16.

4 / Fixed Broadband Wireless Access 549

GEO
Stationary
Satellite

Receiver
Antenna

Receiver
Box
Residence

Service
Provider
Television
Set

Figure 16.17 Direct Broadcast Satellite

16.4 FIXED BROADBAND WIRELESS ACCESS

Traditionally, the provision of voice and data communications to the end user,
over the local loop, or subscriber loop, has been provided by wired systems. As
the demand for broadband Internet access has grown, providers of wired local loop
service have responded with increasing reliance on optical fiber and coaxial cable.
However, increasing interest is being shown in competing wireless technolo-
gies for subscriber access. These approaches are generally referred to as wireless
local loop (WLL), or fixed wireless access. The most prominent fixed broadband
wireless access (fixed BWA) system is referred to as WiMAX, based on the IEEE
802.16 standard. We examine WiMAX in the next section. In this section, we pro-
vide an overview of the concept of fixed BWA.
Figure 16.18 illustrates a simple fixed BWA configuration. A BWA ­provider
services one or more cells. Each cell includes a base station (BS) antenna, mounted
on top of a tall building or tower. In earlier systems, subscribers used a fixed
antenna mounted on a building or pole that has an unobstructed line of sight to the
BS antenna. The technology has evolved so that indoor wireless access points are
possible. From the BS, there is a link, which may either be wired or wireless, to a
switching center. The switching center is typically a telephone company local office,
which provides connections to the local and l­ong-​­distance telephone networks. An
Internet service provider (ISP) may be collocated at the switch or connected to the
switch by a ­high-​­speed link.
Figure 16.18 shows what amounts to a t­ wo-​­level hierarchy. More complex con-
figurations have also been implemented, in which a BS may serve a number of sub-
ordinate BS antennas, each of which supports a number of subscribers.
550 CHAPTER 16 / Long Range Communications

Wireless
Base station links
antenna Residence

Wire
link
Office
Switching building
center

Government
agency
Figure 16.18 Fixed Broadband Wireless Configuration

The fixed BWA has a number of advantages over a wired approach to sub-
scriber loop support:
• Cost: Wireless systems are less expensive than wired systems. Although the
electronics of the wireless transmitter/receiver may be more expensive than
those used for wired communications, with BWA the cost of installing kilome-
ters of cable, either underground or on poles, is avoided, as well as the cost of
maintaining the wired infrastructure.
• Installation time: BWA systems typically can be installed rapidly. The key
stumbling blocks are obtaining permission to use a given frequency band and
finding a suitable elevated site for the BS antennas. Once these hurdles are
cleared, a BWA system can be installed in a small fraction of the time required
for a new wired system.
• Selective installation: Radio units are installed only for those subscribers who
want the service at a given time. With a wired system, typically cable is laid out
in anticipation of serving every subscriber in a local area.
BWA needs to be evaluated with respect to two alternatives:
• Wired scheme using existing installed cable: A large fraction of the earth’s
inhabitants do not have a telephone line. For ­high-​­speed applications, many
subscribers with telephone lines do not have a line of sufficient quality or are
too far from the central office to effectively use Digital Subscriber Line (DSL).
Many of these same subscribers also do not have cable TV or their cable pro-
vider does not offer ­two-​­way data services. Finally, because WLL has become
­cost-​­competitive with wired schemes, new installations face a genuine choice
between the wired and wireless approaches.
• Mobile cellular technology: 4G cellular systems provide broadband support.
The primary advantages of a fixed BWA scheme are that the fixed BWA BS
can cover a larger area, and that higher data rates can be achieved.
 16.5 / WiMAX/IEEE 802.16 551

16.5 WIMAX/IEEE 802.16

With the growing interest in BWA services, a need was recognized within the indus-
try to develop standards for this service. In response to this need the IEEE 802
committee set up the 802.16 working group in 1999 to develop broadband wireless
standards. The charter for the group was to develop standards that:
• Use wireless links with microwave or millimeter wave radios.
• Use licensed spectrum (typically).
• Are metropolitan in scale.
• Provide public network service to ­fee-​­paying customers (typically).
• Use PMP architecture with stationary rooftop or ­tower-​­mounted antennas.
• Provide efficient transport of heterogeneous traffic supporting quality of
­service (QoS).
• Are capable of broadband transmissions (>2 Mbps).
In essence, IEEE 802.16 standardizes the air interface and related functions
associated with BWA. In addition, an industry group, the WiMAX (Worldwide
Interoperability for Microwave Access) Forum, was formed to promote the 802.16
standards and to develop interoperability specifications. Initially targeted at fixed
BWA, IEEE 802.16 and the associated WiMAX specification now deal with both
fixed and mobile BWA. In this section, we provide an overview of the 802.16 and
WiMAX specifications, with an emphasis on the fixed BWA application. This sec-
tion is based on the 2012 version of IEEE 802.16.

