MODULE 1: SENSORS AND ENERGY SYSTEM

Sensors: Introduction, working, principle and applications of Conductometric sensors, Electrochemical

sensors, Thermometric sensors (Flame photometry) and Optical sensors (colorimetry). Sensors for the
measurement of dissolved oxygen (DO). Electrochemicalsensors for the pharmaceuticals. Electrochemical
gas sensors for SOx and NOx. Disposable sensors in the detection of biomolecules and pesticides.
Energy Systems: Introduction to batteries, construction, working and applications of Lithiumion and Sodium
SENSORS
ion batteries. Quantum Dot Sensitized Solar Cells (QDSSC’s) - Principle, Properties and Applications.
Self-learning: Types of electrochemical sensor, Gas sensor - O2 sensor, Biosensor - Glucose sensors.

SENSORS

• A Sensor is a device that detects and measures physical input like light, heat, moisture, pressure
or any other environmental phenomena.
• The output produced by a sensor is generally a signal that is transmitted electronically over a network
for reading or further processing.
• Used in monitoring the composition of air, water, soil.
• In health sector for diagnosis and health monitoring, required to determine clinically important
chemicals present in body fluids.
• These sensors have various advantages like – low cost, less time for analysis, portability of the
device, sample non destruction and accuracy of results.

COMPONENTS OF A SENSOR
1. Receptor:

• The receptor is the component of the chemical sensor that comes into physical contact with the analyte.
It interacts and produces a signal proportional to its quantity. Different parameters are measured in
each method like change in potential, conductivity, pH, mass, colour etc.
2. Transducer:

• A transducer is a device that converts a non-electrical signal into an electrical signal. These are used
to convert the signal created by the receptor-analyte interaction into a measurable value.
3. Electrical signal and display:
• The electronic system analyzes the signal given by transducer, helps in signal amplification and
converts the signal from analog to digital form. These amplified signals are then displayed.
• Signal can be displayed in various forms such as numeric value, graph, image etc.
4. Actuator:

• Here electrical signal is converted into mechanical work. It is used for generating movement or a
change in environment. For example, a fan is used to reduce temperature.
1. Electrochemical sensors
• Electrochemical sensors convert the information associated with electrochemical reactions (the
reaction between an electrode and analyte) into an applicable quantitative signal.
• Electrochemical sensors are made up of two essential components:
1. Receptor that binds to the sample or analyte
2. Transducer to convert the chemical interactions into a measurable electrical signal.
• The electrochemical sensor consists of working or sensing electrode, electrolyte, counter electrode and
reference electrode.
• In these sensors, the surface of the electrode (sensing electrode) which is in contact with analyte acts
as receptor because on this site of the electrode, electrochemical reactions (oxidation or reduction of
analyte) take place and produces non-electrical signal.
• The electrode acts as the transducer because it will convert non-electrical signal produced by receptor
into electrical signal.
• Electrochemical sensors require a closed circuit.
• Current must flow to make a measurement.
The following steps are involved in the working of an electrochemical sensor -
1) Diffusion of the analyte to the electrode /electrolyte interface. (in the liquid phase)
2) Adsorption onto the electrode surface
3) Oxidation and reduction of the analyte by electrode to produce non-electrical signal which is
proportional to the concentration of the analyte.
4) Desorption of products
5) Diffusion of the products away from the reaction zone to the bulk of electrolyte or gas phase.
Application of Electrochemical sensors
• The oxygen sensor is used in detecting dissolved oxygen in water boilers.
• They are used in security and defense applications like detection of toxic gas like CO, H2S, NO, etc.
• They ae used in water analysis and environmental monitoring, like measurement of toxic metal
concentration in water.
• They are used in diagnostic and health care application to diagnose the viral illness such as
Coronavirus, HIV, Malaria and Zika virus.

Conductometric sensor
• Conductometric sensor is considered a type of electrochemical sensor.
• In conductometric sensor determination of the concentration of analyte is based on the measurement
of changes in the electrolytic conductance of solution.

