Yarn geometry
Definition: In classic terms, a yarn is defined as a long, fine structure capable of being
assembled or interlaced into such textile products as woven and knitted fabrics, braids, ropes,
and cords.
According to Textile Institute, yarn may be defines as a product of substantial length and
relatively small cross-section consisting of fibres or filaments with or without twist.
Classification of yarn:
Yarns may be classified on the basis of structure:-
1. Single yarns: Single yarn is the simplest continuous strand of textile mtl composed of
one of the following-
i) Continuous filament: Continuous filament yarns are the simplest in structure but
can be subjected to many modifying process for changing their texture,
extensibility, bulk and other properties. They are of two types:-
a) Monofilament: Which containing one filament.
b) Multifilament: This contains two or more filament. e.g. Polyester, Nylon etc.
ii) Spun yarn: Yarn in which a number of discontinuous fibres are hold together,
generally by twist is called spun yarn. e.g. Cotton
Spun yarns are of two types-
a) Homogeneous- Which are spun from only one type of fibre. e.g. 100% cotton
yarn.
b) Blended- Which are spun from more than one type of fibres. e.g. cotton-
polyester blend yarns.
iii) Modified continuous filament: The continuous filament yarns which are textured
or modified to change their appearance and other properties, are called modified
continuous filament.
2. Multi folded yarns: They are made by twisting togther two or more single yarns. e.g.
Sewing threads.
3. Cabled yarn: Cabled yarns are made by twisting together two or more multi folded
yarns. e.g. Cords.
4. Complex yarn: In a complex yarn, either a continuous filament core is surrounded by
staple fibre or a spun yarn core is surrounded by continuous filaments. e.g. core spun
yarn.
5. Fancy yarns: Fancy yarns are of decorative interest. They are made by introducing
spiral forms of irregularity or hairiness into either spun continuous filament yarns. e.g.
chenille yarns, loop yarn, slub yarn, snarl yarn.
Yarn structure
Yarn designation: The factors which are required to express yarn structure and properties
wholly are called yarn designation. The factors are-
i) Yarn count. (linear density)
ii) No. of filaments.
iii) No. of components in folding
iv) Direction and amount of twist.
v) No. of components in cabling.
vi) Fibre components.
Structural aspects of yarn
In general, yarn, being the building block of fabric, contributes to end product performance
through three key structural aspects: (i) fiber compactness, (ii) fiber arrangement, and (iii)
fiber mobility.
(i) fiber compactness
The integrity of a yarn structure is maintained partially by some form of compactness of
fibers or filaments in the yarn.
In case of a continuous filament yarn, filaments adhere together, by virtue of their
large number and the long inter-filament contact under lateral forces imposed by the
outer filaments pressing against the inner ones. This produces the highest
compactness level as virtually no air is allowed to penetrate between the filaments.
When filament yarns are converted into textured yarn, a great deal of inter-filament
space is created leading to lower compactness.
For a given fiber type, high fiber compactness is likely to result in low yarn
compressibility (or low softness), high strength, low yarn flexibility, low yarn
porosity, and more moisture wicking along the yarn surface than along the fibers in
the yarn. On the other hand, low fiber compactness is likely to result in high yarn
compressibility (or high softness), high flexibility, high porosity, and more moisture
wicking along the fibers in the yarn.
Furthermore, fiber compactness is a key factor in determining the yarn dimensional
stability; a yarn can be considered dimensionally stable if the fiber compactness is
the same in the relaxed state and under low levels of stress.
The extent of fiber or filament compactness in a yarn structure can be expressed by
two key factors: (i) the yarn bulk density (g/cm3) or more precisely the specific
volume, vy, of yarn (cm3/g), and (ii) the volume of still air inside the yarn.
(ii) Fiber arrangement
The way fibers are arranged in the yarn structure can have a great impact on a number of
yarn and fabric performance characteristics such as yarn liveliness, yarn appearance, yarn
strength, fabric dimensional stability, and fabric cover.
As illustrated in Fig. different yarn types exhibit different forms of fiber
arrangement.
Obviously, the simplest fiber arrangement is that of a continuous-filament yarn
where fibers (or continuous filaments) are typically arranged in parallel and straight
form. Deviations from this arrangement can be caused by slightly twisting the
filaments or through a deliberate distortion in filament orientation as in the
texturizing process.
In spun yarns, fiber arrangement is quite different from the simple arrangement of
continuous-filament yarns. As a result, the analysis of fiber arrangement in spun
yarns typically begins with an idealized twisted yarn structure1 and then seeks ways
to interpret or evaluate the deviation from this structure.
(iii) Fiber mobility
Fiber mobility is a key design aspect of yarn as it determines the dimensional stability of
both the yarn and the fabric woven or knitted from it.
In case of continuous filament yarn, there is a small tendency of fiber movement in the
yarn.
In case of textured yarns, bulkiness or stretchability are both induced by some distortion
in the filaments after which heat setting or self-locking of filament loops (as in air
texturing) assist in providing dimensional stability to the yarn. Obviously, when such
conditions are partially removed (e.g. by wearing, washing and drying), the filaments
will have a greater tendency to mobilize.
In the case of spun yarns, the discrete nature of staple fibers can result in many modes of
fiber mobility depending on the external effects encountered.
Under minimum yarn strain, fibers will tend to settle down and cohere.
If the yarn is relaxed or slack, the fibers will likely be in a bending mode;
if the yarn is tensioned, the fibers will follow the path of minimum length or a
straight line between fiber ends;
if the yarn is twisted, the fibers may be buckled or tend to snarl; and when a
yarn end is set free, the fibers will tend to untwist.