IEEE 802.16 Architecture

Network Reference Model The WiMAX Forum has developed a logical rep-
resentation of the architecture of a network that implements WiMAX, called the
network reference model [WIMA12]. The model is useful in determining interface
points between logical functional entities that can be used as a guide for developing
interoperability standards. Figure 16.19 illustrates key elements of this model, which
include the following:
• Access Service Network (ASN): The set of network functions needed to pro-
vide radio access to WiMAX subscribers.
• Network Access Provider (NAP): A business entity that provides WiMAX
radio access infrastructure to one or more WiMAX Network Service
Providers.
• Connectivity Service Network (CSN): A set of network functions that pro-
vide IP connectivity services to WiMAX subscribers. These functions include
Internet access, authentication, and admission control based on user profiles.
• Network Service Provider (NSP): A business entity that provides IP connec-
tivity and WiMAX services to WiMAX subscribers.
• ASN Gateway: Provides connectivity from an ASN to an NSP. The gateway
performs such functions as routing and load balancing.
552 CHAPTER 16 / Long Range Communications

Fixed WiMAX Laptop Tablet Cell phone

modem

Access service Access service

network (ASN) network (ASN)
Network access provider (NAP)

Base stations Base stations

ASN gateway ASN gateway

Network service provider (NSP)

CSN server CSN server

Connectivity service Connectivity service

network (CSN) network (CSN)

Internet

Figure 16.19 Elements of the WiMAX Network Reference Model

The network architecture logically divides into three parts: subscriber stations
(SSs), the access service network, and the connectivity service networks. Subscribers
may be fixed or mobile. Fixed subscribers are at a fixed geographic location and con-
nect using a fixed WiMAX modem for broadband access. Fixed locations include
residential, business, and government entities. An ASN consists of one or more
BSs that are interconnected by a core network and connect to an ASN gateway.
The gateway connects to one or more CSNs, which provide broadband access to
the Internet. IEEE 802.16 standards are concerned with the air interface between
 16.5 / WiMAX/IEEE 802.16 553
the subscriber’s transceiver station and the base transceiver station. The standards
specify all the details of that interface, as discussed subsequently in this section. The
system reference model also shows interfaces between the transceiver stations and
the networks behind them. The details of these interfaces are beyond the scope of
the 802.16 standards. The reason for showing these interfaces in the system refer-
ence model is that the subscriber and core network technologies (such as voice,
ATM, etc.) have an impact on the technologies used in the air interface and the
services provided by the transceiver stations over the air interface.

Protocol Architecture Figure 16.20 illustrates the IEEE 802.16 protocol refer-
ence model. The physical layer includes the following:
• Encoding/decoding of signals
• Preamble generation/removal (for synchronization)
• Bit transmission/reception
• Frequency band and bandwidth allocation
The medium access control (MAC) layer is divided into three sublayers. The
security sublayer includes authentication, secure key exchange, and encryption.
Note that this sublayer is concerned with secure communication between the SS
and the ASN base station. Secure communication between the SS and the CSN is
handled at a higher layer.
The MAC common part sublayer includes the basic functions of any MAC layer:
• On transmission, assemble data into a protocol data unit (PDU) with address
and error detection fields.
• On reception, disassemble PDU, and perform address recognition and error
detection.
• Govern access to the wireless transmission medium.