Conductance of a solution is based on:

1) The concentration of ions contributing to the
conductivity of the solution.
2) Mobility of each type of ion. Mobility of the ion
depends on its size. Smaller the size, higher is mobility
and higher the electrolytic conductance.
3) Temperature

• An electrode used in conductometric sensor is called as conductivity cell. It is made of 2 platinum

electrodes with area of cross section 1cm2 and distance between two electrodes is 1 cm apart.
• The conductivity cell is dipped in the electrolytic solution taken in a beaker and it is connected to a
conductance measuring device called conductivity meter.
• The specific conductivity of the analyte solution is measured here. There will be change in specific
conductance of solution when there is change in number of ions or type of ions. Here ions of a
particular conductivity are replaced by ions of different conductivity.
• Specific conductance k is given by 1/R × l/a where l/a is known as the cell constant and R is the
 resistance of the solution.
Working Mechanism
The conductivity is result of dissociation an electrolyte, into ions. The migration of the ions is induced
by an electrical field. When a potential difference is applied to the electrode, there is an electrical field
within the electrolyte, so the positively charged ions move towards cathode and negatively charged
ions are move towards anode. Thus, the current in the electrolyte is caused by the ion movement
towards the electrodes where the ions are neutralized and isolated as neutral atoms (or molecules).
This chemical change is recognized by working electrode and transducers converts this chemical
change into electrical signal.

Instrumentation and procedure

The instrument used for measurement of conductance is called conductometer.
It consists of,
• Current source: AC source
• Conductivity cell: Made pyrex or quartz fitted with two Platinum electrodes.
• Electrodes: Thin plates of Pt. each of unit area of cross-section placed unit distance a part

The electrodes are dipped in the electrolyte solution taken in a beaker and It is connected to a
conductance measuring device. The titrant is added from a burette and solution is stirred. The
conductance is measured after the addition of the titrant at intervals of 0.5 ml.
Application of conductometric sensors
✓ It is used to estimate acids, bases and their mixtures in a sample.
✓ Used to check the amount of ionic impurities in waste samples.
✓ Measure the acidity or alkalinity of sea water and fresh water.
✓ In environment monitoring, bio technology and agriculture related applications.

Optical Sensors
• These sensors based on the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with the chemical species
• The electromagnetic radiation in the ultraviolet, visible, infrared domain is used for analytical purpose.
• The interaction electromagnetic radiation with matter could result in absorption, emission, scattering
or reflection of light.
 • The type of interaction depends on the wavelength of the probing radiation and on the structure of the
molecule in the analyte.
• The intensity of the radiation produced from the analyte carries information on the concentration of
the analyte. It is measured by the auto electronic instrumentation.
• Optical sensors are used to determine the concentration of coloured solution
• It involves the measurement of absorbance or transmittance of light of particular wavelength by
coloured chemical species in the solution they are governed by beer lambert's law.

Optical sensors are made up of following components:

1) Source: tungsten bulb or lamp is used as a light source
2) Filter: It is a device to provide desired wavelength range
3) Sample cell: sample is held in glass cell.
4) Photocell: Converts the emitted light into electrical signal.
5) Recorder: Electrical signal is recorded by the recorder that can be used to measure the properties of
the material or concentration of particular component in a material.

Applications of Optical Sensors

• Air quality monitoring: Optical sensors can be used to monitor air quality by measuring the amount of
light absorbed or scattered by pollutants in the air, such as dust, smoke, and smog.
• Water quality monitoring: Optical sensors can be used to monitor water quality by measuring the
amount of pollutants. This is done by analyzing changes in the amount of light transmitted through the
water as light is absorbed by pollutants in the water.
• Optical Fibre based biosensors are used in detection of explosive.
• These are used in smartwatches to measure the heartbeat of the person.
• Water and Liquid levels in industries.
• Adjusting screen brightness in smart phone.
THERMOMETRIC SENSORS
• Thermometric sensor is based on the measurement of thermal changes during the interaction between
the analyte and receptors.
• Thermal changes are converted to measurable change in the temperature or potential.
• Thermometric sensors are useful in those processes which generate sufficient heat to produce a
measurable change of temperature.
Main components of thermometric sensor are

• A tubular catalytic reactor fitted with temperature transducer.

• Analyte (reactant) is fed into the reactor.
• The wall of the reactor is coated with catalyst or enzymes capable of catalysing the reaction,
liberating heat energy.
• The heat liberated is measured by temperature transducer.
• The change in temperature is converted to the output voltage by transducer which is amplified and
fed to the data storage and processing unit.
• In order to covert change in temperature into an electrical signal, two main kinds of transducers
namely resistive transducer and thermocouple are used.

