Urinary System

Icebreaker
• Most of us give little thought to the process
of urination that occurs daily.
• We usually urinate and then go about our
daily routines.
• Have you ever stopped and wondered:
• What is urine composed of?
• How does urine formation influence the
homeostasis of the body?
• In this chapter, we will discuss the urinary
system and its functions.
Urinary System
Functions
• Production, storage, and
transportation of urine
• Filtration of blood and waste
removal
• pH regulation of bodily fluids
• Blood pressure regulation
• Regulation of solute
concentration in blood
• Stimulation of erythrocyte
production
• Vitamin D synthesis
Think, • Describe how the
Share, urinary system
functions influence
Pair other systems of the
human body.
Activity
Think, • The functions of the urinary system
influence other systems by regulating the
composition of blood and blood pressure.

Share, Regulation of blood composition

influences the activities of the respiratory
system by affecting blood pH. It also

Pair influences the activities of the endocrine

system by affecting blood glucose levels.
Finally, blood pressure regulation

Activity influences the activities of the

cardiovascular system.
Discussion Activity

• Considering the functions of

the urinary system, what
physiological changes may
be seen during kidney failure?
Discussion Activity

• Kidney failure would lead to a

loss of kidney function. Without
proper kidney function, blood
pressure regulation may be lost.
An accumulation of metabolic
wastes may occur as well. The
build-up of metabolic wastes
may lead to increased acid
within the blood and acidosis.
The Kidneys
• Paired, retroperitoneal organs located
on either side of the vertebral column
• Not within abdominal cavity
• Left kidney sits slightly lower than right
because it is displaced by the liver
• Protected by muscle, adipose, and ribs
• Adrenal glands located on superior
margin
External Layers of the
Kidneys
• Fibrous capsule maintains
shape of kidney
• Perinephric fat absorbs shock
and provides protection
• Renal fascia anchors kidneys to
posterior abdominal wall
Internal Anatomy
• Superficial renal cortex covers deeper
renal medulla
• Renal medulla includes the renal
pyramids and the renal columns
• Renal columns separate renal pyramids
of medulla
• Also divide kidney into 6 to 8 renal
lobes
• Renal papillae drain urine into minor
calyces
• Minor calyces merge to form major
calyces
• Major calyces merge to form renal pelvis
The Renal Hilum

• Located on medial side of each

kidney
• Entry and exit site for
structures that supply kidney
• Renal artery
• Renal vein
• Renal nerve
• Ureter
• Lymphatics
Nephrons and Blood Supply
• Nephron—functional unit of kidney
• Arteries—renal, segmental, interlobar,
arcuate, interlobular
• Nephron—afferent arterioles,
glomeruli, efferent arterioles,
peritubular capillaries
• Veins—interlobular, arcuate,
interlobar, renal
 1st step of
filtration ;
Glomerulus
bowman’s
capsule

vasa recta

Loop of Henle
Blood Flow in the Nephron
• Afferent arterioles deliver blood to nephron
• Within nephron, glomerular capillaries filter
blood
• Fenestrated capillaries
• Bloods exits via efferent arterioles
• Peritubular capillaries accomplish exchange
of nutrients and wastes
• Vasa recta drains peritubular capillaries
Nephrons
• Functional units of the kidney that make
urine
• Two components
• Renal corpuscle
• Composed of glomerulus and
glomerular capsule
• Tubular system
• Proximal convoluted tubule,
nephron loop, distal convoluted
tubule, collecting ducts
blood na magiging urine pero
di pa urine dito mapupunta
Renal Corpuscle
• Responsible for filtration of blood
• Forms filtrate
• Composed of:
• Glomerulus = fenestrated
capillary
• Glomerular capsule—captures
filtrate
• Parietal layer made of simple
squamous epithelium
• Visceral layer made of
podocytes
 The Glomerulus
• A fenestrated capillary
• Fenestrations located in endothelium of
glomerulus
• Allow additional volume of blood and larger
substances to be filtered in same amount of
time
Filtration Membrane