IPv4 IPv6

IPv4 IPv6 Ethernet Ethernet ATM

Service-specific convergence sublayer

IEEE 802.16
MAC common part sublayer
layers

Security sublayer

Physical layer

Figure 16.20 IEEE 802.16 Protocol Architecture

554 CHAPTER 16 / Long Range Communications

This sublayer, between the BS and the SS, is responsible for sharing access to
the radio channel. Specifically, the MAC protocol defines how and when a BS or
SS may initiate transmission on the channel. Because some of the layers above the
MAC layer, such as ATM, require specified service levels (QoS), the MAC protocol
must be able to allocate radio channel capacity so as to satisfy service demands. In
the downstream direction (BS to SS), there is only one transmitter and the MAC
protocol is relatively simple. In the upstream direction, multiple SSs are competing
for access, resulting in a more complex MAC protocol.
The ­service-​­specific convergence sublayer provides functions specific to the
service being provided. A convergence layer protocol may do the following:
• Encapsulate PDU framing of upper layers into the native 802.16 MAC PDUs.
• Map an upper layer’s addresses into 802.16 addresses.
• Translate upper layer QoS parameters into native 802.16 MAC format.
• Adapt the time dependencies of the upper layer traffic into the equivalent
MAC service.

IEEE 802.16 MAC Layer

Data transmitted over the 802.16 air interface from or to a given subscriber are struc-
tured as a sequence of MAC PDUs. The term MAC PDU as used in this context refers
to the PDU that includes MAC protocol control information and h ­ igher-​­level data.
This is not to be confused with a TDMA burst, which consists of a sequence of time
slots, each dedicated to a given subscriber. A TDMA time slot may contain exactly
one MAC PDU, a fraction of a MAC PDU, or multiple MAC PDUs. The sequence
of time slots across multiple TDMA bursts that is dedicated to one subscriber forms a
logical channel, and MAC PDUs are transmitted over that logical channel.

Connections and Service Flow The 802.16 MAC protocol is connection ori-
ented. That is, a logical connection is set up between peer entities (MAC users) prior
to the exchange of data between those entities. Each MAC PDU includes a connec-
tion ID, which is used by the MAC protocol to deliver incoming data to the correct
MAC user. In addition, there is a ­one-​­to-​­one correspondence between a connection
ID and service flow. The service flow defines the QoS parameters for the PDUs that
are exchanged on the connection.
The concept of a service flow on a connection is central to the operation of the
MAC protocol. Service flows provide a mechanism for upstream and downstream
QoS management. In particular, they are integral to the bandwidth allocation pro-
cess. The BS allocates both upstream and downstream bandwidth on the basis of
the service flow for each active connection. Examples of service flow parameters are
latency (maximum acceptable delay), jitter (maximum acceptable delay variation),
and throughput (minimum acceptable bit rate).

PDU Format A good way to get a grasp of the MAC protocol is to examine the
PDU format (Figure 16.21). The MAC PDU consists of three sections:
• Header: Contains protocol control information needed for the functioning of
the MAC protocol.
 16.5 / WiMAX/IEEE 802.16 555
32 bits
48 bits ≥ 0 bits (optional)
MAC header Payload (optional) CRC

(a) Overall MAC PDU format

bits 11 6 11 2 1 11 16 8
E
E C Header check
0 Type 0 K 0 PDU length Connection identifier
C I sequence
S
(b) Generic MAC header format

11 3 19 16 8

1 0 Type Bandwidth request Connection identifier Header check

sequence

(c) Bandwidth request header format

CI = CRC indicator
EC = encryption control
EKS = encryption key sequence
Figure 16.21 IEEE 802.16 MAC PDU Formats

• Payload: The payload may be either ­higher-​­level data (e.g., an ATM cell, an IP
packet, a block of digital speech) or a MAC control message.
• CRC: The cyclic redundancy check field contains an e­ rror-​­detecting code. This
optional CRC covers both the header and the payload and is applied after the
payload is encrypted, if encryption is used.
Two types of headers are defined: the generic MAC header and the band-
width request header. The generic MAC header is used in both the downlink (BS
to SS) and uplink (SS to BS) directions. A MAC PDU with a generic header con-
tains either MAC management messages or convergence sublayer data. The generic
MAC header consists of the following fields:
• Header type (1 bit): This bit is set to zero indicating the header type is generic
MAC PDU.
• Encryption control (1 bit): Indicates whether the payload is encrypted.
• Type (6 bits): Indicates the subheaders and special payload types present in
the message payload.
• Reserved (1 bit): Reserved bit, set to zero.
• CRC indicator (1 bit): Indicates whether there is a 32-bit CRC after the
payload.
• Encryption key sequence (2 bits): An index into a vector of encryption key
information, to be used if the payload is encrypted.
• Reserved (1 bit): Reserved bit, set to zero.
• PDU length (11 bits): Length in bytes of the entire MAC PDU.
556 CHAPTER 16 / Long Range Communications