Applications of thermometric sensor sensors:

1. Temperature control in chemical reactions: Thermometric sensors are widely used in chemical
reactions to control the temperature of the reaction mixture which is essential for obtaining the desired
product.
2. Used to monitor temperatures in industrial processes such as heating and cooling systems, boilers, and
furnaces.
3. Used to monitor the temperature of medical equipment such as incubators, blood warmers, and dialysis
machines.
4. Environmental monitoring: Thermometric sensors are used to monitor the temperature of the
environment, such as air temperature, soil temperature and water temperature. This helps to understand
the effects of temperature on the environment and to monitor climate change.
5. Medical applications: Thermometric sensors are used in medical applications to measure body
temperature, surface temperature and core temperature. This information is critical for diagnosing and
treating various medical conditions.

THERMOMETRIC SENSORS - FLAME PHOTOMETRY

Flame photometry is an atomic emission method for the routine detection of metal salts, principally Na,
K, Li, Ca and Ba. Quantitative analysis of these species is performed by measuring the flame emission of
solutions containing the metal salts. Flame photometry involves the measurement of emitted radiation.

Theory:

The basis of flame photometric working is that, the species of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals
are dissociated due to the thermal energy provided by the flame source. Due to this thermal excitation,
 some of the atoms are excited to a higher energy level where they are not stable. The absorbance of light
due to the electron excitation can be measured by using the direct absorption techniques. The subsequent
loss of energy will result in the movement of excited atoms to the low energy ground state with emission
of some radiations, which can be visualized in the visible region of the spectrum. The wavelength of
emitted light is specific for specific elements.
Flame photometry involves the measurement of emitted radiation. In flame photometry emitted
lightintensity from the flame is directly proportional to the concentration of the species being aspirated.
Instrumentation:
Flame photometer consists of a burner, a nebuliser, a monochromator, a detector and a recorder
[Link] of flame: A burner is used to supply flame and can be maintained in a constant form and at a
constant temperature.
[Link] and mixing chamber: It helps to transport the homogeneous solution of the substance into the
flame at a steady rate. The nebulizer converts the sample solution into a mist or aerosol which is then
dispersed into the flame as fine spray particles.
[Link] system (optical filter): The optical system comprises three parts: convex mirror, lens and filter, it act
interference type color filters.
4. Photo detector: Detect the emitted light and measure the intensity of radiation emitted by the flame. That
is, the emitted radiation is converted to an electrical signal with the help of photo detector. The produced
electrical signals are directly proportional to the intensity of light.

Working:
The working of the flame photometer involves a series of steps which is discussed in the following
sections
• Desolvation: The metal particles in the solvent are dehydrated by the flame and thus
solvent is evaporated.
• Vaporization: Here the solid or liquid state metal particles changes into vapour state because of
the heat of the flame.
• Atomization: Breaking of bonds within the molecules to form individual metal atoms by flame heat.
• Excitation: The electrostatic force of attraction between the electrons and nucleus of the atom helps
them to absorb a particular amount of energy. The atoms then jump to the exited energy state.

• Emission process: Since the higher energy state is unstable the atoms jump back to the stable low
energy state with the emission of energy (hγ) in the form of radiation of characteristic wavelength,
which is measured by the photo detector.
 Sensors for the measurement of dissolved oxygen (DO):
The oxygen present in the water in dissolved form is called as dissolved oxygen.
Two types of Sensors are used for measurement of dissolved oxygen (DO)
1. Optical Sensors
2. Electrochemical Sensors

1. Optical Sensors:
The main component of optical sensors is semi permeable membrane,
sensing element, light-emitting diode (LED) and photo detector. The
sensing element contains a luminescent dye.
Working:
When the dye is exposed to light, it moves to excited state and return to
ground state by emitting light with known intensity. When the DO crosses
the semi permeable membrane and interacts with the dye, it reduces the
intensity of the light emitted by dye. The intensity of the emitted light
inversely proportional to the DO concentration. This intensity of light is
measured using photo detector.

