NERVOUS SYSTEM

TOPICS:
Functions of the Nervous System
Anatomy of the Nervous System

 Organization of the Nervous System

 Structural Classification
 Functional Classification

Nervous Tissue: Structure and Function

 Supporting Cells
 Neurons

Central Nervous System

 Brain
- Cerebral Hemispheres
- Diencephalon
- Brain Stem
- Cerebellum
 Spinal Cord
- Gray mater of the Spinal Cord and Spinal Roots
- White mater of the Spinal Cord

Peripheral Nervous

 Structure of a Nerve
 Cranial Nerves
 Spinal Nerves and Nervous plexuses

Autonomic Nervous System

 Anatomy of the Parasympathetic Division

 Anatomy of the Sympathetic Division

Physiology of the Nervous System

 The Nerve Impulse Pathway

 Communication of Neurons at Synapses
 Autonomic Functioning
  Sympathetic Division
 Parasympathetic Division

Introduction to the Nervous System

Learning Objectives
 Relate the developmental processes of the embryonic nervous system to the adult
structures
 Name the major regions of the adult nervous system
 Locate regions of the cerebral cortex on the basis of anatomical landmarks common to all
human brains
 Describe the regions of the spinal cord in cross-section
 List the cranial nerves in order of anatomical location and provide the central and
peripheral connections
 List the spinal nerves by vertebral region and by which nerve plexus each supplies

The nervous system is responsible for controlling much of the body, both through somatic
(voluntary) and autonomic (involuntary) functions. The structures of the nervous system must be
described in detail to understand how many of these functions are possible. There is a
physiological concept known as localization of function that states that certain structures are
specifically responsible for prescribed functions. It is an underlying concept in all of anatomy
and physiology, but the nervous system illustrates the concept very well.

Fresh, unstained nervous tissue can be described as gray or white matter, and within those two
types of tissue it can be very hard to see any detail. However, as specific regions and structures
have been described, they were related to specific functions. Understanding these structures and
the functions they perform requires a detailed description of the anatomy of the nervous system,
delving deep into what the central and peripheral structures are.

Functions of the Nervous System

To carry out its normal role, the nervous system has three overlapping functions.

1. Monitoring changes. Much like a sentry, it uses its millions of sensory receptors to
monitor changes occurring both inside and outside the body; these changes are called
stimuli, and the gathered information is called sensory input.
2. Interpretation of sensory input. It processes and interprets the sensory input and
decides what should be done at each moment, a process called integration.
3. Effects responses. It then effects a response by activating muscles or glands
(effectors) via motor output.
4. Mental activity. The brain is the center of mental activity, including consciousness,
thinking, and memory.
 5. Homeostasis. This function depends on the ability of the nervous system to detect,
interpret, and respond to changes in internal and external conditions. It can help
stimulate or inhibit the activities of other systems to help maintain a constant internal
environment.

Anatomy of the Nervous System

The nervous system does not work alone to regulate and maintain body homeostasis;
the endocrine system is a second important regulating system.

Organization of the Nervous System

We only have one nervous system, but, because of its complexity, it is difficult to consider all of
its parts at the same time; so, to simplify its study, we divide it in terms of its structures
(structural classification) or in terms of its activities (functional classification).
Structural Classification

The structural classification, which includes all of the nervous system organs, has two
subdivisions- the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system.

 Central nervous system (CNS). The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord, which
occupy the dorsal body cavity and act as the integrating and command centers of the
nervous system
  Peripheral nervous system (PNS). The PNS, the part of the nervous system outside
the CNS, consists mainly of the nerves that extend from the brain and spinal cord.

Functional Classification

The functional classification scheme is concerned only with PNS structures.

 Sensory division. The sensory, or afferent division, consists of nerves (composed of

nerve fibers) that convey impulses to the central nervous system from sensory
receptors located in various parts of the body.
 Somatic sensory fibers. Sensory fibers delivering impulses from
the skin, skeletal muscles, and joints are called somatic sensory fibers.
 Visceral sensory fibers. Those that transmit impulses from the visceral organs are
called visceral sensory fibers.
 Motor division. The motor, or efferent division carries impulses from the CNS to
effector organs, the muscles, and glands; the motor division has two subdivisions:
the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.
 Somatic nervous system. The somatic nervous system allows us to consciously,
or voluntarily, control our skeletal muscles.
 Autonomic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system regulates events that are
automatic, or involuntary; this subdivision, commonly called the involuntary nervous
system, has two parts: the sympathetic and parasympathetic, which typically bring
about opposite effects.
Nervous Tissue: Structure and Function

Even though it is complex, nervous tissue is made up of just two principal types of cells-
supporting cells and neurons.

Supporting Cells

Supporting cells in the CNS are “lumped together” as neuroglia, which literally means “nerve
glue”.

 Neuroglia. Neuroglia includes many types of cells that generally support, insulate,
and protect the delicate neurons; in addition, each of the different types of neuroglia,
also simply called either glia or glial cells, has special functions.
 Astrocytes. These are abundant, star-shaped cells that account for nearly half of the
neural tissue; astrocytes form a living barrier between the capillaries and neurons and
play a role in making exchanges between the two so they could help protect neurons
from harmful substances that might be in the blood.
 Microglia. These are spiderlike phagocytes that dispose of debris, including dead
brain cells and bacteria.
 Ependymal cells. Ependymal cells are glial cells that line the central cavities of the
brain and the spinal cord; the beating of their cilia helps to circulate the cerebrospinal
fluid that fills those cavities and forms a protective cushion around the CNS.
  Oligodendrocytes. These are glia that wraps their flat extensions tightly around the
nerve fibers, producing fatty insulating coverings called myelin sheaths.
 Schwann cells. Schwann cells form the myelin sheaths around nerve fibers that are
found in the PNS.
 Satellite cells. Satellite cells act as protective, cushioning cells.
Neurons

Neurons, also called nerve cells, are highly specialized to transmit messages (nerve impulses)
from one part of the body to another.

