BIO Ch-4

Reproduction

Reproduction
The process of formation of young ones of organisms as their own kind is called
reproduction

Importance of reproduction
●​ Maintenance of existence: Organisms are maintaining their existence from
millions of years ago due to reproduction
●​ Preservation of species: A species is a group of similar organisms that can
interbreed with each other. When two organisms of the same species breed, they
form organisms similar to their parents.
●​ Role in evolution: During reproduction, some variation takes place which is the
basis for evolution

DNA Copying
●​ The process of formation of an exact copy of the DNA of the parent before cell
division is called DNA copying or DNA replication
●​ The DNA copy from the parent moves to the daughter cell during cell
[Link], DNA passes down from one generation to another and also when
2 cells divide
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●​ DNA→ information→Protein→Body design

●​ DNA changes→ information changes→ Protein changes→ Body design changes

Variation
●​ The difference in character shown by organisms belonging to same species is
called variation
●​ It happens due to small errors in DNA copying before cell division.
●​ The DNA copies in the daughter cell are similar but not completely identical.
●​ Organisms with major variations die, but the surviving cells are similar to parents
but with some variation
●​ Organisms with less variations have the ability to survive in changing ecological
conditions→evolution
●​ Structure→Body design→Blue print→DNA→Gene→Proteins→Structure

Asexual & Sexual Reproduction

Asexual Sexual

Lower order organisms Higher order organisms

Single parent is involved Double parents are involved (male and

female)

No gamete formation Gamete formation

Formed from vegetative part Formed from fertilisation

Clones Variants

Less variation More variation

EX:Amoeba, Paramoecium EX:Animals, Humans

Asexual Reproduction
●​ The process of reproduction which involves a single parent which forms new
offspring identical to it is called asexual reproduction
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●​ TYPES:
○​ Fission → Binary Fission and multiple fission
○​ Budding
○​ Fragmentation
○​ Spore formation
○​ Regeneration
○​ Vegetative propagation→ natural and artificial

Fission
●​ The type of division in which the mother divides to form new offspring is called
fission.
●​ Identity of mother cell is lost
●​ TYPES:
○​ Binary fission
○​ Multiple fission

Binary Fission
●​ The process of division in which mother cell divides to form two new offspring
●​ Eg: Amoeba, Paramoecium, Leishmania, Euglena
●​ Binary Fission in Leishmania → Causes black fever
○​ Development of whip → Karyokinesis → Cytokinesis → Daughter cells
●​ Binary Fission in Amoeba
○​ Nucleus divides - Karyokinesis → Constriction appears - Cytokinesis →
Offspring

Multiple Fission
●​ Takes place during unfavorable conditions
●​ A tough coat ( cyst) surrounds the cell and nucleus will divide into multiple
daughter nuclei.
●​ The nuclei form cytoplasm and develop into daughter cells
●​ Under favourable conditions, the tough coat is broken and a large no. of
organisms are released which grow into new organisms
●​ Eg: Plasmodium, Amoeba in unfavourable conditions
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Budding
●​ The type of asexual reproduction in which an outgrowth(bud) is formed on the
parent organism, either due to single cell division(yeast) or due to multiple cell
division(Hydra) at one specific site
●​ The bud gradually grows in size and gets detached from the parent body
●​ Detached bud grows into new organism
●​ Identity of mother cell is not lost
●​ Eg: Yeast and Hydra

Spore formation
●​ Rhizopus (bread mould), Ferns, Moses
●​ The mode of asexual reproduction in which young ones are formed from thick
walled spore is called spore formation
●​ During unfavourable condition, nucleus inside the sporangium divides repeatedly
and forms daughter nuclei
●​ The daughter nuclei are surrounded by cytoplasm and thick outer wall, called
spore
●​ During favourable condition, spores present inside the sporangium are released
out and dispersed by different media (air and water) and develop into new
organisms

