Condensed Chemistry Curriculum

From Grade 9 – 11
Designed for Grade 11 Tutorial Program

Lesson 9 - 12

December, 2025
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
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 Preface
Dear teachers,

Addis Ababa city administration education bureau has prepared this condensed chemistry curriculum
highlighting on the core lesson notes and selected some key questions based on the syllabus and past exam
papers. In addition, this curriculum is delivered in one month. Thus, it would give the students a solid
foundation about solution Stoichiometry, gas laws, colloids and solubility.

As a professional, feel free to modify, add extra explanations, or include examples that you think will help
students especially if you know where they usually struggle. Moreover, you can bring in your own teaching
experiences; employ different techniques to keep the students engaged for the 8-hour tutorial classes.

Generally, the program emphasizes ensuring students’ engagement in ample practices and completing the
sessions with greater confidence that would enhance their readiness for the university entrance examination.

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 Lesson 9
Preparation of solutions and Solution stoichiometry
At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

Write the steps to prepare molar solution

Explain dilution process
Calculate the volume or concentration change during dilution of solution
Use stoichiometric ally equivalent molar ratios to calculate amounts of reactants and products in a
reaction of pure and dissolved substance.
explain the relationship between reacting ions, spectator ions, precipitation and solubility; and write net
ionic equations.

Questions for discussion

Answer the following questions correctly
1. Discuss the difference between stoichiometry involving pure substances and stoichiometry involving
solutions
2. If 50 mL of 2 M NaOH is diluted to 250 mL, what is the new concentration?
3. What volumes of 0.125M sucrose(C12H22O11) contains 1.204 x1023 molecules of glucose?

Preparation of solutions

Aqueous solutions are prepared using distilled, de-mineralized or de-ionized water.

Steps for preparing a solution:

1. the solute is accurately weighed

2. the weighed solute transferred to a volumetric flask,
3. water is added through a funnel
4. the solid is slowly dissolved by gently swirling the flask
5. After all the solid has dissolved, more water is slowly added to bring the level of solution exactly to the
volume mark.

Diluting Solutions
Dilution is the procedure for preparing a less-concentrated solution from a more concentrated one. During
dilution, concentration and volume change but number of mole of solute remain the same.
Number of moles of solute before dilution = Number of moles of solute after dilution
Since number of moles of solute = molarity × volume of solution = M × V
Number of moles of solute before dilution = MiVi
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Number of moles of solute after dilution = MfVf
Therefore, dilution can be expressed as MiVi = MfVf or, more generally, CiVi=CfVf
Where Ci is initial concentration, Cf is final concentration,
Vi is initial volume and Vf is final volume.
Example : You have 2L of solution that has a concentration of 2M. how much water do you need to add in
order to make the concentration 1.25M?
Solution
CiVi = CfVf, Vf = 4/1.25= 3.2L amount of water needed = Vf - Vi = 1.2L

SOLUTION STOICHIOMETRY
Stoichiometry is the study of the quantitative composition of substances and the relationship that exists between
the reactants and the products involved in chemical reactions.
Solution stoichiometry differs from pure-substances stoichiometry in that the amount of a pure substance can be
obtained by dividing given mass to molar mass. However, the number of mole for solution is obtained from the
product of molarity & volume. i. e
Number of mole = Concentration x Volume
There are basically 3 types of solution stoichiometry problems:
1. mole –mass solution stoichiometry problem
-it is used to determine the mole of substance from given mass and vice versa.
Worked example
What volume of 1M HCl solution is required to react with 6 g of magnesium?
Reaction: Mg (s) + 2HCl (aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2
solution
number of mole of Mg= 6/24= 0.25 mole,
From the balanced equation
1mole of Mg = 2 mole of HCl
0.25 mole Mg = x
Therefore, X =0.5mole of HCl. Then V= n x C = 0.5mole x 1mole/L=0.5L
2. Mole-Volume Problems
In this type of problem, the concentration of the solution is given, and you are asked to determine the volume of
the solution that contains a required number of moles or viceversa.