 Cell body. The cell body is the metabolic center of the neuron; it has a transparent
nucleus with a conspicuous nucleolus; the rough ER, called Nissl substance,
and neurofibrils are particularly abundant in the cell body.
 Processes. The armlike processes, or fibers, vary in length from microscopic to 3 to 4
feet; dendrons convey incoming messages toward the cell body, while axons generate
nerve impulses and typically conduct them away from the cell body.
  Axon hillock. Neurons may have hundreds of branching dendrites, depending on the
neuron type, but each neuron has only one axon, which arises from a conelike region
of the cell body called the axon hillock.
 Axon terminals. These terminals contain hundreds of tiny vesicles, or membranous
sacs that contain neurotransmitters.
 Synaptic cleft. Each axon terminal is separated from the next neuron by a tiny gap
called the synaptic cleft.
 Myelin sheaths. Most long nerve fibers are covered with a whitish, fatty material
called myelin, which has a waxy appearance; myelin protects and insulates the fibers
and increases the transmission rate of nerve impulses.
 Nodes of Ranvier. Because the myelin sheath is formed by many individual Schwann
cells, it has gaps, or indentations, called nodes of Ranvier.
Classification

Neurons may be classified either according to how they function or according to their structure.
 Functional classification. Functional classification groups neurons according to the
direction the nerve impulse is traveling relative to the CNS; on this basis, there
are sensory, motor, and association neurons.
 Sensory neurons. Neurons carrying impulses from sensory receptors to the CNS are
sensory, or afferent, neurons; sensory neurons keep us informed about what is
happening both inside and outside the body.
 Motor neurons. Neurons carrying impulses from the CNS to the viscera and/or
muscles and glands are motor, or efferent, neurons.
 Interneurons. The third category of neurons is known as the interneurons
or association neurons; they connect the motor and sensory neurons in neural
pathways.
 Structural classification. Structural classification is based on the number of processes
extending from the cell body.
 Multipolar neuron. If there are several processes, the neuron is a multipolar neuron;
because all motor and association neurons are multipolar, this is the most common
structural type.
 Bipolar neurons. Neurons with two processes- an axon and a dendrite- are
called bipolar neurons; these are rare in adults, found only in some special sense
organs, where they act in sensory processing as receptor cells.
 Unipolar neurons. Unipolar neurons have a single process emerging from the cell’s
body, however, it is very short and divides almost immediately into proximal (central)
and distal (peripheral) processes.
Central Nervous System

During embryonic development, the CNS first appears as a simple tube, the neural tube, which
extends down the dorsal median plan of the developing embryo’s body.

Brain

Because the brain is the largest and most complex mass of nervous tissue in the body, it is
commonly discussed in terms of its four major regions – cerebral hemispheres, diencephalon,
brain stem, and cerebellum.
Cerebral Hemispheres

The paired cerebral hemispheres, collectively called the cerebrum, are the most superior part of
the brain, and together are a good deal larger than the other three brain regions combined.

 Gyri. The entire surface of the cerebral hemispheres exhibits elevated ridges of tissue
called gyri, separated by shallow grooves called sulci.
 Fissures. Less numerous are the deeper grooves of tissue called fissures, which
separate large regions of the brain; the cerebral hemispheres are separated by a single
deep fissure, the longitudinal fissure.
 Lobes. Other fissures or sulci divide each hemisphere into a number of lobes, named
for the cranial bones that lie over them.
 Regions of the cerebral hemisphere. Each cerebral hemisphere has three basic
regions: a superficial cortex of gray matter, an internal white matter, and the basal
nuclei.
 Cerebral cortex. Speech, memory, logical and emotional response, as well as
consciousness, interpretation of sensation, and voluntary movement, are all functions
of neurons of the cerebral cortex.
  Parietal lobe. The primary somatic sensory area is located in the parietal lobe
posterior to the central sulcus; impulses traveling from the body’s sensory receptors
are localized and interpreted in this area.
 Occipital lobe. The visual area is located in the posterior part of the occipital lobe.
 Temporal lobe. The auditory area is in the temporal lobe bordering the lateral sulcus,
and the olfactory area is found deep inside the temporal lobe.
 Frontal lobe. The primary motor area, which allows us to consciously move
our skeletal muscles, is anterior to the central sulcus in the front lobe.
 Pyramidal tract. The axons of these motor neurons form the major voluntary motor
tract- the corticospinal or pyramidal tract, which descends to the cord.
 Broca’s area. A specialized cortical area that is very involved in our ability to speak,
Broca’s area, is found at the base of the precentral gyrus (the gyrus anterior to the
central sulcus).
 Speech area. The speech area is located at the junction of the temporal, parietal, and
occipital lobes; the speech area allows one to sound out words.
 Cerebral white matter. The deeper cerebral white matter is composed of fiber tracts
carrying impulses to, from, and within the cortex.
 Corpus callosum. One very large fiber tract, the corpus callosum, connects the
cerebral hemispheres; such fiber tracts are called commissures.
 Fiber tracts. Association fiber tracts connect areas within a hemisphere,
and projection fiber tracts connect the cerebrum with lower CNS centers.
 Basal nuclei. There are several islands of gray matter, called the basal nuclei, or basal
ganglia, buried deep within the white matter of the cerebral hemispheres; it helps
regulate voluntary motor activities by modifying instructions sent to
the skeletal muscles by the primary motor cortex.

Diencephalon

The diencephalon, or interbrain, sits atop the brain stem and is enclosed by the cerebral
hemispheres.

 Thalamus. The thalamus, which encloses the shallow third ventricle of the brain, is a
relay station for sensory impulses passing upward to the sensory cortex.
 Hypothalamus. The hypothalamus makes up the floor of the diencephalon; it is an
important autonomic nervous system center because it plays a role in the regulation
of body temperature, water balance, and metabolism; it is also the center for many
drives and emotions, and as such, it is an important part of the so-called limbic
system or “emotional-visceral brain”; the hypothalamus also regulates the pituitary
gland and produces two hormones of its own.
 Mammillary bodies. The mammillary bodies, reflex centers involved in olfaction (the
sense of smell), bulge from the floor of the hypothalamus posterior to the pituitary
gland.
 Epithalamus. The epithalamus forms the roof of the third ventricle; important parts of
the epithalamus are the pineal body (part of the endocrine system) and
the choroid plexus of the third ventricle, which forms the cerebrospinal fluid.
Brain Stem

The brain stem is about the size of a thumb in diameter and approximately 3 inches long.