• Limits filtration of blood cells, platelets

and large plasma proteins
• Negative charge of membrane limits
filtration of negatively charged molecules
• Composed of:
• Fenestrated endothelium of
glomerulus
• Basement membrane
• Filtration slits formed by pedicels of
podocytes
 Tubular System
• Refines filtrate into urine
• Proximal convoluted tubule
(PCT)
• Actively secretes and
reabsorbs solutes
• Nephron loop
• Divided into descending limb
and ascending limb
• Each limb has unique
permeability for solute and
water
 Tubular System
• Distal convoluted tubule (DCT)
• Farther away from renal corpuscle
• Reabsorbs and secretes fewer
solutes and less water
• Collecting ducts
• Not part of nephron but can
influence solute and water
reabsorption
• Usually occurs under hormonal
influences
• DCTs of several nephrons empty
into the same collecting duct
Aquaporins

• Membrane proteins that

allow water through
• Water movement occurs via
osmosis
• Water moves toward area
of greater osmolarity
• Not all sections of renal
tubule contain aquaporins
Renal Cortex versus
Renal Medulla
• Renal cortex
• Contains majority of nephron
structures
• Glomeruli/renal
corpuscles
• Most proximal and distal
convoluted tubules
• Renal medulla
• Contains parts of nephron
loops and collecting ducts
Cortical versus
Juxtamedullary Nephrons

• Cortical nephrons are the majority of

the nephrons in the kidney (85%)
• Renal corpuscles located closer
to renal capsule
• Shorter nephron loops
• Juxtamedullary nephrons (15%) have
renal corpuscles closer to medulla
• Longer nephron loops with vasa
recta
Breakout Group Activity
• In your group, role-play the path of
blood flow through the kidney by
assigning different group members
specific vessels. After vessels are
assigned, organize each member in
the correct order that blood would
move through the kidney.
Breakout Group Activity
• The correct order of the
vessels is:
• Renal artery, segmental artery,
interlobar artery, arcuate
artery, interlobular artery,
afferent arteriole, glomerulus,
efferent arteriole, peritubular
capillary, interlobular vein,
arcuate vein, interlobar vein,
and renal vein
 • Which structure is the
functional unit of the
kidney?
Knowledge Check A. Renal corpuscle
Activity B. Tubular system
C. Nephron
D. Collecting duct
Think, Pair, Share • What is the advantage
of the glomerulus being
Activity a fenestrated capillary?
 • The fenestrations allow
Think, Pair, Share for increased fluid
Activity filtration in the same
amount of time.
 • Production of urine depends on three
processes carried out by the kidneys:
Processes of • Filtration
• Accomplished by renal corpuscles
Urine • Plasma is filtered by glomerulus to