Electrochemical Sensor for measurement of Dissolved oxygen (DO)

In an electrochemical DO sensor, dissolved oxygen diffuses from the sample across an oxygen permeable
membrane and into the sensor. Inside the sensor, the oxygen undergoes a chemical reduction reaction, which
produces an electrical signal. This signal can be read by recorder to give output. In an electrochemical DO
sensor, 2 electrodes used are of dissimilar metals.
1. Zinc or lead is used as anode and silver metal is used as inert cathode
 2. The difference in potential between anode and cathode should be more than 0.5V to reduce dissolved
oxygen without an external applied potential
3. The electrolytic solution used is KOH, NaOH or any other inert electrolyte.
4. The oxygen permeable membrane used is polymer like polyvinyl chloride
When electrode are dipped in water to measure its DO, anode undergoes oxidation liberating electrons
2Zn 2 Z n+2 + 4 e-
At cathode DO undergoes reduction. Ag cathode is inert; it passes electrons to oxygen for reduction.
O2 + 2 H2O+ 4 e- 4 OH -
Over all reaction
2 Z n + O2 + 2 H2O 2 Zn(OH)2

• The current produced by the reduction oxygen at the cathode is proportional to the concentration or
partial pressure of oxygen in the water sample.
• Zinc hydroxide (Zn(OH)2) that is produced is precipitated out into the electrolyte solution. This will
affect the sensor performance. When sensor reading are not stable, then electrolyte and zinc anode
have to be replaced to bring the sensor back to working condition.
Electrochemical sensors for the pharmaceuticals taking diclofenac as an example
• It is necessary to use sensors for the detection of pharmaceuticals to monitor their concentration and
know their toxic effects. These sensors are fast, low cost, and sensitive.
• These sensors can be used for on-the-spot analysis. One example is the electrochemical sensor used
for detection of Diclofenac.
• Diclofenac with chemical name 2-(2-((2,6-dichlorophenyl)amino)phenyl)acetic [Link] is one of
the most frequently prescribed non steroidal, anti inflammatory drugs (NSAID) with antipyretic and
analgesic effects.
• In the electrochemical sensor used to detect diclofenac, the sensing (working) electrode is graphite
carbon coated with multi walled carbon nano tubes (MWCNT) and gold nano particles. In the
detection, along with sensing electrode, counter electrode and reference electrodes are used.
 • When the sample containing diclofenac is put in the sensor, the following oxidation reaction of
diclofenac occurs on the surface of the sensing electrode. The change in potential of the reaction gives
the concentration of diclofenac.

Electrochemical Sensors for Hydrocarbons

• Hydrocarbon pollutant, polycyclic aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) are known to be carcinogenic and
mutagenic compounds. Detection of PAHs is essential to monitor their toxicity and carcinogenic risk.
• PAHs enter the human body mainly through respiration and diet. After entering the body some PAHs
are metabolised into hydroxyl PAHs which are excreted with urine.1-hydroxypyrene is commonly
found hydroxyPAHs in urine sample. Therefore, concentration of 1-hydroxypyrene is used to evaluate
PAHs exposure level in the human body.

• Electrochemical sensors are being developed for detection of 1-hydroxypyrene in urine sample. These
sensors are fast, low cost and sensitive and use disposable strips. The sensors can be used for on spot
analysis.
• Working electrode: Carbon coated with chromium containing metal organic frame work) Cr- MOF)
and Graphene Oxide (Composite)
• Counter Electrode: Carbon coated with chromium containing metal organic frame work) Cr- MOF)
and Graphene Oxide (Composite)
• Reference Electrode: Ag/AgCl
• When the sample containing 1- Hydroxypyrene is put in the sensor, oxidation of 1- Hydroxypyrene
occurs on the surface of the sensing electrode. The change in potential of the reaction gives the
concentration of 1- Hydroxypyrene.
 O
OH