• Connection identifier (16 bits): A unidirectional, M

­ AC-​­layer address that
identifies a connection to equivalent peers in the subscriber and base sta-
tion MAC. A CID maps to an SFID, which defines the QoS parameters to the
service flow associated with that connection.
• Header check sequence (8 bits): An 8-bit CRC used to detect errors in the
header.
The type field contains bits that indicate the presence or absence of each of the
following subheaders at the beginning of the payload:
• Fragmentation subheader: Fragmentation is used to divide a ­ higher-​­
level
block of data [called a service data unit (SDU)] into two or more fragments in
order to reduce the size of MAC frames. This is done to allow efficient use of
available bandwidth relative to the QoS requirements of a connection’s ser-
vice flow. If fragmentation is used, then all of the fragments are assigned the
same fragment sequence number (FSN) in the fragmentation subheader. The
MAC user at the destination is responsible for reassembling all of the frag-
ments with the same FSN.
• Packing subheader: Packing is the process in which multiple MAC SDUs are
packed into a single MAC PDU payload. This subheader contains the infor-
mation needed for the receiving MAC entity to unpack the individual SDUs.
• Fast feedback allocation subheader: Only used in the downlink direction. It
requests feedback from a SS with an advanced antenna system.
• Grant management subheader: Only used in the uplink direction. It conveys
various information related to bandwidth management, such as polling request
and ­additional-​­bandwidth request.
The bandwidth request header is used by the subscriber to request addi-
tional bandwidth. This header is for a MAC frame with no payload. As shown in
Figure 16.21, this header includes many of the fields in the generic MAC header.
The 19-bit bandwidth request field indicates the number of bytes of capacity
requested for uplink transmission. The type field allows the SS to request band-
width for this connection only or aggregate bandwidth for all connections on this
uplink.

Scheduling Service and QOS An IEEE 802.16 network is designed to be

able to transfer many different types of traffic simultaneously, including r­eal-​­time
flows such as voice, video, and bursty TCP flows. Although each such traffic flow is
handled as a stream of PDUs traveling through a connection, the way in which each
data flow is handled by the BS depends on the characteristics of the traffic flow and
the requirements of the application. For example, ­real-​­time video traffic must be
delivered within minimum variation in delay. See Section 3.5 for more discussion on
traffic types and QoS requirements.
To accommodate the requirements of different types of traffic, IEEE 802.16
defines a number of different service classes. Each class is defined by certain general
characteristics and a particular service flow is defined by assigning values to a set of
QoS parameters. The most important of these parameters are the following:
 16.5 / WiMAX/IEEE 802.16 557
• Maximum sustained traffic rate: The peak information rate, in bits per second of
the service. The rate pertains to the SDUs at the input to the system. The parame-
ter is 6 bits in length and includes values in the range from 1200 bps to 1.921 Mbps.
• Minimum reserved traffic rate: The minimum rate, in bits per second, reserved
for this service flow. The BS shall be able to satisfy bandwidth requests for a
connection up to its minimum reserved traffic rate. If less bandwidth than its
minimum reserved traffic rate is requested for a connection, the BS may real-
locate the excess reserved bandwidth for other purposes. Values range from
1200 bps to 1.921 Mbps.
• Maximum latency: The maximum interval between the reception of a packet
at the convergence sublayer of the BS or the SS and the forwarding of the
SDU to its air interface. Values range from 1 ms to 10 s.
• Tolerated jitter: The maximum delay variation (jitter) for the connection.
Values range from 1 ms to 10 s.
• Traffic priority: The priority of the associated service flow. Given two ser-
vice flows identical in all QoS parameters besides priority, the h ­ igher-​­priority
­service flow should be given lower delay and higher buffering preference. For
otherwise nonidentical service flows, the priority parameter should not take
precedence over any conflicting service flow QoS parameter. Eight priority
levels are used.
Table 16.4 lists the principal QoS parameters used for each of the five service
classes defined in IEEE 802.16. The standard designates separate uplink and down-
link services. Corresponding services use the same QoS parameter set. The principal

