Research Methodology

Research Methods
Research: Definition: The word 'research' meant to 'search again'. It implicitly assumes that the earlier search was not
exhaustive and complete and hence a repeated search is called for. In practice, the term 'research' refers to a scientific
process of generating an unexplored horizon of knowledge, aiming at discovering facts, solving a problem and reaching
a decision.
Definition: Research is a scientific approach of answering a research question, solving a problem or generating new
knowledge through a systematic and orderly collection, organization and analysis of information with an ultimate goal
of making the research useful in decision-making.
Research methods and methodology:
By research method we simply mean the search techniques or tools used for conducting research irrespective of whether
the research belongs to physical or social sciences or to any other disciplines. The techniques include three broad groups.
(1) The first group includes methods dealing with collecting and describing data.
(2) The second group consists of techniques used for establishing statistical relationship between variables.
(3) The third group consists of techniques used to deal with methods used to evaluate the reliability, validity and
accuracy of the results discerned by the data.
When we speak of research methodology, we not only talk of research methods but also keep in view the logic behind
the method we use. Research methodology is a way to study the various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher
in studying his research problems systematically along with the logic, assumptions and rationale behind them.
A researcher's methodology aims at answering such questions as:
(1) Why this particular group of people were interviewed?
(2) How the research problem has been defined.
(3) How many individuals provided the answers on which the researcher's conclusions were based.
(4) Why these particular techniques were used to analyze data?
(5) In what way and why the research hypothesis has been formulated.
(6) What level of evidence was used to determine whether or not to reject the stated hypotheses?
Theory: A theory is a set of systematically interrelated concepts, definitions, and propositions that are advanced to
explain and predict phenomena (facts).
Proposition: A proposition is a statement about concepts that may be judged as true or false if it refers to observable
phenomena.
Axioms: Axioms may be defined as a statement of relationship assumed to be true but not testable. True statements
from which other statements are deduced are axioms or postulates. Let us look at the following propositions:
(a) Proposition 1: If A then B.
(b) Proposition 2: If B then C.
Therefore,
(c) Proposition 3: If A then C.
In such a theory, if propositions 1 and 2 are true statements, it follows by deduction that proposition 3 is also true.
Propositions 1 and 2 are thus axioms or postulates.
Theorem: Theorems are derived from postulates or axioms, some of which (but not all) are testable. A proposition that
can be deduced from a set of postulates is called a theorem.

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Variables and its types:

A variable is a characteristic of a person, an object or a phenomenon that can take on different values in a defined domain
or range. A simple example of a variable is a person's age. The age can take on different values which can be expressed
in numbers, for which we call them quantitative or numerical variables.
A quantitative variable is one, which can be expressed and measured numerically.
Numerically, variables are again of two types: (1) Discrete variable. (2) Continuous variable.
A discrete variable restricted to certain values, usually (but not necessarily) consists of whole numbers, such as the
family size. They are often the result of enumeration or counting. E.g., no. of accidents in twelve-monthly period, no.
of patients admitted in a hospital over a specified period. Number of children in a family: 0, 1, 2, 3...
A continuous variable can take on any value within a given range or domain. A continuous variable results from
measurement and can assume countless values in the specified range. Examples are: age, height, weight, working capital,
bank deposit, interest rate, remittances etc. Height: 150cm, 150.5 cm / Temperatures 25.3 degrees / Weight: 70.2 kg.
Categorical variable: some variables can qualitatively only be expressed in categories. For example, the variable sex
has two distinct categories: male and female. Since the values of this variable are expressed in categories, we call this
categorical variable/qualitative variable. Since they are measured non-numerically, religion, marital status, place of
residence are examples of such variables. It represents qualitative descriptive, characteristics, Gender, Color, Marital
status ec.
Independent variable: The variable that is being used to describe or measure the factor that is assumed to cause or at
least to influence of the problem is called independent variable. It isn't changed by the other variables
Dependent variable: The variable that is used to describe or measure problem under study is called dependent variable.
In almost every study, some variables are related to a number of independent variables, so they influence the problem
indirectly. These variables are called background variables.
It is normally hypothesized that, independent variable causes the dependent variable to occur. In actual study situations,
there is need to take other variables into account to better explain the one-to-one relationship. So a second independent
variable that has a great effect on the original dependent-independent relationship is termed moderating variable.
Extraneous variable: In most of the studies, there are a number of variables that might affect our hypothesized
independent-dependent variable relationship, but they are not necessarily the part of the study. These variables are
referred to as extraneous variables. It is not related to study, but may influence study.
Intervening variable: An intervening variable learning, theoretically affects the observed phenomena memory, but
cannot be seen, measured or manipulated motivation directly. For example, x and y may be correlated attitude. but only
because x causes the third variable, z, which in turn causes y, so z is intervening variable.
Suppressor variable: In many cases, we have good reasons to believe that the variables of interest have a relationship,
but our data fail to establish any such relationship. It is possible that some hidden third factor is suppressing the true
relationship between the two original variables, such a factor is referred as a suppressor variable.