Fragmentation
●​ Spirogyra, Mycelial fungi, Thalloid Bryophytes
●​ Breaking of an organism into two or more parts each of which form a different
individual upon maturation
●​ Multicellular organism with simple body organization
●​ Instead of random collection of cells, specialised cells → tissues → organs are
found in complex multicellular organisms
●​ Different organs can’t undergo cell by cell division
●​ So, it is not possible in complex multicellular organisms
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Regeneration
●​ Planaria, Hydra, Starfish and Lizard
●​ Fully differentiated organisms give rise to individual organisms from each body
part is called regeneration
●​ Simple organisms like Planaria can be cut into any number of pieces and all of
them will grow into new organisms.
●​ Carried out by stem cells → make a mass of cells → various cells and tissues
●​ Regeneration is not a method of complete reproduction as organisms can’t
normally depend on being cut up for reproduction.

Vegetative propagation
●​ Young ones are formed from vegetative parts of the plant (roots,stems,leaves)
●​ ROOTS
○​ Sweet potato, tapioca, asparagus
○​ Tuberous roots form adventitious buds→ formed on plant parts other than
the shoot tip → New plants
●​ LEAVES
○​ Bryophyllum
○​ Leaf margin → adventitious buds → Plantlets → New plants
●​ STEM
○​ Small adventitious buds are formed
○​ Also form aerial shoots annually under favorable conditions
○​ Tubers – Potatoes
○​ Bulb – Agave
○​ Rhizome – Ginger and Turmeric
○​ Sub aerial stem – Grass, Strawberry

Tissue Culture
●​ Also called micropropagation
●​ Isolated plant part called explant is cultured in a nutrient rich medium
●​ Explant → Callus – transferred to nutrient medium with hormones → Plantlets
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●​ 1000s of plantlets can be produced in a small time period

●​ Virus free plants can be produced.

Advantages of vegetative propagation

●​ It is the only method by which seedless plants (banana, orange, rose and
jasmine) can reproduce
●​ The plants produced by this method produce fruits and seeds faster
●​ Genetically and morphologically identical plants are formed, can get desirable
characteristics

Disadvantages of Vegetative propagation

●​ Plants produced by this method are more prone to diseases
●​ No variation takes place and thus, evolution doesn’t take place.

Sexual Reproduction
●​ The type of reproduction in which 2 parents (male and female) are involved, and
fusion of male and female gametes(fertilization) takes place is called sexual
reproduction.

●​ Due to meiosis cell division, 4 gamete cells are formed in haploid(n) condition.

●​ Male gamete is sperm(motile) → 23 chromosomes (n)

●​ Female gamete is ovum/egg(non-motile) → 23 chromosomes (n)

●​ During meiosis, halving of chromosomes (46 → 23) takes place and gametes are
formed. Because of fertilization, male and female gametes fuse to form zygote,
which has 46 chromosomes (2n) from sperm(23) and ovum(23). This maintains
the chromosome number in organisms

●​ During meiosis, crossing over takes place. Thus, when zygote is formed, crossing
over from both parents results in high variation and rate of evolution is high
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Reproductive parts of Plants

●​ 4 whorls are present in flower
●​ Non-reproductive whorls are :
➔​ Corolla or Petal: Attractive part that helps in pollination by attracting
insects
➔​ Calyx or Sepal: Outermost whorl and leafy structure
●​ Reproductive whorls are:
➔​ Androecium or Stamen: Contains Filament and Anther → Pollen grains →
2 Male gametes
➔​ Gynoecium or Carpel: Contains Stigma, Style and Ovary → Ovules →
Female gamete

Pollination
●​ The transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of flower is called pollination
●​ Self-pollination: B/w same flower or same plant. In both bisexual and unisexual.
Eg:Hibiscus
●​ Cross-pollination: B/w different plants. In unisexual. Eg:Papaya

Modes of pollination
●​ Water: Hydrophily
●​ Wind: Anaemophily
●​ Birds: Ornithophily
●​ Insects: Entomophily
●​ Bats: Chiropterophily