1-Hydroxypyrene

Electrochemical Gas Sensors for NOX and SOX

• Electrochemical sensors are used to measure the concentration of pollutant gases like NO2 and NO
and SO2.
• A filter is used to prevent unwanted contaminants. An electrochemical gas sensor generally consists
of a sensing electrode, counter and reference electrode along with a gas-permeable membrane.
• During sensing operations, it is submerged in an electrolytic liquid(electrolyte). The gas-permeable
membrane allows only the gas not liquid. An electrochemical reaction taking place at the working
electrode or sensing electrode is either oxidation or reduction, depending on the type of gas.
• An oxidation reaction moves electrons from the working electrode to the counter electrode, while a
reduction reaction causes electrons to move from the counter electrode to the working electrode.
• In both the cases, the electrical current generated and is proportional to the concentration of the target
gas. The current is then amplified and processed to give the user a reading in either parts per million
(PPM) or percentage volume.
The receptor coated on the surface of sensing electrode (working electrode) is different for each gas. Reaction
that occurs on the surface of the electrode is also different for each case.
Detection of NO2
Detection of NO2 in an amperometric gas sensor in aqueous electrolyte is based on the following
electrochemical reduction reaction on the surface of sensing electrode. Au, Pt/Nafion is used as sensing
electrode with 10 M H2SO4 as an electrolyte.
NO2 + 2H+ + 2e- NO + H2O

Detection of NO
Detection of NO an amperometric gas sensor in aqueous electrolyte is based on the following electrochemical
oxiadtion reaction on the surface of sensing electrode. Au /NASICON is used as sensing electrode and NaNO2
as the electrolyte.
NO + H2O 𝐍𝐎−
𝟑 + 4H
+ + 3e-
Detection of SO2
Detection of SO2 in an amperometric gas sensor in aqueous electrolyte is based on the following
electrochemical oxidation reaction on the surface of sensing electrode. Au /Nafion is used as sensing electrode
with 0.5 M H2SO4 as an electrolyte.
SO2 + 2H2O 𝐒𝐎𝟐−
𝟒 + 4H
+
+ 2e-

Hydrophobic membrane

m memembrane

Biosensors

• Biosensors are devices that are used to detect and measure bioanalyte. They are used in qualitative and
quantitative analysis of biomolecules, biological structures, microorganisms etc. large number of
biosensors is used in healthcare, food, industrial and environmental fields to detect various bio-analytes
like glucose, cholesterol, ethanol, creatinine etc. They play an important role in the detection of
diseases, monitoring of human health, quality of food, water and air.
• Main component of a biosensor is a receptor which can selectively interact with the bioanalyte and
produce a signal corresponding to the interaction. Receptor contains immobilized biomaterials like
enzymes or nucleic acids on its surface. Signal produced is detected and converted to appropriate
electrical signal by a transducer. Next detector which amplifies and processes the signals before
displaying it using an electronic display system.
Disposable Sensor

• Portable sensor used for on-the –spot analysis of bioanalyte using disposable strip with receptor and
electrode printed on it, is called disposable sensor. These strips can be inserted into the portable system
and used for on-site sample analysis. These sensors are economical, easy to use, with small quantity
of sample.

• Portable Glucometer used in monitoring blood sugar level at home with disposable strip is an example
for disposable bio sensor.
Detection of Biomolecules- Ascorbic acid
Disposable, preactivated screen printing electrodes have been developed for on spot analysis of
Ascorbic acid(vitamin-C).

• In the disposable strip, active materials of the sensing electrode, counter electrode and reference
electrode are printed on the disposable paper strip using screen printing technology.
• Active material coating on sensing electrode must be capable of oxidising ascorbic acid on its surface.
The ascorbate oxidase enzyme immobilised on a screen printed carbon electrode with poly(ethylene
glycol) and diglycidyl ether as a cross linking agent can be used as sensing electrode in ascorbic acid
disposable biosensors.
• It oxidizes ascorbic acid into dehydroascorbic acid. Concentration of ascorbic acid is determined from
the change in potential of the oxidation process.
.
Disposable sensors in the detection of pesticides taking Glyphosate as example

• Glyphosate is an organophosphorus pesticide, used as herbicide in agriculture. Its residues are present
in large amount in agriculture products and enter the ecosystem in large quantity. It is carcinogen to
humans, therefore, there is a need to develop a rapid, reliable and sensitive method to detect Glyphosate
in environmental samples.
• The glycine oxidase enzyme immobilized on a screen-printed carbon electrode and used as sensing
(working) electrode in glyphosate disposable biosensor.
• It oxidizes glyphosate into amidomethyl phosphoric acid and glyoxylate. Concentration of glyphosate
is determined from the change in potential of the oxidation process.