Variables

Numerical Categorical
Variable Variable

Discrete Continuous Dependant Independant

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(IV) (Poverty) → (Lack of access to healthcare) → Shorter longevity

Intervening variable DV
Properties of Relationships between variables:
In research, we observe a variety of dimensions of relationships between variables.

• Positive and negative relationship: In the case of two variables, a positive relationship is one in which both
variables vary in the same direction. However, when they vary in the opposite directions, they are said to have
negative relationship. When change or movement of one variable is not accompanied by a change in the other
variable, we say that the variables in question are unrelated.
• Strength of relationship: A common statistic to measure the strength of relationship is the so-called correlation-
coefficient symbolized by 'r'. 'r' is a unit-free measure lying between -1 and +1 inclusive, with zero signifying no
linear relationship. r = +1 means a 100% accuracy in predicting a positive relationship between two variables and a
value r = -1 mean a 100% accuracy in predicting a negative relationship.
• Asymmetrical relationship: When two variables are related and we can level either of the variables as independent
variable, then such relationship is called a symmetrical relationship. In an asymmetrical relationship, change in one
variable X (say) is accompanied by change in variable Y, but not vice-versa.
• Causal relationship: Relationship between two variables does not automatically ensure that changes in one variable
cause changes in other.
• Linear and non-linear relationship: A linear relationship is a straight-line relationship between two variables,
where the variables vary at the same rate. But in non-linear relationship, the rate at which one variable changes may
be different for different values of the other variable. Height and weight almost always have an approximate linear
relationship, while age and fertility rates have a non-linear relationship.
Research approaches or approaches of the research:
There are mainly two basic approaches to research, namely quantitative research is the systematic investigation approach
and qualitative approach. The quantitative approach can be further subdivided into inferential, experimental and
simulation approaches. Generally, focus group, interviews, projective techniques and deep-seated interview are used in
qualitatively approach to research.
Quantitative research: Quantitative research is the systematic investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena
and their interrelationships. Quantitative research is widely used in both the natural sciences and social sciences from
physics and biology to sociology and journalism. The objective of quantitative research is to develop and employ
mathematical models, theories and/or hypotheses pertaining to natural phenomenon. The process of measurement is
central to quantitative research because it provides the fundamental connection between empirical observation and
mathematical expression of quantitative relationships.
Quantitative research is often an iterative process whereby evidence is evaluated, theories and hypothesis are refined,
technical advances are made and so on.
Qualitative research: Qualitative research is one of the two major approaches to research methodology in social
sciences. Qualitative research involves an in-depth understand of human behavior and reasons that govern human
behavior. Unlike quantitative research, qualitative research relies on reasons behind various aspects of behavior. Simply
put, it investigates the why and how of decision making, not just what, where and when of quantitative research. Hence,
the need is for smaller but focused samples rather than large random samples, which qualitative research categories data
into patterns as the primary basis for organizing and reporting results.
Quantitative methods: Quantitative methods are research methods dealing with numbers and anything that is
measurable. They are therefore to be distinguished from qualitative methods. Counting and measuring are common
forms of quantitative methods.
Q: What do we understand by research ideas?