Double Fertilisation
●​ The fusion of male and female gametes is called fertilisation
●​ As a result of pollination, pollen grains stick to the stigma and germinate pollen
tube towards the ovule through chemotropism.
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●​ Each ovule contains an embryo sac which has → 1 Egg, 2 Synergids, 2 Polar
nuclei, 3 Antipodals.
●​ The pollen grain enter ovule through micropyle end
●​ Each pollen grain contains 2 male gametes
●​ 1 Male gamete (n) + Egg (n) → Zygote (2n) Syngamy
●​ 1 Male Gamete (n) + Polar nuclei (2n) → Primary endosperm Nucleus (3n)
Triple Fusion
●​ This is called double fertilisation

Post fertilisation changes

●​ Zygote → Embryo
●​ PEN → Endosperm
●​ Ovule → Seed
●​ Ovary → Fruit
●​ Integuments → Seed coat
●​ Synergids and Antipodals → Degenerate
●​ Petals, Sepals → Fall off

Dicot
●​ 2 cotyledons are present
●​ Non-endospermic seeds (consumed by developing embryo for growth and
development)

Reproduction in human beings

●​ Adolescence: The period during which organism attains sexual maturity is called
adolescence
●​ Males→13-14
●​ Females→11-12
●​ Puberty: The series of changes taking place in the body during adolescence is
called puberty.
➔​ Males→ Testosterone
➔​ Deepening of voice
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➔​ Widening of shoulders
➔​ Facial hair growth

➔​ Females→ Oestrogen
➔​ Shrill voice
➔​ Pelvic bone widens
➔​ Breast growth

➔​ Hair growth in genital and pubic areas

➔​ Sudden increase in height and weight
➔​ Sweat and sebum production increases
➔​ Increase in emotional intelligence

Male Reproductive system

●​ Primary sex organ is Testes which is responsible for production of
sperms(Spermatogenesis) and Testosterone
●​ Testes are present in Scrotum sac outside the abdominal cavity because sperms
need 1-2*C less temperature to stay alive
●​ Testes contains seminiferous tubules which helps in spermatogenesis
●​ Sperms are moved to Epidymis where they are temporarily stored and
maturisation of sperm takes place
●​ Sperms move through Sperm duct or Vas Deferens which is 10-12 cm long
●​ It goes through 3 accessory glands
➔​ Seminal vesicles: Produces 65% Alkaline solution which also has fructose
which help in nourishment of sperms
➔​ Prostate gland: Produces 15% Alkaline solution and keeps the sperms
active and mobile(Locomotion)
➔​ Cowper’s gland or Bulbo-urethral gland: Produce Alkaline solution which
acts a lubricant for sperms to move through vagina
●​ Semen→ Sperm + Secretions from accessory glands
●​ Vas Deferens is connected to muscular copulatory organ→ Penis
●​ Both sperm and urine have common pathway→ Urethra, but one at a time
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Female Reproductive System

●​ Ovary is the primary sex organ which is responsible for the production of mature
egg every 28 days(Ovulation/ Oogenesis) and Estrogen and Progesterone
●​ Fimbriae are the small finger-like structures that collect the egg from the ovary
and pass it to the oviduct.
●​ Fertilisation takes place inside the oviduct → Ampullaric-Isthumithic junction
●​ Development of baby takes place inside the uterus→ Womb
●​ Insemination takes place through Vagina
●​ Baby comes out of the Vagina→ Birth canal
●​ Cervix connects the vagina and uterus