The point is that most spun yarns exhibit a great deal of fiber mobility that in one way or
another can influence yarn performance during the conversion of yarn into fabrics and
during the use of fabric in various applications.
Assumption of idealized helical yarn structure:
i) The yarns are circular in X-section and uniform along their length.
ii) Each filament has form a helix where its axis coincides with yarn axis.
iii) Every filament has the same twist.
iv) The density of the yarn is the same at all points.
v) Yarn consists of a great number of filaments.
Basic geometry of twisted yarn/geometrical relations from a consideration of the idealized
structure/Idealized twisted yarn structure:
An idealised twisted yarn geometry is shown in Fig.(a). It consists of concentric helices with
constant twist period, h and has yarn lengths in one turn of twist, l and L, at an intermediate
radius r and the external radius R. By opening out the cylinders into flat rectangles, as shown
in Fig. (b) And (c), the relations between helix angles θ and α and the other quantities can be
derived.
Let, R = Yarn radius (cm)
r = Radius of cylinder containing the helical path of a particular fibre (cm)
1
n or T = Yarn twist peer cm. or no. of turns per unit axial length =
h
h = Height/length of yarn having one twist.
α = Helix angle of twist at yarn surface (degrees)
θ = Helix angle at radius r (degree)
l = Length of fibre in one turn of twist at radius r (cm)
L = Length of fibre in one turn of twist at radius R (cm)
Figure: (a) An idealised twisted yarn geometry. Relations between helix angles θ and α and
other quantities are shown in (b) and (c).
h
From figure (b), Sinθ = and cosθ =
l
2 r
tanθ = ……………(i)
h
From equation (i)
2 R
Tanθ = 2πrn and similarly, tanα =
h
= 2πRn
Again from figure (b)
l2 = h2 + 4π2r2…………………………(ii)
And from figure (c)
L2 = h2 + 4π2R2…………………………(iii)
Now θ depends on radius
At yarn centre, r = 0 i.e. tanθ = 0
i.e. a filament coincides with yarn axis.
At yarn surface, r = R
θ=α
i.e. tanθ = 2πRn [as θ = α tanθ = tanα]
= tanα
θ = tan-1(2πRn)
The complexity of twisted geometry has been discussed by Schwarz and other experts. Then
the modification of equation.
1
Tanα = π(d-d′)
h
d d 1
= πd( )
d h
= πdkn [where d = Yarn dia
d′ = Fibre dia
d d
k= = Schwarz’s const.
d
Relation among Twist angle, Yarn count & Twist factor:
The idealized yarn geometry can be used to express the relation among yarn count, twist
angle and twist factor-
Problem: Twist multiplier 4.2 & specific volume 1.12 cc/gm. Find out twist angle.
Vy = 1.12
TM = 4.2
= TM×9.75 = 4.2×9.75
tanα = 0.0112 Vy = 0.0112 1.12 40.95 250
Twist contraction and Twist retraction:
The yarn contains fibres which remain in extended state individually. By twisting, the yarn
along with fibres is contracted and its mass per unit length increases. Again by de-twisting
the filament of yarn gets extended. The extension of yarn can be controlled by twist up to a
certain level.
For staple fibre yarn, the phenomenon is called contraction for twist or twist contraction and
for filament yarn it is called retraction for twist or twist retraction.
Derivation of equations for contraction and retraction factor:
sec α 1
Again, Ry =
sec α 1
sec α 1 2
=
sec α 1
sec α 1 2
=
sec α 1
2
= 1
1 sec α
1
= 1
Cy
1
Ry= 1 , this is the relationship between twist contraction and retraction of a twisted yarn
Cy
Packing of fibres in yarn:
The idealized packing of circular fibres in yarns has been discussed by Schwaz.
i) Open pacing.
ii) Close packing.
i) Open packing:
Open packing is that in which the fibres lie in layers between successive concentric layers.
At the centre of an open packed assembly of circular fibres, there is a single fibre. The third
layer is added so that the fibres just the circle circumscribes the second layer of seo-fibres.
Successive layers are then added on between circumscring circles.
Radius of circle circumscribing nth layer
R = Radius of yarn with n layers.
= (2n-1)rf
Radius of centre of nth layer = R(n-1)rf = r
ii) Hexagonal close packing:
Close packing is that in which the fibres fit into a hexagonal pattern. Here with a single fibre
core, close packing of circular fibres gives yarn with a hexagonal outline in which all fibres
are touching. The distance between the centre of the yarn and the centre of a layer ranges
from 2(n-1) rf at the corners to 3 n 1 rf at the middle of the sides.
Where n = no. of layers, rf = The fibre radius.
Packing density or packing fraction:
The yarn specific volume is always more than that of fibre themselves. This relation can be
analytically expressed in terms of a parameter called packing fraction.
The ratio of specific volume of fibres in yarn to specific volume of yarn is called packing
fraction.
Volume of fibres in yarn
Packing fraction, φ
Volume of yarn
Vf
=
Vy
Specific volume of fibres in yarn
=
Specific volume of yarn
Yarn density ρy
= =
Fibre density ρf
Normally, φ = 1 for filament yarns
Swchwarz constant:
πd 2
Yarn specific volume, Vy =
4
πd2
Fibre specific volume, Vf = n
4
πd2
n d 2
Vf 4
Packing fraction, φ = n
Vy πd 2 d2
4
d
2
φ
2
d n
d d
d n
d d d
Schwarz’s constant, k 1
d d
φ φ
= 1 = 1
n n
Now for cotton yarn, φ 0.6
0.6 0.7
k = 1 = 1
n n
For filament yarn, φ 1
1
k = 1
n