ENERGY SYSTEMS
Introduction

• Battery is a device consisting of two or more galvanic cells connected in series or parallel or both, that
store chemical energy in the form of active materials and on demand convert it into electrical energy
through electrochemical redox reaction.
 • Batteries generate power and acts as portable sources of electrical energy. Batteries are used in
calculators, digital watches, pace makers for heart, hearing aids, portable computers, digital cameras,
car engines, emergency lighting, electroplating, industrial, military and space applications.

Basic components of a battery

The basic electrochemical unit in a battery is a galvanic cell. The components of such cell are shown in the
fig.

The principal components of a battery are-

The anode or negative electrode – It gives electrons to the external circuit by undergoing oxidation during
electrochemical reaction.

The cathode or positive electrode – It accepts electrons from the external circuit and reduction of the active
species occurs.

The electrolyte – An ionic conductor. The electrolyte is commonly a solution of an acid, alkali or salt having
high ionic conductivity. Solid electrolytes having ionic conductivity at the operating temperature of the cell
are also used.

The separator – the material that electronically separates the anode and cathode in a battery to prevent internal
short-circuit is referred to as a separator. It is permeable to the electrolyte to maintain the desired ionic
conductivity. Thus, the main function of the separator is to transport ions from the anode compartment to the
cathode compartment and vice versa. E.g. Cellulose, Polypropylene.

Li- ion Battery

Anode - Lithium intercalated in graphite as anode (Li/C)
Cathode – Lithium Cobalt Oxide or LiMnO2 or (LiMO2)
Electrolyte – Lithium salt such as LiPF6 in organic electrolyte mixture such as ethylene carbonate – dimethyl
carbonate.
The Separator –Polypropylene.
Output Voltage : 3.6V
Electrode reactions-

While discharging, lithium atoms present in the graphite layer are oxidized, liberating electrons and lithium
ions. Electrons flow through external circuit to the cathode and lithium ion moves through the electrolyte
towards cathode. At cathode lithium ions are reduced to lithium atoms and are inserted into the layered
structure of metal oxide. Here lithium ions become embedded in the porous electrode material in a process
known as intercalation.

DISCHARGING –
At Anode: LiC6 Li++1e-+6C
At Cathode: Li++1e-+MO2 Li-MO2

When the cell is charging, the reverse occurs. Lithium present in the layered metal oxide (at cathode) oxidizes,
liberating electrons and lithium ions. Electrons flow through external circuit and lithium ion moves through
the electrolyte towards anode.

CHARGING –
At Cathode: Li-MO2 Li++1e-+MO2
At Anode: Li++1e-+6C LiC6

Applications

✓ These are used in cell phones, laptops, electrical vehicles and aerospace applications.

Na- ion Battery

The sodium-ion battery (NIB or SIB) is a type of rechargeable battery that uses sodium ions (Na+) as its
charge carriers. Recently, sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) have been reconsidered with the aim of providing a
lower-cost alternative that is less susceptible to resource and supply risks.
Construction
Its working principle and cell construction are almost identical with those of lithium-ion battery (LIB) types,
but replace lithium with sodium.

• Anode – Hard carbon/ Na

• Cathode –Sodium inserted layered metal oxide, (NaMO2)
• Electrolyte – NaPF6 dissolved in binary organic solvent mixture such as ethylene carbonate-dimethyl
carbonate
• The Separator –Polypropylene.

• Aluminum is used as current collector.

• Open circuit Voltage: 1.85 to 3.45 V

Working principle:

DISCHARGING -
During discharging of battery, Na atoms present in hard carbon layer are oxidized, liberating electrons and
Na+. Electrons flow though external circuit to cathode and Na+ flow through the organic electrolyte towards
cathode.
At anode,
C-Na Na+ + C + e-
At cathode,
Sodium ions are reduced to sodium atom and are inserted into the layered structure of metal oxide.
Na+ + e- + MO2 Na-MO2
CHARGING -
During charging of battery, Na atoms present in layered structure of cathode are oxidized, liberating electrons
and Na+. Electrons flow through external circuit and Na+ flow through the organic electrolyte towards hard
carbon electrode. At hard carbon electrode, Na+ are reduced to Na atoms and are inserted into the layered
structure of hard carbon.
At cathode,
Na-MO2 Na+ + e- + MO2
At anode,
Na+ + C + e- C-Na

Applications

✓ Sodium-ion batteries have shown great promise for large scale storage of renewable energy.
✓ Sodium-ion batteries are cheaper and last longer than cell currently used in gadgets.
✓ Large scale grid storage application.