 Structures. Its structures are the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata.
 Midbrain. The midbrain extends from the mammillary bodies to the pons inferiorly; it
is composed of two bulging fiber tracts, the cerebral peduncles, which convey
descending and ascending impulses.
 Corpora quadrigemina. Dorsally located are four rounded protrusions called the
corpora quadrigemina because they remind some anatomists of two pairs of twins;
these bulging nuclei are reflex centers involved in vision and hearing.
 Pons. The pons is a rounded structure that protrudes just below the midbrain, and this
area of the brain stem is mostly fiber tracts; however, it does have important nuclei
involved in the control of breathing.
 Medulla oblongata. The medulla oblongata is the most inferior part of the brain stem;
it contains nuclei that regulate vital visceral activities; it contains centers that
control heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, swallowing, and vomiting among others.
 Reticular formation. Extending the entire length of the brain stem is a diffuse mass
of gray matter, the reticular formation; the neurons of the reticular formation are
involved in motor control of the visceral organs; a special group of reticular formation
neurons, the reticular activating system (RAS), plays a role in consciousness and the
awake/sleep cycles.
Cerebellum

The large, cauliflower-like cerebellum projects dorsally from under the occipital lobe of the
cerebrum.

 Structure. Like the cerebrum. the cerebellum has two hemispheres and a convoluted
surface; it also has an outer cortex made up of gray matter and an inner region of white
matter.
 Function. The cerebellum provides precise timing for skeletal muscle activity and
controls our balance and equilibrium.
 Coverage. Fibers reach the cerebellum from the equilibrium apparatus of the
inner ear, the eye, the proprioceptors of the skeletal muscles and tendons, and many
other areas.
Protection of the Central Nervous System

Nervous tissue is very soft and delicate, and the irreplaceable neurons are injured by even the
slightest pressure, so nature has tried to protect the brain and the spinal cord by enclosing them
within the bone (the skull and vertebral column), membranes (the meninges), and a watery
cushion (cerebrospinal fluid).

Meninges
The three connective tissue membranes covering and protecting the CNS structures are the
meninges.

 Dura mater. The outermost layer, the leathery dura mater, is a double-layered
membrane where it surrounds the brain; one of its layers is attached to the inner
surface of the skull, forming the periosteum (periosteal layer); the other, called
the meningeal layer, forms the outermost covering of the brain and continues as the
dura mater of the spinal cord.
 Falx cerebri. In several places, the inner dural membrane extends inward to form a
fold that attaches the brain to the cranial cavity, and one of these folds is the falx
cerebri.
 Tentorium cerebelli. The tentorium cereberi separates the cerebellum from the
cerebrum.
 Arachnoid mater. The middle layer is the weblike arachnoid mater; its threadlike
extensions span the subarachnoid space to attach it to the innermost membrane.
 Pia mater. The delicate pia mater, the innermost meningeal layer, clings tightly to the
surface of the brain and spinal cord, following every fold.
Cerebrospinal Fluid

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a watery “broth” similar in its makeup to blood plasma, from which
it forms.

 Contents. The CSF contains less protein and more vitamin C, and glucose.
 Choroid plexus. CSF is continually formed from the blood by the choroid plexuses;
choroid plexuses are clusters of capillaries hanging from the “roof” in each of the
brain’s ventricles.
 Function. The CSF in and around the brain and cord forms a watery cushion that
protects the fragile nervous tissue from blows and other trauma.
 Normal volume. CSF forms and drains at a constant rate so that its normal pressure
and volume (150 ml-about half a cup) are maintained.
 Lumbar tap. The CSF sample for testing is obtained by a procedure called lumbar
or spinal tap; because the withdrawal of fluid for testing decreases CSF fluid
pressure, the patient must remain in a horizontal position (lying down) for 6 to 12
hours after the procedure to prevent an agonizingly painful “spinal headache”.
The Blood-Brain Barrier

No other body organ is so absolutely dependent on a constant internal environment as is the

brain, and so the blood-brain barrier is there to protect it.

 Function. The neurons are kept separated from bloodborne substances by the so-
called blood-brain barrier, composed of the least permeable capillaries in the whole
body.
 Substances allowed. Of water-soluble substances, only water, glucose, and essential
amino acids pass easily through the walls of these capillaries.
 Prohibited substances. Metabolic wastes, such as toxins, urea, proteins, and most
drugs are prevented from entering the brain tissue.
 Fat-soluble substances. The blood-brain barrier is virtually useless against fats,
respiratory gases, and other fat-soluble molecules that diffuse easily through all
plasma membranes.
Spinal Cord

The cylindrical spinal cord is a glistening white continuation of the brain stem.
 Length. The spinal cord is approximately 17 inches (42 cm) long.
Major function. The spinal cord provides a two-way conduction pathway to and from
the brain, and it is a major reflex center (spinal reflexes are completed at this level).
 Location. Enclosed within the vertebral column, the spinal cord extends from the
foramen magnum of the skull to the first or second lumbar vertebra, where it ends just
below the ribs.
 Meninges. Like the brain, the spinal cord is cushioned and protected by the meninges;
meningeal coverings do not end at the second lumbar vertebra but instead, extend well
beyond the end of the spinal cord in the vertebral canal.
 Spinal nerves. In humans, 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from the cord and exit from
the vertebral column to serve the body area close by.
 Cauda equina. The collection of spinal nerves at the inferior end of the vertebral
canal is called cauda equina because it looks so much like a horse’s tail.
Gray Matter of the Spinal Cord and Spinal Roots

The gray matter of the spinal cord looks like a butterfly or a letter H in cross-section.

