effectively counteract downward deflection, reduce tensile stresses, and restore compression where

needed.

-Abdullah, F. W., Aldhalemi, A. A., Naser, A. F., & Jaaz, H. A. G. (2024). Field damage inspection and structural

performance assessment of precast prestressed concrete I-girder bridge by adopting static analysis. AIP

Conference Proceedings, 3092, 060018. [Link]