Table 16.4 IEEE 802.16 Service Classes and QoS Parameters

Scheduling Service Data Delivery

(uplink) Service (downlink) Applications QoS Parameters
Unsolicited grant Unsolicited grant VoIP • Minimum reserved traffic rate
service (UGS) service (UGS) • Maximum latency
• Tolerated jitter
­Real-​­time polling ­Real-​­time ­variable-​ Streaming audio or • Minimum reserved traffic rate
service (rtPS) ­rate (­RT-​­VR) service video • Maximum sustained traffic rate
• Maximum latency
• Traffic priority
­Non-​­real-​­time polling ­Non-​­real-​­time FTP • Minimum reserved traffic rate
service (nrtPS) ­variable-​­rate • Maximum sustained traffic rate
(­NRT-​­VR) service • Traffic priority
Best effort (BE) Best effort (BE) Data transfer, Web • Maximum sustained traffic rate
service service browsing, etc. • Traffic priority
Extended rtPS Extended ­real-​­time VoIP (voice with • Minimum reserved traffic rate
­variable-​­rate service activity detection) • Maximum sustained traffic rate
(­ERT-​­VR) • Maximum latency
• Tolerted jitter
• Traffic priority
558 CHAPTER 16 / Long Range Communications

difference is that for two of the service classes, polling is involved in the uplink
transmission. Downlink transmission from the BS does not use polling, as there is a
single transmitter, the BS.
The unsolicited grant service (UGS) is intended for ­real-​­time applications that
generate ­fixed-​­rate data. A service flow with a data delivery service of UGS gets uplink
resources assigned at uniform periodic intervals without requesting them each time
(Figure 16.22). UGS is commonly used for uncompressed audio and video informa-
tion. On the downlink, the BS generates f­ ixed-​­rate data as a uniform stream of PDUs.
Examples of UGS applications include videoconferencing and distance learning.

Fixed Fixed Fixed Fixed

(a) Unsolicited packet size packet size packet size packet size
grant service
Time

Uniform periodic intervals

Unicast polls

Data Data Data Data

(b) Real-time
polling service Time

Uniform periodic intervals

Unicast polls

(c) Non-real-time Data Data Data Data

polling service
Time

Variable interval size

(d) Best effort Data Data Data Data

service
Time

Non-deterministic time intervals

Figure 16.22 IEEE 802.16 Services
 16.5 / WiMAX/IEEE 802.16 559
The ­real-​­time variable rate (­RT-​­VR) downlink service is intended for ­time-​
­sensitive applications, that is, those requiring tightly constrained delay and delay
variation. The principal difference between applications appropriate for ­RT-​­VR
and those appropriate for UGS is that R ­ T-​­VR applications transmit at a rate that
varies with time. For example, the standard approach to video compression results
in a sequence of image frames of varying sizes. Because r­ eal-​­time video requires a
uniform frame transmission rate, the actual data rate varies. On the downlink, ­RT-​
­VR is implemented by transmitting the available data at uniform periodic intervals.
On the uplink, the service is called ­real-​­time polling service (rtPS). The BS issues a
unicast poll (poll directed at a SS station) at periodic intervals, enabling the SS to
transmit a block of data in each interval (Figure 16.22b). The ­RT-​­VR/rtPS service
allows the network more flexibility than UGS. The network is able to statistically
multiplex a number of connections over the same dedicated capacity and still pro-
vide the required service to each connection.
The extended ­real-​­time variable rate (­ERT-​­VR) service is to support r­eal-​
­time applications with variable data rates, which require guaranteed data and delay,
for example, VoIP with silence suppression. On the uplink, this service is called
extended rtPS. As with UGS, the BS provides unicast grants of bandwidth in an
unsolicited manner, thus saving the latency of a bandwidth request. However, in this
case the allocations are variable in size, based on the amount of traffic so far carried.
On the downlink side, the BS transmits PDUs over the service flow in varying sizes
and at varying intervals, to keep up with the service flow QoS.
The ­non-​­real-​­time ­variable-​­rate (­NRT-​­VR) service is intended for applications
that have bursty traffic characteristics, do not have tight constraints on delay and
delay variation, but for which it is possible to characterize the expected traffic flow
and therefore set QoS parameters. An example is file transfer. On the downlink,
the BS transmits data at variable intervals, to satisfy the minimum and maximum
data rate requirements of the service flow. On the uplink, the service is called ­non-​­­
real-​­time polling service (nrtPS). The BS issues polls at varying intervals, depending
on how much data has so far been transferred, so as to keep up with the required
flow (Figure 16.22c).
At any given time, a certain amount of capacity between the BS and SSs is
unused by the four classes of service so far discussed. This capacity is available for
the best effort (BE) service. This service is suitable for applications that can tolerate
variable delays and rates. Most applications running over TCP exhibit such toler-
ance. On the uplink, the SS sends requests for bandwidth in either random access
slots (time slots in which SSs contend for access) or using dedicated transmission
opportunities.