Projections. The two posterior projections are the dorsal, or posterior, horns; the
two anterior projections are the ventral, or anterior, horns.
 Central canal. The gray matter surrounds the central canal of the cord, which contains
CSF.
 Dorsal root ganglion. The cell bodies of sensory neurons, whose fibers enter the cord
by the dorsal root, are found in an enlarged area called dorsal root ganglion; if the
dorsal root or its ganglion is damaged, the sensation from the body area served will be
lost.
 Dorsal horns. The dorsal horns contain interneurons.
 Ventral horns. The ventral horns of gray matter contain cell bodies of motor neurons
of the somatic nervous system, which send their axons out the ventral root of the cord.
 Spinal nerves. The dorsal and ventral roots fuse to form the spinal nerves.
White Matter of the Spinal Cord

The white matter of the spinal cord is composed of myelinated fiber tracts- some running to
higher centers, some traveling from the brain to the cord, and some conducting impulses from
one side of the spinal cord to the other.

 Regions. Because of the irregular shape of the gray matter, the white matter on each
side of the cord is divided into three regions- the dorsal, lateral, and ventral columns;
each of the columns contains a number of fiber tracts made up of axon with the same
destination and function.
 Sensory tracts. Tracts conducting sensory impulses to the brain are sensory,
or afferent, tracts.
 Motor tracts. Those carrying impulses from the brain to skeletal muscles are motor,
or efferent, tracts.
Peripheral Nervous System

The peripheral nervous system consists of nerves and scattered groups of neuronal cell bodies
(ganglia) found outside the CNS.

Structure of a Nerve

A nerve is a bundle of neuron fibers found outside the CNS.

 Endoneurium. Each fiber is surrounded by a delicate connective tissue sheath, an

endoneurium.
 Perimeurium. Groups of fibers are bound by a coarser connective tissue wrapping,
the perineurium, to form fiber bundles, or fascicles.
 Epineurium. Finally, all the fascicles are bound together by a tough fibrous sheath,
the epineurium, to form the cordlike nerve.
 Mixed nerves. Nerves carrying both sensory and motor fibers are called mixed
nerves.
 Sensory nerves. Nerves that carry impulses toward the CNS only are called sensory,
or afferent, nerves.
 Motor nerves. Those that carry only motor fibers are motor, or efferent, nerves.
Cranial Nerves

The 12 pairs of cranial nerves primarily serve the head and the neck.
  Olfactory. Fibers arise from the olfactory receptors in the nasal mucosa and synapse
with the olfactory bulbs; its function is purely sensory, and it carries impulses for the
sense of smell.
 Optic. Fibers arise from the retina of the eye and form the optic nerve; its function is
purely sensory and carries impulses for vision.
 Oculomotor. Fibers run from the midbrain to the eye; it supplies motor fibers to four
of the six muscles (superior, inferior, medial rectus, and inferior oblique) that direct
the eyeball; to the eyelid; and to the internal eye muscles controlling lens shape and
pupil size.
 Trochlear. Fibers run from the midbrain to the eye; it supplies motor fibers for one
external eye muscle ( superior oblique).
 Trigeminal. Fibers emerge from the pons and form three divisions that run to the face;
it conducts sensory impulses from the skin of the face and mucosa of
the nose and mouth; also contains motor fibers that activate the chewing muscles.
 Abducens. Fibers leave the pons and run to the eye; it supplies motor fibers to the
lateral rectus muscle, which rolls the eye laterally.
 Facial. Fibers leave the pons and run to the face; it activates the muscles of facial
expression and the lacrimal and salivary glands; which carry sensory impulses from
the taste buds of the anterior tongue.
 Vestibulocochlear. fibers run from the equilibrium and hearing receptors of the
inner ear to the brain stem; its function is purely sensory; vestibular branch transmits
impulses for the sense of balance, and cochlear branch transmits impulses for the
sense of hearing.
 Glossopharyngeal. Fibers emerge from the medulla and run to the throat; it supplies
motor fibers to the pharynx (throat) that promote swallowing and saliva production; it
carries sensory impulses from the taste buds of the posterior tongue and from pressure
receptors of the carotid artery.
 Vagus. Fibers emerge from the medulla and descend into the thorax and abdominal
cavity; the fibers carry sensory impulses from and motor impulses to
the pharynx, larynx, and the abdominal and thoracic viscera; most motor fibers are
parasympathetic fibers that promote digestive activity and help regulate heart activity.
 Accessory. Fiber arise from the medulla and superior spinal cord and travel to muscles
of the neck and back; mostly motor fiber that activate
the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles.
 Hypoglossal. Fibers run from the medulla to the tongue; motor fibers control tongue
movements; sensory fibers carry impulses from the tongue.

Spinal Nerves and Nerve Plexuses

The 31 pairs of human spinal nerves are formed by the combination of the ventral and dorsal
roots of the spinal cord.

 Rami. Almost immediately after being formed, each spinal nerve divides into dorsal
and ventral rami, making each spinal nerve only about 1/2 inch long; the rami contains
both sensory and motor fibers.
  Dorsal rami. The smaller dorsal rami serve the skin and muscles of the posterior body
trunk.
 Ventral rami. The ventral rami of spinal nerves T1 through T12 form the intercostal
nerves, which supply the muscles between the ribs and the skin and muscles of the
anterior and lateral trunk.
 Cervical plexus. The cervical plexus originates from the C1-C5, and the phrenic
nerve is an important nerve; it serves the diaphragm, skin, and muscles of the shoulder
and neck.
 Brachial plexus. The axillary nerve serves the deltoid muscles and skin of the
shoulder, muscles, and skin of the superior thorax; the radial nerve serves the triceps
and extensor muscles of the forearm, and the skin of the posterior upper limb; the
median nerve serves the flexor muscles and skin of the forearm and some muscles of
the hand; the musculocutaneous nerve serves the flexor muscles of the arm and
the skin of the lateral forearm; and the ulnar nerve serves some flexor muscles
of forearm; wrist and many hand muscles, and the skin of the hand.
 Lumbar plexus. The femoral nerve serves the lower abdomen, anterior and medial
thigh muscles, and the skin of the anteromedial leg and thigh; the obturator
nerve serves the adductor muscles of the medial thigh and small hip muscles, and
the skin of the medial thigh and hip joint.
 Sacral plexus. The sciatic nerve (the largest nerve in the body) serves the lower trunk
and posterior surface of the thigh, and it splits into the common fibular and tibial
nerves; the common fibular nerve serves the lateral aspect of the leg and foot, while
the tibial nerve serves the posterior aspect of leg and foot; the superior and inferior
gluteal nerves serve the gluteal muscles of the hip.