Quantum dot sensitized Solar Cells (QDSSC’S)

• A quantum dot solar cell (QDSC) is a solar cell that uses quantum dots as the absorbing
photovoltaic material.

• The dimensions range of quantum dots lies between 1nm to 10 nm. These are zero-dimensional
nanostructure with low band [Link] the efficiency of conversion of solar energy into electrical
energy is very high compared to conventional solar cell.

• It is used to replace bulky materials such as silicon or gallium selenide.

• PbS(lead sulphide), PbSe, CdSe, CdS are commonly used quantum dots.

Construction
A QDSSCs consist of three components: a) Photoanode b)Cathode c) Electrolyte
a) Photo anode: It is the working electrode in the cell. It is a conducting glass, over which a large band gap
semiconductor like TiO2 is coated. This is further coated with Quantum dots(QD’s) such as PbS(lead
sulphide),PbSe,CdSe, CdS which acts as photosensitizer.
b) Electrolyte: An electrolyte such as Polysulphide is placed between anode and cathode with also acts as
separator.
c) Cathode: Cathode is made up of inert metal which is used to complete the circuit.
Working

1. QD’s present on photo anode is exposed to sunlight.

2. QD’s absorb solar energy and get exicited,i.e electrons jump from valence band to conduction band
producing electron hole pairs.

QDs + hγ QDs*

QDs* e- + h+

3. The electrons from QDs are transferred to the conduction band of wide band gap TiO2 semiconductor,
leaving holes on the surface of QD’s.
4. Electrolyte takes up holes from the surface of QD’s and gets oxidised.

S2- + 2h+ S
5. Electrons flow from photo anode to cathode through external circuit generating an electric current.
6. At cathode electrolyte is regenerated taking up electrons from the cathode.

S + 2e- S2-
Advantages of Quantum dot solar cells
The following are the benefits of quantum dot solar cells.
• They have a favorable power to weight ratio with high efficiency.
• Their power consumption is low.
• There is an increase of electrical performance at low production costs.
• Their use is versatile and can be used in windows, not just roof tops.
Disadvantages of QDSC
• Cadmium selenide-based quantum dot solar cells are highly toxic in nature and require a very
stable polymer shell.
 Quantum dots solar cell applications
• It is used as light-emitting Diodes
• It is used as Photo conductors and photo detectors
• It is used in Drug delivery.
• Biosensors
QUESTION BANK
BTL L 1 Questions
1) What is a transducer?
2) What is an actuator?
3) Define a sensor.
4) What is an electrochemical sensor?
5) What are disposable sensors?
6) Define a energy system?
7) What is a battery?
8) What are quantum dot sensitized solar cells?
BTL L 2 Questions
9) Discuss the working principle of electrochemical sensors and write any four applications of
electrochemical sensors.
10) Discuss the working principle of conductometric sensors and write any four applications of
conductometric sensors.
11) Discuss the working principle of thermometric sensors and write any four applications of
thermometric sensors.
12) Discuss the working principle of optical sensors and write any four applications of optical sensors
13) Discuss the electrochemical sensor for the measurement of dissolved oxygen (DO).
14) Discuss the electrochemical sensor for pharmaceuticals taking diclofenac as an example.
15) Discuss the electrochemical sensor for hydrocarbons, taking 1-hydroxypyrene as an example.
16) Discuss the electrochemical gas sensors for SOx and NOx.
17) Write a note on advantages of disposable sensor over classical sensors.
18) Discuss the disposable sensor for the detection of biomolecules taking ascorbic acid as an example.
19) Discuss the disposable sensor for the detection of pesticides taking glyphosate as an example.
20) Discuss the construction, working and applications of Li ion battery.
21) Discuss the construction, working and applications of Na ion battery.
22) Write a note on quantum dot sensitized solar cells and mention any four applications.
Rachana Kunder
Assistant Professor
Department Of Chemistry
AJIET