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Ans: Doing research involves translating general interests into specific researchable questions and then designing
concrete research procedures that address those questions. Research ideas comes from our readings, classes and
interactions with peers and professors. One begins to understand what interests the individuals in his discipline.
Alternatively, one may choose to take courses in a particular discipline because of his own life experiences. People who
have spent time in prison, may be interested in studying criminology; women may seek out a women's studies program;
parents may be interested in development psychology or in the sociology; universities and colleges are ideal place for
further exploring one’s interests.
First step: Literature Review:
Literature review help in the study of research ideas in many ways. After we choose a topic in general terms, we must
next connect with the literature in our area of interest. The library, the heart of every university is the place to start.
Knowing the general areas in the library that contains material related to our topic, provide splendid opportunities for
browsing.
Initial review of the relevant literature will sometimes be cursory and sometimes quite exhaustive, it may seem routine
but is actually incredibly important: by familiarizing oneself with the literature, we can see the problems and successes
experienced by others in the way, we can find out how others have experienced a particular research question, which
has been done in the area, and where gaps still remain.
One of the biggest mistake novice researches made is that, when they examine the literature "on a topic, they continue
the topic to manually and for accurately support, we want to understand the decision made by existing officials at border
crossings. By we begin our literature search by looking for studies that deal with this specific situation—we will find
very few on articles; so one may step out shaping it that point is fundamentally confusing to the spirit of research. Any
piece of research involves emphasis on working back and forth between theory and data, that is between the misdraws
and the concrete. The three main models relating to research process are:
a. The deductive approach.
b. The indeductive approach.
c. The complementary of deductive and indeductive approach.
Q. The difference between the inductive and deductive approach to science. How Wallace (1971) through wallaces
"wheel of science" conflict between them. Or Are the social divisions between these two approaches reconcilable or
are the ideas themselves in conflict?
In logic, a distinction has traditionally been made between two different processes of reasoning, deductive and inductive
processes or deductive logic, one reasons from the general to the particular, that is, one begins with broad theoretical
generalizations and tests their validity for deal with specifics. In instances of phenomena this approach is very much the
hypothetical one of science where one:
i. Develops theories about phenomena;
ii. Derives hypotheses or predictions based on these theories;
iii. Observes instances of the phenomena, whether the theory's predictions are borne out, and then
iv. Looks for new situations in which to feel on expand the theory, revise the theory, or perhaps work not supporting
it. According to entirely. As deductive process is the model of science that has been preferred by quantitative
researchers.
In contrast, inductive reasoning begins with specifics and uses these to generate general principles. In other words, one
starts by observing i.e., moving from observations to theory rather than from theory to observations. This tends to be
the approach of choice for qualitative researchers who believe that theory should not be imposed from above, but rather,
should emerge from the context of everyday life.
A deductive approach is more consistent with the view of the researcher as an abstract thinker who attempts to capture
some general principles that will describe behavioral outcomes of aggregate. In contrast, the inductive approach seems
ideally suited to the fieldworker who are interested in "getting inside the heads" of research participants understanding
their actions and building theory on the basis of themes that emerge from that inter-change. One person who argued for
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the inherent complementarity of the two approaches was Wallace (1971). Through his "wheel of science" (see pg file
following frame), he devised Wallace's wheel,

Fig- Wallace's "wheel of science ".

which shows an essentially circular process that encompasses both approaches. This wheel of science acknowledges the
different meanings of individual scientists, but also shows how all scientists are involved in an ongoing dialectic (two-
way relationship) involving both theory and data.
Wallace implies that the question "which comes first?" is quite fruitless, deciding where to "cut into" an ongoing process
is relatively arbitrary; we could start with either "pure theory" or "pure data." Wallace devoid of any informed knowledge
gained from our earlier observation or completely devoid of any prior theoretical organization related to our own native
beliefs about how the world works or gives us nothing.
Aronson and Mills (1969) started with theory, but the implications they drew, the hypotheses they created, will
emerge from external observation of particular life settings; similarly, researchers engaged with the analysis of
a particular social setting, but his implications are discussed in the context of issues that were evident in the
literature at that time.
Deductive source of research ideas
A deductive approach is more consistent with the view of the researcher as an abstract thinker who attempts to capture
general principles that will describe behavioral outcomes of the aggregate.
Theory as a source of research ideas
A theory is essentially a set of concepts and a definition of their interrelationships that, when taken together, purport to
explain a phenomenon or set of phenomena. 'Good' theories are useful devices because they help coordinate research
by providing a research focus and by implying hypotheses that are open to empirical testing.
Existing theory & situating previous research ideas
Emerge from theory; so a theory under that some act of creativity is needed to forge, one can feel the theory by finding
a specific situation in which the theory should be able to predict.
Extending or limiting the theory's coverage
Another procedure for generating research ideas is to try to extend the coverage of an existing theory; one version might
have posited a theory that explains certain social changes within business organizations; one can make a significant
contribution by showing that the same theoretical principles also apply to family dynamics.
Offering alternative explanations
Yet another source of research ideas involves trying to formulate alternative explanations for a given phenomenon;
that is, positing a competing explanation that changes the research focus. D.G. Wagner (1984) refers to this process of
theory development as verification, and others. So we can say, one role of theory is to generate research possibilities:
is a theory doesn't suggest research possibilities it's not a very good theory.