Fertilisation & Gestation

●​ Large number of sperms enter the female body through vagina during
insemination
●​ Sperms move through Vagina→Cervix→Uterus→Oviduct
●​ The fusion of sperm(n) and ovum(n) to form zygote(2n) takes place inside the
fallopian tubule → fertilisation
●​ The zygote starts to divide by mitosis for 7 days and now, multicellular structure
is formed which is called embryo
●​ On the 7th day, the embryo moves into the uterus and attaches itself to the
endometrium wall, this is called implantation
●​ The complete development of baby from fertilisation till birth occurs inside
uterus and is called gestation period (280days→ 9months 10days→ 40weeks)
●​ The fetus is attached to the mother through an intimate connection called the
placenta, a disk-shaped structure
●​ Placenta is filled with blood vessels and villi for large surface area for absorption.
It is present in the endometrium lining of uterus
●​ Placenta and foetus are connected through the umbilical cord
●​ Baby gets nutrients and oxygen and removes waste materials and carbon dioxide
through the placenta
●​ After 280 days, the baby comes out through the vagina and this process is called
parturition. Oxytocin is released which helps the vagina and uterus to contract.
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Menstruation
●​ The process by which endometrium wall of uterus with blood vessels, villi along
with the unfertilised egg ruptures or breaks-down which causes vaginal bleeding
is called menstruation
●​ Occurs in absence of fertilisation
●​ This happens once every 28 days in the female body. This cycle is called
menstrual or ovarian cycle.
●​ First period is called Menarche → 12-13
●​ Last period is called Menopause→45-55

Menstrual cycle
●​ Menstrual phase:
➔​ 1-4 days.
➔​ Vaginal bleeding occurs.--> Estrogen level is low
➔​ Follicle starts to mature
●​ Follicular phase or Proliferative phase:
○​ 5-13 days
○​ Follicle starts to develop from immature eggs → FSH
○​ Endometrium lining of uterus begins to proliferate → Estrogen produced
by developing follicle
●​ Ovulatory phase:
○​ 14th day
○​ Follicle is ruptured and ovum gets released from the ovary → LH
●​ Luteal phase
○​ 15-28 days
○​ Ruptured follicle develops into corpus luteum which secretes
progesterone
○​ Body prepares for pregnancy and the endometrium layer of uterus
thickens to prepare itself for implantation
○​ If fertilisation doesn’t occur, corpus luteum degenerates and progesterone
level decreases.
○​ Menstruation occurs once again and Estrogen level becomes high
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Contraceptive methods
●​ Used to prevent unwanted pregnancy
●​ Used for controlling overpopulation
●​ Used to prevent STDs
●​ Barrier method:
○​ Prevents both STDs and fertilisation
○​ Condoms: Used by males (worn over penis)
○​ Diaphragms: Used by females (worn over vagina)
○​ Cervical caps: Used by females (worn over cervix)
○​ Can cause skin irritations and infections
●​ Educational method: Educating people in rural areas about the dangers of
overpopulation and STDs
●​ Chemical method:
○​ Prevents fertilization
○​ Oral pills: Changes hormone level of females
○​ Vaginal pills: Contains spermicides which kill sperms
○​ Oral pills cause hormonal imbalance→ Infertility
●​ Surgical method:
○​ Vasectomy: Small portion of Vas deferens is cut and tied (in males)
○​ Tubectomy: Small portion of Oviduct is cut and tied (in females)
○​ Can cause infection if not carried out properly
●​ IUD:
○​ Intra Uterine Contraceptive Devices
○​ Copper T is implanted in uterus which prevents implantation and
fertilisation by providing toxic environment for sperms
○​ Can cause irritation in the uterus, also not a 100% guarantee of
contraception.
●​ Corrective
○​ Termination of pregnancy
○​ MTP( Medical Termination of Pregnancy) is banned in India due to the
reckless amount of female foeticide which caused decline in male-female
sex ratio, except in rare cases involving the health of the mother.
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Sexually Transmitted Devices

●​ Diseases which are transmitted from infected person to normal person through
unprotected sex are STDs
●​ AIDS:
○​ Acquired Immuno-Deficiency Syndrome
○​ Caused by HIV( Human Immuno Deficiency Virus)
○​ Affects [Link] and decreases immunity
○​ More prone to diseases
●​ Gonorrhea:
○​ Caused by bacteria
○​ Infects genital and urinal tract
○​ Cause lesions and pain
●​ Syphilis:
○​ Caused by bacteria
○​ Causes burning sensation in genital area→sores and lesions