2 Molecules of life
2.1 Chemical constituents of organisms
1. Organisms are made up of chemical substances which can be divided
into two groups:
• inorganic substances (e.g. water and minerals)
• organic substances or biomolecules (e.g. carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins and nucleic acids)
2.2 Water
2. Water is important to life as it serves the following important
functions in organisms, as a:
• solvent, transport medium and the medium in which chemical
reactions take place
• reactant in some metabolic reactions
• cooling agent
• temperature buffer
• supporting agent
2.3 Minerals
3. Minerals are required in small amounts only, but are essential to the
normal functioning of organisms.
4. Some important inorganic ions include:
• nitrate, which is needed for making proteins, nucleic acids and
chlorophyll
• magnesium, which is needed for forming chlorophyll in plants and
is a component of bones and teeth
• calcium, which is a major component of bones, teeth and shells
• iron, which is needed for forming haemoglobin and in plants for
forming chlorophyll
5. Carbohydrates are organic substances made up of carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen. They have a general formula of Cx(H2O)y.
6. Carbohydrates can be classified into three types according to their
complexity:
Characteristics Examples
Monosaccharides • Simplest forms of Glucose, fructose
carbohydrates and galactose
• Soluble in water and taste
sweet
• All are reducing sugars
Disaccharides • Formed by condensation of Maltose, sucrose
two monosaccharide and lactose
molecules with the removal of
a water molecule
• Soluble in water and taste
sweet
• Most are reducing sugars,
except sucrose
Polysaccharides • Complex carbohydrates Starch, glycogen
formed by condensation of a and cellulose
large number of
monosaccharide molecules
• Insoluble in water
7. Carbohydrates have the following functions in organisms:
• Glucose can be directly broken down in cells during respiration to
release energy.
• Starch and glycogen are storage forms of carbohydrates in plants
and animals respectively.
• Cellulose is the main component of plant cell walls.
Biochemical tests for carbohydrates:
Substance Test Positive result
Glucose Using glucose test strips A distinctive colour change will
be observed.
Reducing Benedict’s test A Brick-red precipitate is formed.
sugars
Starch Iodine test Iodine solution changes from
brown to blue-black.
2.5 Lipids
9. Lipids are organic substances made up of carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen, with a hydrogen-oxygen ratio greater than 2:1. All lipids are
insoluble in water, but can dissolve in organic solvents.
10. Important lipids include triglycerides (fats and oils), phospholipids
and cholesterol:
Characteristics Functions
Triglycerides • A triglyceride • Fats and oils act as
fatty acid 1 molecule is formed energy reserves in
by the condensation organisms.
glycerol
fatty acid 2
of one glycerol
• Subcutaneous fat
fatty acid 3
molecule and three
acts as an insulating
fatty acid molecules,
layer to reduce heat
with the removal of
loss.
three water
molecules. • Adipose tissues
around internal
• The three fatty acid
organs act as a
molecules may be
shock-absorber.
the same or different.
Phospholipids A phospholipid molecule As the main component
fatty acid 1 consists of one glycerol of cell membranes
phosphate molecule, two fatty acid
glycerol
molecules and a
group fatty acid 2
phosphate group.
Cholesterol Complex molecules • Essential component
consisting of carbon of cell membranes
rings
• Used in the synthesis
of lipid hormones
11. The presence of lipids can be indicated by the grease spot test.
Lipids leave a translucent spot on filter paper, which disappears when
it comes into contact with an organic solvent.
2.6 Proteins
12. Proteins are organic substances made up of carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen and nitrogen. Some also contain sulphur.
13. The basic units of proteins are amino acids. Each amino acid
molecule has an amino group, a carboxyl group and a specific side
chain.
side chain
R
H O
N C C
H OH
H
amino group carboxyl group
14. Dipeptides and polypeptides are formed when amino acids join
together by condensation. The amino acid sequence affects the final
shape of the protein molecule.
15. Proteins have the following functions in organisms:
• As components of the cytoplasm and the cell membrane, thus
important for the growth and repair of body tissues
• Forming haemoglobin, enzymes, antibodies and certain hormones
• As an energy source if carbohydrates and lipids are used up
16. The presence of proteins can be indicated using protein test strips
which give a distinctive colour change when in contact with proteins.
2.7 Nucleic acids
17. Nucleic acids are organic substances made up of carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorus. There are two types of nucleic
acids: deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA) and ribonucleic acids (RNA).
18. The basic units of nucleic acids are nucleotides. Each nucleotide
has three components: a five-carbon sugar, a nitrogenous base
and a phosphate group.
nitrogenous base
phosphate (A, T, G or C in DNA; and
group A, U, G or C in RNA)
5-carbon sugar
(deoxyribose in
DNA; ribose in RNA )
19. Nucleic acids play important roles in heredity and protein synthesis.
20. Comparison between DNA and RNA:
DNA RNA
5-carbon sugar Deoxyribose Ribose
Nitrogenous base Adenine (A), thymine (T), Adenine (A), uracil (U),
guanine (G) or cytosine guanine (G) or cytosine
(C) (C)
Structure Double helix Single chain