Formation form filtrate

• Reabsorption and secretion
• Accomplished by renal tubule
• Reabsorption returns filtered
materials to blood
• Secretion removes additional
materials from blood into renal
tubule
Glomerular Filtration
• Filtration occurs as plasma is filtered into capsular space
• Nonspecific process based on size
• Occurs via bulk driven by net filtration pressure (NFP)
• Influenced by glomerular hydrostatic pressure, blood colloid osmotic
pressure, and capsular hydrostatic pressure
• Glomerular filtration rate (GFR)—volume of filtrate formed per
minute by both kidneys
• Average is 80–140 mL/minute at rest
• Highly variable to due gender, age, diet, metabolism
Pressures that Influence Glomerular Filtration
• Glomerular hydrostatic pressure
promotes filtration into the capsule
• Capsular hydrostatic pressure and
blood colloid osmotic pressure
promote movement into glomerulus
• Movement occurs in the direction of
lower pressure
Tubular Reabsorption and Secretion
• Filtrate must be refined into urine by:
• Tubular reabsorption—filtered substances reabsorbed from tubules back
into blood
• Tubular secretion—wastes secreted from blood into tubular fluid to
become part of urine
• Most filtered materials are reabsorbed
• Materials not reabsorbed become part of urine
Reabsorption and Secretion Within Renal Tubule
• Kidneys form ~180 liters of filtrate per day
• Most water and solutes are reabsorbed
• PCT, nephron loop, and DCT reabsorb most water
• Collecting ducts vary in amount of water reabsorbed
• Solutes reabsorbed at various points in tubule
• Molecules secreted become a part of urine
Mechanisms of Reabsorption and
Secretion
• Mechanisms include
• Simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, primary active transport, secondary
active transport, and osmosis
• If transport requires use of membrane channel or protein, it is
subject to
• Specificity—can only transport specific molecules
• Transport maximum (Tmax)—maximal rate of transportation if all
transporters occupied
• Competition—similar molecules may compete for transporter
Anatomy of Membrane Transport
 Transportation Routes (Figure 25.18)
• Reabsorption may occur between
tubular cells or through them
• Luminal surface = surface of cell that
faces lumen of renal tubule
• Basolateral surface = surface that
faces interstitial fluid/peritubular
capillaries
• Different forms of transport used for
each surface
Reabsorption and Secretion in PCT
• Most solute and water reabsorption occurs in PCT
• All glucose and amino acid reabsorption occurs in PCT
• Sodium, bicarbonate, and calcium reabsorption occurs too
• Sodium (Na+) symporters provide energy for secondary active
transport of glucose and amino acids
• Diffuse through basolateral membrane after entering tubular cells
• Water passively follows solutes via osmosis
• Secretion of excess urea, ammonia, creatinine, and acid
 Sodium Reabsorption (Figure 25.19)
• Luminal transport occurs via
facilitated diffusion
• No energy input required
• Basolateral transport occurs via
active transport
• Sodium ions are transported from low to
high concentration
• Sodium-potassium pumps in basolateral
surface
 Reabsorption of Glucose and Water (Figure
25.20)
• Sodium symporters in luminal surface
transport sodium and glucose into tubular
cell
• Sodium moves across basolateral surface
by sodium-potassium pumps; glucose by
facilitated diffusion
• Amino acids reabsorbed in similar way
• As osmolarity of IF and blood increases,
water reabsorbed by osmosis via
aquaporins
 Reabsorption of Bicarbonate (Figure 25.21)
• Sodium-hydrogen antiporter in luminal surface
transports sodium ions into tubular cell
and hydrogen ions into tubular lumen
• Carbonic anhydrase combines hydrogen and
bicarbonate ions to form carbonic acid
• Carbonic acid dissociates to form carbon dioxide
and water
• Carbon dioxide enters tubular cell and is
converted back into bicarbonate for reabsorption
 Descending limb contains aquaporins for
water reabsorption

Ascending limb actively

Reabsorption reabsorbs solute ions,
Builds osmotic gradient for
water reabsorption from
descending limb

and Secretion especially Na+ and Cl-

in Nephron Countercurrent
As filtrate moves through

Loop
nephron loop solute pumps in
ascending multiply osmotic
multiplier system gradient to increase water
reabsorption

Structure of vasa recta allows nutrient and

waste exchange without disruption of
osmotic gradient
Descending and Ascending Nephron Loop

Descending loop
contains • Osmolarity of tubular fluid increases as water
permanent moves into interstitium
aquaporins