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Inductive approach as a source of research ideas:

Inductivists place no less emphasis on theory than deductivists, but they suggest that ideas and theories should emerge
from interacting with and observing the phenomenon itself.
One way to begin research is to "start from where you are". That is, begin with our own life situation and the concerns
and issues that arise therefrom. At the same time, there are also some potential problems that need to be avoided, making
part of own life a research site may be an overwhelmingly emotional experience. If can also be problematic because of
role conflicts that can arise emerge from making part of our life a research site. The trick in starting from where we are
is to use the insights to be gained from our own experience, but then to activate the sociological imagination. One might
also begin with a particular problem of interest and then try to suggest and apply over.
Systematic observation in the context of intensive case studies is another useful source of research ideas. If one is new
to an area of research, an oral history or broader experience survey may suggest research ideas. If someone wants to
study aggression toward minority groups, he could talk to a Jew, who lived in Germany at the World War II.
A research hypothesis is a statement of expectation or prediction that will be tested by research.

Desirable Qualities of Research:

Research should be made acceptable to the audience for which research should possess some desirable qualities-
a. Purpose clearly defined: A good research must have its purposes clearly and unambiguously defined.
b. Research process detailed: The research procedures used should be described in sufficient details so that other
researchers can repeat the research at a later date. Failure to do so makes it difficult or impossible to estimate the
validity and reliability of the results.
c. Research design planned: The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that
are as objective as possible.
d. Ethical issues considered: A research design should always safeguard against causing mental and physical harm
not only to the participants but also to those who belong to their organizations. Researchers should be concern of
exploration, invasion of privacy and loss of dignity of all those who are involved in the study.
e. Limitations revealed: The researcher should report with complete honesty and frankness any flaws in procedural
design he followed and provide estimates of their effects on the findings. This enhances the confidence of the
readers.
f. Adequate analysis ensured: Adequate analysis reveals the significance of the data and helps the researcher to
check the reliability and validity of his estimates. When statistical methods have been employed, the probability of
error should be estimated.
g. Findings unambiguously presented: Presentation of the results should be comprehensive, easily understood by
the readers and organized so that the readers can readily locate the critical and central findings.
h. Conclusions justified: In research, the conclusion drawn and recommendations made should be solely based on the
finding of the study. No inferences should be made beyond the data.
i. Researcher's experiences reflected: The research report should contain information about the qualification of the
researchers. If the researcher is experienced, has a good reputation in research, and is a person of integrity, his report
is likely to be highly valued.

Level of measurement: Both qualitative and quantitative data are obtained through some measurement. There are four
levels of measurements. They are-
a. Nominal level: In nominal level of measurement, the categories differ from one another only in names. In other
words, one category of a characteristic is not necessarily higher or lower, greater or smaller than the other category.
Sex (male and female), religion are the examples of such nominal measurements. The categories are homogenous
and mutually exclusive.

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b. Ordinal level: When there is an ordered relationship among the categories of a characteristic, we get ordinal level
of measurement. Thus, the academic degrees (M.A, B.A, [Link].), efficient designation (manager, deputy manager,
accountant), academic performance are example of ordinal scale. In ordinal level of measurement, ordering is the
sole mathematical property applicable to ordinal data. The chief properties of ordinal level of measurement are-
1. The categories are distinct, mutually exclusive and exhaustive.
2. Categories are possible to be ranked or ordered.
3. The distance or different from one category to the other category is not necessarily constant.