Autonomic Nervous System

The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is the motor subdivision of the PNS that controls body
activities automatically.

 Composition. It is composed of a specialized group of neurons that regulate cardiac

muscle, smooth muscles, and glands.
 Function. At every moment, signals flood from the visceral organs into the CNS, and
the automatic nerves make adjustments as necessary to best support body activities.
 Divisions. The ANS has two arms: the sympathetic division and the parasympathetic
division.
Anatomy of the Parasympathetic Division

The parasympathetic division allows us to “unwind” and conserve energy.

 Preganglionic neurons. The preganglionic neurons of the parasympathetic division

are located in brain nuclei of several cranial nerves- III, VII, IX, and X (the vagus
being the most important of these) and in the S2 through S4 levels of the spinal cord.
  Craniosacral division. The parasympathetic division is also called the craniosacral
division; the neurons of the cranial region send their axons out in cranial nerves to
serve the head and neck organs.
 Pelvic splanchnic nerves. In the sacral region, the preganglionic axons leave the
spinal cord and form the pelvic splanchnic nerves, also called the pelvic nerves, which
travel to the pelvic cavity.
Anatomy of the Sympathetic Division

The sympathetic division mobilizes the body during extreme situations and is also called the
thoracolumbar division because its preganglionic neurons are in the gray matter of the spinal
cord from T1 through L2.

 Ramus communicans. The preganglionic axons leave the cord in the ventral root,
enter the spinal nerve, and then pass through a ramus communicans, or small
communicating branch, to enter a sympathetic chain ganglion.
 Sympathetic chain. The sympathetic trunk, or chain, lies along the vertebral
column on each side.
 Splanchnic nerves. After it reaches the ganglion, the axon may synapse with the
second neuron in the sympathetic chain at the same or a different level, or the axon
may through the ganglion without synapsing and form part of the splanchnic nerves.
 Collateral ganglion. The splanchnic nerves travel to the viscera to synapse with the
ganglionic neuron, found in a collateral ganglion anterior to the vertebral column.
Physiology of the Nervous System

The physiology of the nervous system involves a complex journey of impulses.

Nerve Impulse

Neurons have two major functional properties: irritability, the ability to respond to a stimulus and
convert it into a nerve impulse, and conductivity, the ability to transmit the impulse to other
neurons, muscles, or glands.

 Electrical conditions of a resting neuron’s membrane. The plasma membrane of a

resting, or inactive, neuron is polarized, which means that there are fewer positive ions
sitting on the inner face of the neuron’s plasma membrane than there are on its outer
surface; as long as the inside remains more negative than the outside, the neuron will
stay inactive.
 Action potential initiation and generation. Most neurons in the body are excited by
neurotransmitters released by other neurons; regardless of what the stimulus is, the
result is always the same- the permeability properties of the cell’s plasma membrane
change for a very brief period.
 Depolarization. The inward rush of sodium ions changes the polarity of the neuron’s
membrane at that site, an event called depolarization.
 Graded potential. Locally, the inside is now more positive, and the outside is less
positive, a situation called graded potential.
  Nerve impulse. If the stimulus is strong enough, the local depolarization activates the
neuron to initiate and transmit a long-distance signal called an action potential, also
called a nerve impulse; the nerve impulse is an all-or-none response; it is either
propagated over the entire axon, or it doesn’t happen at all; it never goes partway
along an axon’s length, nor does it die out with distance as do graded potential.
 Repolarization. The outflow of positive ions from the cell restores the electrical
conditions at the membrane to the polarized or resting, state, an event called
repolarization; until a repolarization occurs, a neuron cannot conduct another impulse.
 Saltatory conduction. Fibers that have myelin sheaths conduct impulses much faster
because the nerve impulse literally jumps, or leaps, from node to node along the length
of the fiber; this occurs because no electrical current can flow across the axon
membrane where there is fatty myelin insulation.
The Nerve Impulse Pathway

How the nerve impulse actually works is detailed below.

Resting membrane electrical conditions. The external face of the membrane is

slightly positive; its internal face is slightly negative; the chief extracellular ion
is sodium, whereas the chief intracellular ion is potassium; the membrane is relatively
permeable to both ions.
 Stimulus initiates local depolarization. A stimulus changes the permeability of a
“patch” of the membrane, and sodium ions diffuse rapidly into the cell; this changes
the polarity of the membrane (the inside becomes more positive; the outside becomes
more negative) at that site.
 Depolarization and generation of an action potential. If the stimulus is strong
enough, depolarization causes membrane polarity to be completely reversed and an
action potential is initiated.
 Propagation of the action potential. Depolarization of the first
membrane patch causes permeability changes in the adjacent membrane, and the
events described in (b) are repeated; thus, the action potential propagates rapidly along
the entire length of the membrane.
 Repolarization. Potassium ions diffuse out of the cell as the membrane permeability
changes again, restoring the negative charge on the inside of the membrane and the
positive charge on the outside surface; repolarization occurs in the same direction as
depolarization.
Communication of Neurons at Synapses

The events occurring at the synapse are arranged below.

 Arrival. The action potential arrives at the axon terminal.

 Fusion. The vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane.
 Release. Neurotransmitter is released into the synaptic cleft.
 Binding. The neurotransmitter binds to a receptor on receiving neuron’s end.
 Opening. The ion channel opens.
 Closing. Once the neurotransmitter is broken down and released, the ion channel
close.
Autonomic Functioning

Body organs served by the autonomic nervous system receive fibers from both divisions.

 Antagonistic effect. When both divisions serve the same organ, they cause
antagonistic effects, mainly because their post ganglionic axons release different
transmitters.
 Cholinergic fibers. The parasympathetic fibers called cholinergic fibers, release
acetylcholine.
 Adrenergic fibers. The sympathetic postganglionic fibers, called adrenergic fibers,
release norepinephrine.
 Preganglionic axons. The preganglionic axons of both divisions release acetylcholine.
Sympathetic Division

The sympathetic division is often referred to as the “fight-or-flight” system.