Thick ascending • Symporters transport sodium and chloride ions

into interstitium
loop impermeable • Osmolarity of tubular fluid decreases
to water • Creates osmotic gradient for movement of water
 • Thick ascending limb transports
solutes
Epithelial Cells • Sodium and chloride ions are
of Ascending transported into epithelial cell
• Movement of chloride ions builds
Nephron Loop up negative charge in interstitial
fluid (IF)
• Attracts additional cations for
reabsorption
 Understanding the
Countercurrent Multiplier
• Actions of nephron loop referred to as
countercurrent multiplier
• Multiplies osmolarity of IF
• Countercurrent multiplier train analogy
• Solutes pulled out from earlier cars
• Influences latter cars
• Creates osmotic gradient that pulls water
from descending nephron loop
Reabsorption • Reabsorption varies according to
physiological needs
and Secretion • Sodium and chloride ion
reabsorption occurs
in DCT • Water passively follows sodium
and chloride
• Parathyroid hormone (PTH) will
increase calcium reabsorption here
Juxtaglomerular Apparatus
• Juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA) regulates glomerular blood hydrostatic
pressure
• Allows kidneys to autoregulate glomerular filtration rate (GFR)
• Composed of:
• Macula densa—cells in the DCT
• Regulates release of renin to control blood pressure
• Responds to elevated GFR by decreasing release of nitric oxide
• Lowers GFR as afferent arteriole constricts
• Juxtaglomerular (JG) cells—smooth muscle cells in afferent arteriole
• Respond to elevated GFR by constricting afferent arteriole to
reduce GFR
Juxtaglomerular Apparatus
Collecting Ducts and Recovery of Water
• Collecting ducts regulate urine volume, urine osmolarity, and
blood osmolarity
• Principal cells – reabsorb sodium ions and secrete potassium ions
• Intercalated cells – reabsorb potassium and bicarbonate ions; secrete
hydrogen ions
• Alters osmolarity of blood by varying reabsorption of water
• If blood is hyperosmotic, reabsorption of water increases
• If blood is hypoosmotic, reabsorption of water decreases
• Regulated by hormones
Think, Pair, Share Activity

• Trace the flow of filtrate through

the tubular system. Describe the
changes made by each section
of the tubule to the filtrate as it
moves through.
Think, Pair, Share Activity
• Filtrate flows through the PCT, descending
nephron loop, ascending nephron loop,
and DCT.
• The PCT is primarily responsible for
reabsorption of solutes and water. It also
secretes hydrogen ions.
• The descending nephron loop primarily
reabsorbs water.
• The ascending nephron loop primarily
reabsorbs solutes.
• The distal convoluted tubule reabsorbs
sodium ions, chloride ions, and water.
Discussion Activity
• The glomerulus can be damaged by
chronic high blood pressure. Explain why
this damage can lead to molecules like
protein in the urine.
Discussion Activity
• Over time, high blood pressure damages the filtration
membrane. This damage allows excess filtration of
molecules, especially large molecules like proteins, which
are normally filtered in small amounts or not at all. The
excessive filtration exceeds the transportation maximum of
the PCT; since proteins are not reabsorbed at any other
location of the tubular system, they end up in the urine.
Additional Endocrine Activities of the Kidney
 Vitamin D synthesized by skin in
response to UV radiation

Vitamin D Most active form of Kidney coverts

precursor from skin
Synthesis vitamin D is calcitriol to calcitriol

Aids in absorption of calcium from

digestive tract and reabsorption of
calcium by kidneys
calcitriol
 Kidney releases erythropoietin
(EPO) in response to hypoxemia

EPO stimulates production of

Erythropoiesis red blood cells

Kidney damage may lead to

anemia
 DCT contains receptors for PTH

Calcium PTH causes cells in Increased calcium

channels lead to
DCT to upregulate increased
Reabsorption calcium channels reabsorption of
calcium

Active forms of vitamin D aids b

transporting calcium to basolateral
membrane for exocytosis
Think, Pair, Share Activity