IEEE 802.16 Physical Layer

The IEEE 802.16 physical layer set of standards is still evolving, but is sufficiently
stable to form the basis of widespread WiMAX implementation and deployment.
The 2012 standard devotes almost 600 pages to the physical layer specification. Here
we provide a brief overview.
The 802.16 specification defines three principal air interfaces, summarized in
Table 16.5. All of these operate in licensed frequency bands. In addition, there are
modifications to these specifications for operation in unlicensed bands below 11 GHz.
560 CHAPTER 16 / Long Range Communications

Table 16.5 IEEE 802.16 Physical Layer Modes

­WirelessMAN-​­SC ­WirelessMAN-​­OFDM ­WirelessMAN-​­OFDMA

Frequency band 10 to 66 GHz … 11 GHz … 11 GHz
LOS limitation LOS NLOS NLOS
Duplexing TDD, FDD TDD, FDD TDD, FDD
technique
Uplink access TDMA, DAMA OFDM OFDMA
Downlink access TDM, TDMA OFDM OFDMA
Downlink QPSK, 16-QAM, QPSK, 16-QAM, QPSK, 16-QAM,
modulation 64-QAM 64-QAM, BPSK 64-QAM, BPSK
Uplink modulation QPSK, 16-QAM, QPSK, 16-QAM, QPSK, 16-QAM,
64-QAM 64-QAM, BPSK 64-QAM, BPSK
Channel size 20 to 28 MHz 1.75 to 20 MHZ 1.25 to 20 MHZ
Subcarrier spacing N/A 11.16 kHz 11.16 kHz
Data rate 32 to 134 Mbps … 70 Mbps … 70 Mbps
Downlink FEC ­Reed-​­Solomon ­Reed-​­Solomon Convolutional
Uplink FEC ­Reed-​­Solomon ­Reed-​­Solomon Convolutional

­WirelessMAN-​­SC The ­WirelessMAN-​­SC interface is intended for use in the

10–66 GHz bands. In this region, due to the short wavelength, line of sight (LOS) is
required and multipath is negligible. This environment is well suited for PMP ­access
serving applications from small office/home office (SOHO) through m ­ edium-​­to
­large-​­office applications. Thus, this standard is suited for fixed wireless broadband
access but does not support mobile stations.
Uplink transmission, from SSs, is based on a combination of ­time-​­division
multiple access (TDMA) and ­demand-​­assignment multiple access (DAMA).
TDMA employs a single, relatively large, uplink frequency band that is used to
transmit a sequence of time slots. Repetitive time slots are assigned to an individ-
ual subscriber station to form a logical subchannel. When DAMA is employed, the
­time-​­slot assignment is changed as needed to respond optimally to demand changes
among the multiple stations.
Downlink transmission from the BS is TDM, with the information for each
SS multiplexed onto a single stream of data and received by all SSs within the same
sector. To support SSs that operate in a h ­ alf-​­duplex mode with f­requency-​­division
duplex (FDD), the standard makes provision for a TDMA portion of the downlink.
With TDMA, the downlink time slots are scheduled to coordinate the interchange
with specific SSs.