c. Interval Level: The interval level of measurement includes all the properties of the nominal and ordinal level but
an additional property that the difference between values is known and of constant size. For example, the
temperature 5∘C, 20∘C and 25∘C can be ranked and the differences between the temperatures can easily be
determined. It is also important to note that 0 is just an arbitrary point on the scale. It does not necessarily represent
the absence of heat, just that it is cold. The interval levels of data have the following properties:
1. The data collection classification are mutually exclusive and exhaustive.
2. The data can be meaningfully ranked or ordered.
3. The difference between one data classification to the next is known and constant.
d. Ratio Level: Almost all quantitative data fall under the ratio level of measurement. It possesses all the properties of
interval scale and in addition, 'zero point' can be meaningfully designated and thus ratio between two members is
also meaningful. Wages, stock prices, sales values, age, weight are examples of ratio scale of measurement. Thus,
it makes sense to speak of 0 sales when there are no sales in the store. Statistical data in which we can find multiples
and quotients, as well as differences, are known as ratio data.
Research question: Formulating research question is the most critical and, perhaps the most difficult part of any
research design of all. It describes the objective of the research study. The way a particular research question is worded
can have a significant influence on how much and what kind of research activity will be required. Research questions
can be grouped into three main types: 'what questions', 'why questions', and 'how questions'. What questions require a
descriptive answer, why questions ask for either the cause of or the reasons for the existence of the characteristics in a
particular phenomenon. How questions are concerned with bringing about changes in practical outcomes. We illustrate
the use of 'what', 'why' and 'how' questions for the following research problem.
"It is noticed with great concern that in recent times, most young people have become prone to drug addiction in the
city, which is unprecedented".
The 'what', 'why', and 'how' questions can be framed as follows:

 What is the socio-economic background of the people involved in the incidence?

 Why has this evil habit developed?
To formulate an utilizable research question, we must,
1. Choose an appropriate topic for research.
2. List all the possible questions that we would like to answer by ourselves.
3. Choose the best question that is neither too broad nor too thin.
4. Evaluate the research question.
Research Hypothesis
A research hypothesis is a proposition or conjecture that motivates the research and stated in a testable form with a view
to predict a particular relationship between two or more variables.
Difference between a hypothesis and a problem: Both the hypothesis and problem contribute to the body of knowledge
which supports an existing theory. But hypothesis differs from problem. A problem is formulated in the form of a
question, it serves as the basis from which a hypothesis is derived. A hypothesis is a solution to a problem. A problem
cannot be directly tested whereas a hypothesis can be tested and verified.
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Purpose and functions of hypothesis:

1. It offers explanations for the relationship between those variables that can be empirically tested.
2. It proves that the researcher have sufficient background knowledge to enable him to make suggestions.
3. It gives direction to an investigation.
4. It structures the next phase in the investigation.
Characteristics of a hypothesis:
1. It should have elucidating power.
2. It should strive to furnish an acceptable explanation of the phenomenon.
3. It must be verifiable.
4. It must be formulated in simple, understandable phenomenon.
5. It should correspond with existing knowledge.
Types:
Research hypothesis are of two types:
a. Descriptive Hypothesis: descriptive hypotheses are propositions that typically state the existence, size, form or
distribution of some variables. These hypotheses are formulated in the form of statements in which we assign
variables to cases. For example.:
The prevalence of contraceptive use among the currently married women inBangladesh exceeds 60%. In this
example, the case is "currently married women" and the variable is "prevalence of contraceptives".
b. Relational hypotheses: Relational hypotheses are the statements that describe relationships between variables with
respect to some cases. For example, "communities with modern facilities will have a higher rate of contraception
than communities with few modern facilities". Here the case is "communities" and the variables are "rate of
contraception" and "modern facilities".
A relational hypothesis is of two types: a. correlational hypothesis b. causal hypothesis (explanatory hypothesis)
a. A correlational hypothesis merely states that variables occur together in some predictable relationships without
implying that one variable causes the other to change or take on different values. For example - "saving habit is
more pronounced among the Christians than the people of other religions". Here religion is not believed to be a
factor in saving habit although a positive relationship is observed.
b. With causal hypothesis there is an implication that a change in one variable causes a change on the other
variable. A causal variable is typically called independent variable and the other is dependent variable. For
example, "An increase in family income leads to an increase in...".

Research objectives: The research objectives address the purpose of the investigation and types of knowledge to be
generated. A research objective includes exploration, description, explanation, prediction, evaluation and impact
assessment. In a descriptive study, the objectives can be stated as the research questions. In a causal study, the objectives
are usually stated in the form of hypothesis. The main aim of research is to find out the truth, which is hidden and which
has not been discovered as yet.
Research objectives are two types:
1. General objective. - Broad term
2. Specific objective. - Short term
1. General objective: The general objective of a study states what is expected to be achieved by the study in general
terms. For example, if the problem identified is low utilization of child welfare clinics, the general objective of the study
could be:
• To identify the reasons for this low utilization in order to find solutions.