How can kidney dysfunction also lead to a decrease in

blood calcium levels?
Think, Pair, Share Activity

Kidney dysfunction may cause parathyroid hormone

(PTH) activity to decrease. Loss of PTH activity could
decrease calcium reabsorption by the kidney and lead
to decreased blood calcium levels.
Knowledge Check
Activity
• Which section of the tubular
system is affected by PTH?
A. PCT
B. Nephron loop
C. DCT
D. Collecting duct
Knowledge Check
Activity
• Which section of the tubular
system is affected by PTH?
A. PCT
B. Nephron loop
C. DCT
D. Collecting duct
 The Urinary Tract
• Urine flows from kidneys to:
• Ureters
• Exit kidneys and transport
urine to urinary bladder
• Urinary bladder
• Temporarily stores urine
• Urethra
• Allows urine to exit body
Ureters
• Transport urine from kidneys to urinary bladder
• Retroperitoneal location
• Lined by transitional epithelium
• Urine moves through ureters by peristalsis and gravity
• Physiological sphincter prevents reflux of urine
 Urinary Bladder
• Receives urine via ureteral openings
• Stores urine until eliminated from body
• Lined by transitional epithelium
• Walls contain detrusor muscle
• Internal urethral orifice
• Surrounded by internal urethral sphincter,
which is composed of smooth muscle and is
involuntary
• External urethral sphincter is composed of
skeletal muscle and is under voluntary
control
Urinary Bladder and Urethra in Biological Females
• Urinary bladder anterior and
inferior to uterus
• Uterus may compress bladder in
pregnancy
• Shorter urethra increases risk
of cystitis (urinary tract
infection)
Urinary Bladder and Urethra in Biological Males
• Urinary bladder located
superior to prostate gland
• Enlargement of prostate gland
may restrict flow of urine into
urethra
• Longer urethra passes through
prostate gland, floor of pelvis,
and penis
• Longer urethra decreases risk of
cystitis
Micturition Reflex

Urine entering bladder Parasympathetic

Proper term for urination causes distention stimulation causes detrusor
(stretching) of bladder muscle to contract

External urethral sphincter is

skeletal muscle
Relaxation of internal
• Spinal reflex relaxes it to allow
urethral sphincter allows urine to continue to flow and exit
urine to flow into urethra urethra
• Control achieved during “potty
training”
 Nerves Involved in Urination
• Pudendal nerve regulates voluntary
micturition (urination) by regulating
external urethral sphincter
• Pelvic and hypogastric nerves
innervate urinary bladder
• Sympathetic hypogastric inhibits
detrusor muscle contraction
• Parasympathetic pelvic increases
contraction of detrusor muscle
 The Male Urethra
• Biological male urethra is
substantially longer than biological
female urethra
• Divided into three sections:
• Prostatic, membranous, and spongy
urethra
Think, Pair, Share Activity
How are we able to prevent urination when necessary?
Think, Pair, Share Activity
Urination is prevented by contraction of the external urethral sphincter. Since this
sphincter is made of skeletal muscle, we consciously control it and can prevent
urination.
 Characteristics of
Urine

• Characteristics of urine
change depending on
factors like water intake,
exercise, and nutrient
intake
• pH range is 4.5–8.0
• Glucose, blood, and
protein not found in normal
urine
 Urinalysis
• Urinalysis—a test that evaluates
materials found in urine
• Abnormal components of urine:
• Protein—usually indicates
damage to filtration membrane
• Glucose—usually indicates
diabetic condition
• Blood—indicates structural
damage to urinary tract
• Leukocytes—indicates urinary
tract infection
• Ketones—indicates body is using
fat as energy source
Case Study
Activity
• Malcom is a diabetic.
Unfortunately, he has forgotten to
take his insulin. During class,
Malcom became disoriented,
passed out, and was rushed to the
emergency department. A
urinalysis revealed that his urine
had an acidic pH, glucose, and
ketones.
• Can you identify what caused
Malcom to pass out?
• What is the term to indicate
glucose present in urine?
• Explain the presence of
ketones in Malcom’s urine.
Case Study
Activity
• Without insulin, Malcom’s body could not
metabolize glucose. His body began to
metabolize lipids as an alternate source
of energy, leading to formation of ketones
and acid. The increased levels of acid,
called acidosis, led to his loss of
consciousness.
• What is the term to indicate glucose
present in urine?
• Glucosuria
• Explain the presence of ketones in
Malcom’s urine.
• Ketones are produced by the metabolism
of lipids. As Malcom’s metabolism of
lipids increased, more ketones were
produced, and they ended up in his urine.
Summary

• By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

• Discuss the functions of the urinary system.
• Describe the anatomy of the organs in the urinary system.
• Discuss physiology of urine formation.
• Discuss hormonal regulation of urine production.
• Discuss the micturition reflex.