 Signs of sympathetic nervous system activities. A pounding heart; rapid, deep

breathing; cold, sweaty skin; a prickly scalp, and dilated pupils are sure signs
sympathetic nervous system activities.
 Effects. Under such conditions, the sympathetic nervous system increases heart
rate, blood pressure, and blood glucose levels; dilates the bronchioles of the lungs; and
brings about many other effects that help the individual cope with the stressor.
 Duration of the effect. The effects of sympathetic nervous system activation continue
for several minutes until its hormones are destroyed by the liver.
 Function. Its function is to provide the best conditions for responding to some threat,
whether the best response is to run, to see better, or to think more clearly.
Parasympathetic Division

The parasympathetic division is most active when the body is at rest and not threatened in any
way.

 Function. This division, sometimes called the “resting-and-digesting” system, is

chiefly concerned with promoting normal digestion, with elimination
of feces and urine, and with conserving body energy, particularly by decreasing
demands on the cardiovascular system.
 Relaxed state. Blood pressure and heart and respiratory rates rate being regulated at
normal levels, the digestive tract is actively digesting food, and the skin is warm
(indicating that there is no need to divert blood to skeletal muscles or vital organs.
 Optical state. The eye pupils are constricted to protect the retinas from excessive
damaging light, and the lenses of the eye are “set” for close vision.
Circulation and the Central Nervous System
Learning Objectives
 Describe the vessels that supply the CNS with blood
 Name the components of the ventricular system and the regions of the brain in which
each is located
 Explain the production of cerebrospinal fluid and its flow through the ventricles
 Explain how a disruption in circulation would result in a stroke

The CNS is crucial to the operation of the body, and any compromise in the brain and spinal cord
can lead to severe difficulties. The CNS has a privileged blood supply, as suggested by the
blood-brain barrier. The function of the tissue in the CNS is crucial to the survival of the
organism, so the contents of the blood cannot simply pass into the central nervous tissue. To
protect this region from the toxins and pathogens that may be traveling through the blood stream,
there is strict control over what can move out of the general systems and into the brain and spinal
cord. Because of this privilege, the CNS needs specialized structures for the maintenance of
circulation. This begins with a unique arrangement of blood vessels carrying fresh blood into the
CNS. Beyond the supply of blood, the CNS filters that blood into cerebrospinal fluid (CSF),
which is then circulated through the cavities of the brain and spinal cord called ventricles.

Blood Supply to the Brain

Figure 1. Circle of Willis. The blood supply to the brain enters through the internal carotid
arteries and the vertebral arteries, eventually giving rise to the circle of Willis.

A lack of oxygen to the CNS can be devastating, and the cardiovascular system has specific
regulatory reflexes to ensure that the blood supply is not interrupted. There are multiple routes
for blood to get into the CNS, with specializations to protect that blood supply and to maximize
the ability of the brain to get an uninterrupted perfusion.

Arterial Supply

The major artery carrying recently oxygenated blood away from the heart is the aorta. The very
first branches off the aorta supply the heart with nutrients and oxygen. The next branches give
rise to the common carotid arteries, which further branch into the internal carotid
arteries. The external carotid arteries supply blood to the tissues on the surface of the cranium.
The bases of the common carotids contain stretch receptors that immediately respond to the drop
in blood pressure upon standing. The orthostatic reflex is a reaction to this change in body
position, so that blood pressure is maintained against the increasing effect of gravity (orthostatic
means “standing up”). Heart rate increases—a reflex of the sympathetic division of the
autonomic nervous system—and this raises blood pressure.

The internal carotid artery enters the cranium through the carotid canal in the temporal bone. A
second set of vessels that supply the CNS are the vertebral arteries, which are protected as they
pass through the neck region by the transverse foramina of the cervical vertebrae. The vertebral
arteries enter the cranium through the foramen magnum of the occipital bone.

Branches off the left and right vertebral arteries merge into the anterior spinal artery supplying
the anterior aspect of the spinal cord, found along the anterior median fissure. The two vertebral
arteries then merge into the basilar artery, which gives rise to branches to the brain stem and
cerebellum. The left and right internal carotid arteries and branches of the basilar artery all
become the circle of Willis, a confluence of arteries that can maintain perfusion of the brain even
if narrowing or a blockage limits flow through one part (Figure 1).

Watch this animation to see how blood flows to the brain and passes through the circle of Willis
before being distributed through the cerebrum. The circle of Willis is a specialized arrangement
of arteries that ensure constant perfusion of the cerebrum even in the event of a blockage of one
of the arteries in the circle. The animation shows the normal direction of flow through the circle
of Willis to the middle cerebral artery. Where would the blood come from if there were a
blockage just posterior to the middle cerebral artery on the left?

Venous Return

After passing through the CNS, blood returns to the circulation through a series of dural
sinuses and veins (Figure 2). The superior sagittal sinus runs in the groove of the longitudinal
fissure, where it absorbs CSF from the meninges. The superior sagittal sinus drains to the
confluence of sinuses, along with the occipital sinuses and straight sinus, to then drain into
the transverse sinuses. The transverse sinuses connect to the sigmoid sinuses, which then
connect to the jugular veins. From there, the blood continues toward the heart to be pumped to
the lungs for reoxygenation.

Figure 2. Dural Sinuses and Veins. Blood drains from the brain through a series of sinuses that
connect to the jugular veins.

Protective Coverings of the Brain and Spinal Cord

The outer surface of the CNS is covered by a series of membranes composed of connective tissue
called the meninges, which protect the brain. The dura mater is a thick fibrous layer and a
strong protective sheath over the entire brain and spinal cord. It is anchored to the inner surface
of the cranium and vertebral cavity. The arachnoid mater is a membrane of thin fibrous tissue
that forms a loose sac around the CNS. Beneath the arachnoid is a thin, filamentous mesh called
the arachnoid trabeculae, which looks like a spider web, giving this layer its name. Directly
adjacent to the surface of the CNS is the pia mater, a thin fibrous membrane that follows the
convolutions of gyri and sulci in the cerebral cortex and fits into other grooves and indentations
(Figure 3).
Figure 3. Meningeal Layers of Superior Sagittal Sinus. The layers of the meninges in the
longitudinal fissure of the superior sagittal sinus are shown, with the dura mater adjacent to the
inner surface of the cranium, the pia mater adjacent to the surface of the brain, and the arachnoid
and subarachnoid space between them. An arachnoid villus is shown emerging into the dural
sinus to allow CSF to filter back into the blood for drainage.