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Specific objectives: Specific objectives should systematically address the various aspects of the problems, and the key
factors that are assumed to be influence or cause the problems. In formulated properly specific objectives will facilitate
the development of the research methodology and will help the researcher to orient the collection, analysis, interpretation
and utilization of data.
Immediate objectives: Immediate objectives serves to indicate the focus of the proposed research in behavioral terms.
The objective should specify the following points:
1. Who will conduct the study?
2. When and where the study will be concluded?
3. What are the key variables to be included?
Ultimate objective: Ultimate objective shows how the results will be used to motivate the program managers and policy-
makers for implementing and executing the recommendations followed from the survey results.
Reasons for formulating the objectives of a research:
1. Focus the study so as to narrow it down to essentials.
2. Avoid collection of data that is not strictly necessary for understanding and solving the problem in hand.
3. Organize the study in clearly defined components or phase.
Criteria for fulfilling the objectives:
1. They are realistic to the local environment.
2. They cover the different aspects of the problem.
3. They consider the contributing factors in a coherent way and in a logical sequence.
4. They consider the ethical issues if any.
5. They are clearly phrased in operational terms.
Q: Distinguish between:

 Pure/Basic/Fundamental research and applied research.

 Social research and business research.
 Micro-study and macro-study.
 Cross-section study and longitudinal study.
Difference between BASIC/prive research and Applied research

Basic/Pure Research Applied Research

1. Research problems and subjects are selected with a 1. Research problems arise naturally constrained to
great deal of freedom. the demands of client or the sponsor.
2. Research is judged by absolute norms and scientific 2. The effort and standard of scholarship depend on
rigor, and the highest standard scholarship is sought. the uses of results.
3. The primary concern is with the internal logic and 3. The primary concern is with the ability to
rigor of research design. generalize findings to areas of interest to
sponsor/client.
4. The driving goal is to contribute to basic theoretical 4. The driving goal is to have practical payoffs or use
knowledge. of results.
5. Success comes when results appear in a scholarly journal 5. Success comes when results are used by
and have an impact on others in the scientific community. sponsor/client in decision making.

Social Research Business Research

1. Social research is an entity to identify describing 1. Business Research is defined as a system of
understanding, explaining ending and predicting social separating final provides information to solve
phenomena involving human behavior. managerial problems aiming at revealing
business decisions.
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2. Social research is the systematic method of discovering 2. Business research is on shifting decision makers
new facts or verbalizing all facts that sentences in textual from intuitive information gathering to
linguistics, ethics and explanations and the natural laws systematic and objective investigation.
which govern them.
3. Social research involves the application of scientific 3. The development of scientific methods in
methods through data collection. business research lays behind similar
development in the physical sciences.

Typology of research: Research may be broadly classified into one of the following types:
1. Pure research
2. Applied research
3. Evaluative Research. Action research
Evaluative Research:
i. It is concerned with the evaluation of such occurrences as social and organizational programs or intervention.
ii. It is implemented in health and family planning activities but never assessed.
iii. It can be a valuable approach for examining retrospectively or cross-sectionally the effect of the program
activities.
iv. The research is timely, efficient, accurate and ethical.
Quantitative vs Qualitative Research: Ans:
1. Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that
can be expressed in terms of quantity. On the other hand, qualitative research is concerned with qualitative
phenomenon i.e. phenomenon relating to or involving quality or kind.
2. The quantitative approach can be further subdivided into inferential, experimental and simulation approaches
to research. On the other hand, focus group, interviews, projective techniques and depth interviews are used in
qualitative approach.
3. The objective of quantitative research is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories and hypothesis
pertaining to natural phenomena. On the other hand, qualitative research involves an in-depth understanding of
human behavior and reasons that govern human behavior.
4. Quantitative research is widely used in both the natural and social sciences from physics and biology to
sociology and journalism. On the other hand, qualitative research is one of the two major approaches to research
methodology in social sciences.

RESEARCH PROCESS: Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out
research and the desired sequencing of these steps. The stages involved in a research process are:
1. Formulating the research problem.
2. Reviewing literature.
3. Setting objectives and hypothesis.
4. Choosing the study design.
5. Determining sample design.
6. Collecting data.
7. Execution of the project.
8. Analysis of data.
9. Hypothesis testing.
10. Generalizations and interpretation.
11. Preparation of the report or presentation of the results.