­WirelessMAN-​­OFDM The ­WirelessMAN-​­OFDM interface operates below

11 GHz. In this region, due to the short wavelength, LOS is not necessary and mul-
tipath may be significant. The ability to support ­near-​­LOS and ­non-​­LOS (NLOS)
scenarios requires additional p­ hysical-​­layer functionality, such as the support of
advanced power management techniques, interference mitigation/coexistence,
and MIMO antennas. Both uplink and downlink transmission use OFDM. Both
 16.5 / WiMAX/IEEE 802.16 561
Table 16.6 Data Rates Achieved at Various ­WirelessMAN-​­OFDM Bandwidths

Modulation QPSK QPSK 16-QAM 16-QAM 64-QAM 64-QAM

Code Rate 1/2 3/4 1/2 3/4 2/3 3/4

1.75 MHz 1.04 2.18 2.91 4.36 5.94 6.55
3.5 MHz 2.08 4.37 5.82 8.73 11.88 13.09
7.0 MHz 4.15 8.73 11.64 17.45 23.75 26.18
10.0 MHz 8.31 12.47 16.63 24.94 33.25 37.40
20.0 MHz 16.62 24.94 33.25 49.87 66.49 74.81

­WirelessMAN-​­OFDM and ­WirelessMAN-​­OFDMA are suitable for an environ-

ment that includes mobile SSs.
­WirelessMAN-​­OFDM supports a range of channel bandwidths. Table 16.6
shows likely data rates achievable for various bandwidths.

­WirelessMAN-​­OFDMA ­WirelessMAN-​­OFDMA is an enhanced version of

­ irelessMAN-​­
W OFDM that provides added flexibility and efficiency by the use
of OFDMA. Figure 16.23 is an example of how ­WirelessMAN-​­OFDMA operates us-
ing ­time-​­division duplex (TDD). Transmission is structured as a sequence of frames,
each of which includes a downlink (DL) subframe followed by an uplink (UL) sub-
frame. In each frame, a time gap is inserted between the DL and UL subframes
and at the end of each frame to allow for transmission turnaround. Each DL sub-
frame begins with a preamble used to synchronize all stations. This is followed by a
­DL-​­MAP pattern, which indicates how all of the subchannels are allocated in the DL

Time gap
Downlink subframe Uplink subframe

Ranging subchannel
FCH
(carrying the UL MAP)

DL burst #3 UL burst #1
DL burst #1

UL burst #2
Frequency (subchannels)

DL burst #4
Preamble

DL-MAP

UL burst #3
DL burst #5

DL burst #2 UL burst #4
DL burst #6

UL burst #5

Time
Figure 16.23 IEEE 802.16 OFDMA Frame Structure in TDD Mode
562 CHAPTER 16 / Long Range Communications

subframe and a frame control header (FCH). The FCH provides frame configuration
information, such as the MAP message length, the modulation and coding scheme,
and the usable subcarriers. The remainder of the DL subframe is divided into bursts,
with each burst occupying a contiguous set of subchannels for a contiguous set of
time intervals. One of these bursts is the ­UL-​­MAP pattern. The remaining bursts con-
tain data, each burst intended for a specific SS. The UL subframe is similarly divided
into bursts. One of these bursts is the ranging subchannel, which is allocated for SSs
to perform c­ losed-​­loop time, frequency, and power adjustment as well as bandwidth
requests. The remaining bursts are allocated to SSs for transmission to the BS.
TDD, by its structure, readily supports ­half-​­duplex transmission, because UL and
DL transmissions must alternate in time. This is not the case with FDD. Figure 16.24
shows how the structure of FDD ­WirelessMAN-​­OFDMA supports ­half-​­duplex oper-
ation. The FDD frame structure supports both ­full-​­duplex and ­half-​­duplex SS types.
The frame structure supports a coordinated transmission arrangement of two groups
of ­half-​­duplex SSs (­Group-​­1 and ­Group-​­2) that share the frame at distinct partitions
of the frame. In each frame, one portion of the frequency band is devoted to DL
transmission and one portion to UL transmission. The DL transmission consists of
two subframes, the first for G ­ roup-​­1 and the second for G­ roup-​­2. The UL transmis-
sion consists of a G­ roup-​­2 subframe followed by a G ­ roup-​­1 subframe. Time gaps are
inserted between subframes to enable both turnaround and ­half-​­duplex operation.

Time

OFDMA frame duration

Next frame
DL subframe 1 DL subframe 2
Preamble

Preamble
MAP1

MAP1

MAP1
DL1 DL2
Frequency

TTG2 TTG1

RTG2 RTG1

UL2 UL1

UL subframe 2 UL subframe 1

TTG = transmitter-to-receiver gap

RTG = receiver-to-transmitter gap
Figure 16.24 IEEE 802.16 OFDMA Frame Structure in FDD Mode