Dura Mater

Like a thick cap covering the brain, the dura mater is a tough outer covering. The name comes
from the Latin for “tough mother” to represent its physically protective role. It encloses the entire
CNS and the major blood vessels that enter the cranium and vertebral cavity. It is directly
attached to the inner surface of the bones of the cranium and to the very end of the vertebral
cavity. There are infoldings of the dura that fit into large crevasses of the brain. Two infoldings
go through the midline separations of the cerebrum and cerebellum; one forms a shelf-like tent
between the occipital lobes of the cerebrum and the cerebellum, and the other surrounds the
pituitary gland. The dura also surrounds and supports the venous sinuses.

Arachnoid Mater

The middle layer of the meninges is the arachnoid, named for the spider-web–like trabeculae
between it and the pia mater. The arachnoid defines a sac-like enclosure around the CNS. The
trabeculae are found in the subarachnoid space, which is filled with circulating CSF. The
arachnoid emerges into the dural sinuses as the arachnoid granulations, where the CSF is
filtered back into the blood for drainage from the nervous system. The subarachnoid space is
filled with circulating CSF, which also provides a liquid cushion to the brain and spinal cord.
Similar to clinical blood work, a sample of CSF can be withdrawn to find chemical evidence of
neuropathology or metabolic traces of the biochemical functions of nervous tissue.
Pia Mater

The outer surface of the CNS is covered in the thin fibrous membrane of the pia mater. It is
thought to have a continuous layer of cells providing a fluid-impermeable membrane. The name
pia mater comes from the Latin for “tender mother,” suggesting the thin membrane is a gentle
covering for the brain. The pia extends into every convolution of the CNS, lining the inside of
the sulci in the cerebral and cerebellar cortices. At the end of the spinal cord, a thin filament
extends from the inferior end of CNS at the upper lumbar region of the vertebral column to the
sacral end of the vertebral column. Because the spinal cord does not extend through the lower
lumbar region of the vertebral column, a needle can be inserted through the dura and arachnoid
layers to withdraw CSF. This procedure is called a lumbar puncture and avoids the risk of
damaging the central tissue of the spinal cord. Blood vessels that are nourishing the central
nervous tissue are between the pia mater and the nervous tissue.

Try It

Meningitis is an inflammation of the meninges, the three layers of fibrous membrane that
surround the CNS. Meningitis can be caused by infection by bacteria or viruses. The particular
pathogens are not special to meningitis; it is just an inflammation of that specific set of tissues
from what might be a broader infection. Bacterial meningitis can be caused
by Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, or the tuberculosis pathogen, among many others. Viral
meningitis is usually the result of common enteroviruses (such as those that cause intestinal
disorders), but may be the result of the herpes virus or West Nile virus. Bacterial meningitis
tends to be more severe.

The symptoms associated with meningitis can be fever, chills, nausea, vomiting, light sensitivity,
soreness of the neck, or severe headache. More important are the neurological symptoms, such as
changes in mental state (confusion, memory deficits, and other dementia-type symptoms). A
serious risk of meningitis can be damage to peripheral structures because of the nerves that pass
through the meninges. Hearing loss is a common result of meningitis.

The primary test for meningitis is a lumbar puncture. A needle inserted into the lumbar region of
the spinal column through the dura mater and arachnoid membrane into the subarachnoid space
can be used to withdraw the fluid for chemical testing. Fatality occurs in 5 to 40 percent of
children and 20 to 50 percent of adults with bacterial meningitis. Treatment of bacterial
meningitis is through antibiotics, but viral meningitis cannot be treated with antibiotics because
viruses do not respond to that type of drug. Fortunately, the viral forms are milder.

Watch this video that describes the procedure known as the lumbar puncture, a medical
procedure used to sample the CSF. Because of the anatomy of the CNS, it is a relative safe
location to insert a needle. Why is the lumbar puncture performed in the lower lumbar area of the
vertebral column?
The Ventricular System

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) circulates throughout and around the CNS. In other tissues, water and
small molecules are filtered through capillaries as the major contributor to the interstitial fluid. In
the brain, CSF is produced in special structures to perfuse through the nervous tissue of the CNS
and is continuous with the interstitial fluid. Specifically, CSF circulates to remove metabolic
wastes from the interstitial fluids of nervous tissues and return them to the blood stream.
The ventricles are the open spaces within the brain where CSF circulates. In some of these
spaces, CSF is produced by filtering of the blood that is performed by a specialized membrane
known as a choroid plexus. The CSF circulates through all of the ventricles to eventually emerge
into the subarachnoid space where it will be reabsorbed into the blood.

The Ventricles

There are four ventricles within the brain, all of which developed from the original hollow space
within the neural tube, the central canal. The first two are named the lateral ventricles and are
deep within the cerebrum. These ventricles are connected to the third ventricle by two openings
called the interventricular foramina. The third ventricle is the space between the left and right
sides of the diencephalon, which opens into the cerebral aqueduct that passes through the
midbrain. The aqueduct opens into the fourth ventricle, which is the space between the
cerebellum and the pons and upper medulla (Figure 4).
Figure 4. Cerebrospinal Fluid Circulation. The choroid plexus in the four ventricles produce
CSF, which is circulated through the ventricular system and then enters the subarachnoid space
through the median and lateral apertures. The CSF is then reabsorbed into the blood at the
arachnoid granulations, where the arachnoid membrane emerges into the dural sinuses.

As the telencephalon enlarges and grows into the cranial cavity, it is limited by the space within
the skull. The telencephalon is the most anterior region of what was the neural tube, but cannot
grow past the limit of the frontal bone of the skull. Because the cerebrum fits into this space, it
takes on a C-shaped formation, through the frontal, parietal, occipital, and finally temporal
regions.