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Each of these stages, by and large, is dependent upon the other. A number of alternatives are available for the research
doing each of these stages. Choosing the best alternative is our primary goal. The following schematic diagram
demonstrates the research process with eight most important stages.

We provide a brief overview of these stages.

1. Formulating the research problem/identifying the problem: The first and foremost task in the entire process
of scientific research is to identify or formulate a problem. A well-defined problem will lead the researcher to
accomplish significant important phases of the research process starting from setting objectives to the selection
of the research methodology. In fact, formulation of the problem often follows a sequential pattern where a
number of formulations are set up, each formulation more specific than the preceding one, each one phrased in
more analytical terms, and each is more realistic in terms of the available data and resources.
2. Reviewing of literature: Reviewing the relevant literature is an integral part of the research process. It enables
the researcher to formulate his problem in terms of the specific aspects of the general area of his interest that
have not been so far researched. Such a review not only provides him an exposure to a larger body of knowledge,
but also equips him with enhanced knowledge of efficiently.
i. Setting his objectives.
ii. Formulating testable hypothesis.
iii. Identifying the variables to be included.
In sum, we enumerate the following arguments in favor of reviewing literature:
i. It avoids duplication of the work that has been done in the recent past.
ii. It helps the researcher to find out what others have learned and reported on the problem.
iii. It helps the researcher to become familiar with the types of methodology followed by others.
3. Setting objectives and hypotheses: Researchers should make a formal statement of the problem leading to
research objectives. The best expression of a research objective is a well-formulated, testable research
hypothesis. A hypothesis is a proposition that can be supported by empirical data. Hypothetical statements assert
possible answer to a research question.
4. Choosing a research design: The research design is the blueprint or framework for fulfilling objectives and
answering research questions. It is a master plan specifying the methods and procedures for collecting,
processing and analyzing the collected data. There are four basic research design - i) survey, ii) experiment, iii)
secondary data study and iv) observational study. Choosing of research design depends on –
i. The type of problem.
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ii. The objectives of the study.

iii. The existing state of knowledge about the problem that is being studied, and
iv. The resources available for the study.
5. Determining sample design: The basic idea of sampling is that it involves any procedure that uses a small
number of items (called sample) of a universe (called population) to make a conclusion regarding the whole
population. Sample design refers to the methods to be followed in selecting sample from the population. The
methods of selecting a sample are basically of two types: probability sampling and non-probability sampling.
Probability sampling ensures every unit a known non-zero probability of selection within the target population.
If there is no feasible alternative, a non-probability sampling method may be employed. The most commonly
used probability sampling methods are simple random sampling, stratified random sampling, systematic
sampling, cluster sampling.
6. Collecting data: There are many ways to collect data. It depends on the objective of the study, the research
design and the availability of time, money and personnel. The most common means for collecting quantitative
data is the structured interview. Surveys, self-administered questionnaires, telephone-interviewing are various
ways in which data may be collected. Secondary sources, such as census, vital registration records, official
documents, previous surveys are also used for data collection. Qualitative data are collected mainly through in-
depth interviews, focus group discussions, and observational studies.
7. Execution of the project: Execution of the project is a very important step in the research process. If the
execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would be adequate and dependable.
The researcher should see that the project is executed in a systematic manner and in time. A careful watch
should be kept for unanticipated factors in order to keep the survey as much as possible realistic.
8. Processing and Analyzing data: Data processing generally begins with editing and coding of data. In survey
data, editing reduces errors in the recording, improves legibility, and clarifies unclear and inappropriate
responses. In addition to editing, the data also need coding. Alphanumeric codes are used to reduce the responses
to a more manageable form for storage and future processing. Data analysis usually involves reducing
accumulated data to a manageable size, developing summaries, searching for patterns and applying statistical
techniques for understanding and interpreting the findings.
9. Hypothesis testing: After analysis the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position to test the hypothesis,
if any, he had formulated earlier. Various tests, such as χ2 test, F-test, t-test have been developed by statisticians
for the proper use of the hypothesis may be tested through the one or more of such tests, depending upon the
nature and object of research inquiry.
10. Research proposal: The entire task of a research study is accumulated in a document called proposal. A
research proposal is a work plan, made by the researcher to produce a product. The proposal tells us what, how,
where, and to him whom it will be done.
11. Report writing and presentation of the results: The end goal of a scientific study is to interpret the results
and draw conclusions. So it is necessary to prepare a report and transmit the findings and recommendations to
administrators, policy makers. The dissemination presentation may be made through a conference, a seminar, a
report or an oral presentation.
At a bare minimum, a research report should contain sections on:
1. An executive summary
2. Background of the problem
3. Literature review
4. Methodology
5. Conclusions and
6. Implementation strategies for the recommendations.
Problem statement: The adage, 'a problem well-defined is problem half-solved' is worth remembering. This adage
emphasizes that a well-defined statement of the problem will lead the researcher:
a. To the statement of research objectives.
b. To understand the background of the problem.

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c. To isolate a research problem from a non-research problem.

d. To state the research questions and hypothesis.
e. To identify and defining the key variables.
f. To construct a conceptual framework of analysis, and
g. To select a proper research methodology.
Contents of problem statement: The information that should be included in the statement of the problem are-
a. A brief description of the socio-economic and cultural characteristics and an overview of the issue at the macro
level relevant to the problem to be researched.
b. A concise description of the nature of the problem and of its size, distribution and severity.
c. An analysis of the major factors that may influence the problem and a convincing argument that available
knowledge is insufficient to solve it.
d. A brief description of any attempt in the past to solve the problem, outcome thereof, and why further research
is needed.
e. A description of the type of information expected to result from the study and how this information will be used
to help solve the problem.
Justifying the problem: It is important to justify the importance of the problem. It is therefore important to know:
1. Why is the problem as study important?
2. Is it current and timely one?
3. How widespread is the problem?
4. Who are mostly affected by the problem?
5. Can others be convinced about the importance of the problem?
6. Does the problem relate to broad social, economic, business and health issues?
7. Can it be implemented given the resources and other logistic facilities?

Action Research: Action research is regarded as research that is normally carried out by practitioners (persons that
stand in the field of work). It is a method par excellence for instructions/trainers. It enables the researcher to investigate
a specific problem that exists in practice.
According to Landman (1988:51) this requires that the researcher should be involved in the actions that take place. A
further refinement of this type of research is that the results obtained from the research should be relevant to the practice.
In other words, it should be applicable immediately. This means that the researcher, as expert and the person standing
in the practice, jointly decide on the formulation of research procedures, allowing the problem to be solved.
SWOT Analysis
SWOT analysis is a framework for generating strategic alternatives from a situation analysis. It serves as a simple but
powerful technique for understanding and evaluating the strengths and weaknesses and for looking at the opportunities
and threats involved in a project or in a business venture. SWOT (sometimes referred to as TOWS) is an acronym for
Strengths (S), Weaknesses (W), Opportunities (O) and Threats (T).
The role of SWOT analysis is to take the information from the environmental analysis and separate it into internal factors
and external factors. Environmental factors internal to the business usually classified as strengths (S) or weaknesses
(W), and those external to the business firm can be classified as opportunities (O) or threats (T). Such an analysis of the
strategic environment is referred to as a SWOT analysis.

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SWOT analysis is useful when a very limited amount of time is available to address a complex strategic situation. The
following diagram shows how a SWOT analysis fits into a strategic situation analysis.
Frame work for SWOT Analysis

SWOT MATRIX

Strengths Weaknesses
Opportunities S-O strategies W-O strategies
Threats S-T strategies W-T strategies

a. S-O strategies: pursue opportunities that are a good fit to the company's strengths.
b. W-O strategies: overcome weaknesses to pursue opportunities.
c. S-T strategies: identify ways that the firm can use its strengths to reduce its vulnerability to external threats.
d. W-T strategies: establish a defensive plan to prevent the firm's weaknesses from making it highly susceptible to
external threats.
Uses of SWOT Analysis: The usefulness of SWOT analysis is not limited to profit-seeking organizations. SWOT
analysis may be used in any decision-making situation when a desired end-state (objective) has been defined. Here are
some examples of what SWOT analysis can be used to assess:
a) A company's position in the market, commercial viability, etc.
b) A method of sales distribution.
c) A business idea.
d) An opportunity to make an acquisition.
e) An investment opportunity.
f) Changing a supplier.
Limitations of SWOT Analysis: While useful for reducing a large quantity of structured factors into a more manageable
profile, the SWOT framework has a tendency to oversimplify the situation by classifying the firm's environmental
factors into categories in which they may not always fit. The classification of some factors as strengths or weaknesses,
or as opportunities or threats is somewhat arbitrary. For example, a particular company culture can be either a strength
or a weakness. A technological change can be either a threat or an opportunity.

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