The space within the telencephalon is stretched into this same C-shape. The two ventricles are in
the left and right sides, and were at one time referred to as the first and second ventricles. The
interventricular foramina connect the frontal region of the lateral ventricles with the third
ventricle. The third ventricle is the space bounded by the medial walls of the hypothalamus and
thalamus. The two thalami touch in the center in most brains as the massa intermedia, which is
surrounded by the third ventricle. The cerebral aqueduct opens just inferior to the epithalamus
and passes through the midbrain. The tectum and tegmentum of the midbrain are the roof and
floor of the cerebral aqueduct, respectively. The aqueduct opens up into the fourth ventricle. The
floor of the fourth ventricle is the dorsal surface of the pons and upper medulla (that gray matter
making a continuation of the tegmentum of the midbrain). The fourth ventricle then narrows into
the central canal of the spinal cord.
The ventricular system opens up to the subarachnoid space from the fourth ventricle. The
single median aperture and the pair of lateral apertures connect to the subarachnoid space so
that CSF can flow through the ventricles and around the outside of the CNS. Cerebrospinal fluid
is produced within the ventricles by a type of specialized membrane called a choroid plexus.
Ependymal cells (one of the types of glial cells described in the introduction to the nervous
system) surround blood capillaries and filter the blood to make CSF. The fluid is a clear solution
with a limited amount of the constituents of blood. It is essentially water, small molecules, and
electrolytes. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are dissolved into the CSF, as they are in blood, and can
diffuse between the fluid and the nervous tissue.

Cerebrospinal Fluid Circulation

The choroid plexuses are found in all four ventricles. Observed in dissection, they appear as soft,
fuzzy structures that may still be pink, depending on how well the circulatory system is cleared
in preparation of the tissue. The CSF is produced from components extracted from the blood, so
its flow out of the ventricles is tied to the pulse of cardiovascular circulation. From the lateral
ventricles, the CSF flows into the third ventricle, where more CSF is produced, and then through
the cerebral aqueduct into the fourth ventricle where even more CSF is produced.

A very small amount of CSF is filtered at any one of the plexuses, for a total of about 500
milliliters daily, but it is continuously made and pulses through the ventricular system, keeping
the fluid moving. From the fourth ventricle, CSF can continue down the central canal of the
spinal cord, but this is essentially a cul-de-sac, so more of the fluid leaves the ventricular system
and moves into the subarachnoid space through the median and lateral apertures. Within the
subarachnoid space, the CSF flows around all of the CNS, providing two important functions.

Watch this animation that shows the flow of CSF through the brain and spinal cord, and how it
originates from the ventricles and then spreads into the space within the meninges, where the
fluids then move into the venous sinuses to return to the cardiovascular circulation. What are the
structures that produce CSF and where are they found? How are the structures indicated in this
animation? As with elsewhere in its circulation, the CSF picks up metabolic wastes from the
nervous tissue and moves it out of the CNS. It also acts as a liquid cushion for the brain and
spinal cord. By surrounding the entire system in the subarachnoid space, it provides a thin buffer
around the organs within the strong, protective dura mater. The arachnoid granulations are
outpocketings of the arachnoid membrane into the dural sinuses so that CSF can be reabsorbed
into the blood, along with the metabolic wastes. From the dural sinuses, blood drains out of the
head and neck through the jugular veins, along with the rest of the circulation for blood, to be
reoxygenated by the lungs and wastes to be filtered out by the kidneys (Table 1).

Table 1. Components of CSF Circulation

Lateral Third Cerebral Central Subarachnoid

Fourth ventricle
ventricles ventricle aqueduct canal space

Location Cerebrum Diencephalon Midbrain Between Spinal cord External to

in CNS pons/upper entire CNS
 medulla and
cerebellum

Blood
Choroid Choroid Arachnoid
vessel None Choroid plexus None
plexus plexus granulations
structure

Try It

The supply of blood to the brain is crucial to its ability to perform many functions. Without a
steady supply of oxygen, and to a lesser extent glucose, the nervous tissue in the brain cannot
keep up its extensive electrical activity. These nutrients get into the brain through the blood, and
if blood flow is interrupted, neurological function is compromised. The common name for a
disruption of blood supply to the brain is a stroke. It is caused by a blockage to an artery in the
brain. The blockage is from some type of embolus: a blood clot, a fat embolus, or an air bubble.
When the blood cannot travel through the artery, the surrounding tissue that is deprived starves
and dies.

Strokes will often result in the loss of very specific functions. A stroke in the lateral medulla, for
example, can cause a loss in the ability to swallow. Sometimes, seemingly unrelated functions
will be lost because they are dependent on structures in the same region. Along with the
swallowing in the previous example, a stroke in that region could affect sensory functions from
the face or extremities because important white matter pathways also pass through the lateral
medulla. Loss of blood flow to specific regions of the cortex can lead to the loss of specific
higher functions, from the ability to recognize faces to the ability to move a particular region of
the body. Severe or limited memory loss can be the result of a temporal lobe stroke.

Related to strokes are transient ischemic attacks (TIAs), which can also be called “mini-strokes.”
These are events in which a physical blockage may be temporary, cutting off the blood supply
and oxygen to a region, but not to the extent that it causes cell death in that region. While the
neurons in that area are recovering from the event, neurological function may be lost. Function
can return if the area is able to recover from the event. Recovery from a stroke (or TIA) is
strongly dependent on the speed of treatment. Often, the person who is present and notices
something is wrong must then make a decision.

The mnemonic FAST helps people remember what to look for when someone is dealing with
sudden losses of neurological function. If someone complains of feeling “funny,” check these
things quickly:

 Face: Look at the person’s face. Does he or she have problems moving Face muscles and
making regular facial expressions?
 Arms: Ask the person to raise his or her Arms above the head. Can the person lift one
arm but not the other?
  Speech: Has the person’s Speech changed? Is he or she slurring words or having trouble
saying things?
 Time: If any of these things have happened, then it is Time to call for help.

Sometimes, treatment with blood-thinning drugs can alleviate the problem, and recovery is
possible. If the tissue is damaged, the amazing thing about the nervous system is that it is
adaptable. With physical, occupational, and speech therapy, victims of strokes can recover, or
more accurately relearn, functions.