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Example: What volume of 0.5M KOH solution is needed to react with 25ml of 0.25M H 2SO4?
x 6.25mmol
2KOH + H2SO4 K2SO4 +2H2SO4 nH2SO4 = CxV = 6.25mmol
2 1
X = nKOH = 12.5mmol
VKOH = = 25mmol

3. Mole-Number of Particles Problems

1mole = 6.02 x1023 particles (atoms, molecules,ions&formula units)
Worked example
What volume of 0.5 M glucose (C6H12O6) contains 3.01 × 1022 molecules of glucose?
Solution:
We first change 3.01 × 1022 molecules of glucose to moles of glucose.
1 mole of glucose contains 6.02 × 102 molecules.
Therefore, 3.01 × 1022 molecules of glucose will be:
1 mol × 3.01 × 1022 molecule/6.02 × 1023 molecule = 0.05 mol
Since, Number of moles = Concentration × Volume
Volume = n/C 0.05mol/0.5M = 0.1 L = 100 mL
DESCRIBING REACTIONS IN SOLUTION
Reaction involving ions can be presented with different types of chemical equations.
Molecular Equation
A molecular equation is a chemical equation in which the reactants and the products are written as if they were
molecular substances, even though they may actually exist in solution as ions. Consider the reaction between
calcium chloride, CaCl2, and sodium carbonate, Na2CO3 in aqueous solution to give solid calcium carbonate
and aqueous sodium chloride. The equation for this reaction may be written as:
CaCl2(aq) +Na2CO3(aq) → CaCO3(s) +2NaCl(aq)
Ionic Equation
-it is a chemical equation that contain ions. For the above equation, the complete equation will be:
Ca2+(aq) + 2Cl–(aq) + 2Na+(aq) + CO32–(aq) → CaCO3(s) + 2Na+(aq) + 2Cl–(aq)
The ions appearing on both sides of the equation but don’t involve in net ionic eqn. are called spectator [Link]
the above e.g (Na+ &Cl-) are spectator ions.
An ionic equation obtained after removing the spectator ion(s) is known as net ionic equation. For the above
above example, Ca2+(aq) + CO32–(aq) → CaCO3(s) is net ionic equation.
Note: Insoluble solids, gases and liquids do not appear in ionic form in the ionic equation.
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Exam style questions

Part I: Choose the correct answer from the given alternative

1. Which type of water is used for preparing aqueous solutions in the laboratory?
A. Tap water C. Distilled or de-ionized water
B. Rain water D. Mineral water
2. During dilution of a solution, the number of moles of solute:
A. Increase B. decreases C. remains the same D. doubles
3. You have 100ml of a 0.5M HCl solution and you want to dilute it to exactly [Link] much water
should you add?
A.400 B. 500 C.100 D. 50
4. What volume of 0.5M glucose, C6H12O6 contains 12.04x1022 molecules of glucose?
A.0.1L B.0.4L C.2.5L D.1L
5. In the ionic equation for Na₂SO₄(aq) + BaCl₂(aq), which are spectator ions?
A. Na⁺ and Cl⁻ B. Ba²⁺ and SO₄²⁻ C. Na⁺ and Ba²⁺ D. Cl⁻ and SO₄²⁻
6. What happens to concentration when volume increases during dilution?
A. It increases C. It remains constant
B. It decreases D. It doubles
Part II : Give short answer

7. What volume of 6 M HCl is needed to prepare 300 mL of 1.5 M HCl?

8. A chemistry teacher has 2.5 L of 3 M solution. To dilute it to 1 M, what total volume should the solution
be diluted to?
9. How much water must be added in question 8?
10. What volume of 1.5 M NaOH is required to completely neutralize 30 mL of 1 M H₂SO₄?
11. How many grams of NaCl will form when 50 mL of 0.5 M HCl reacts with excess NaOH?
12. Write the molecular equation for the reaction between BaCl₂(aq) and Na₂SO₄(aq).
13. Write the complete ionic equation for question 12
14. Identify the spectator ions in question 12
15. Write the net ionic equation for the reaction for question 12

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 Lesson 10

Gas laws (Boyle’s, Charles’, Gay-lussacs’ and the Combined Gas Law)

At the end of this section, the students will be able to:

 Describe the physical states of matter

 Give examples for each of the three physical states of matter
 Compare and contrast the three physical states of matter.
 Explain the behavior of gases by using the variables volume, temperature and pressure
 Analyze the gas laws
 Develop skills in solving problems to which the gas laws apply
Introduction
Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass that exists in three physical states namely;
solid, liquid and gas.
The fourth physical state is called the plasma state and it exists at a very high temperature (million degrees
Celsius). At such high temperatures molecules cannot exist and atoms are stripped off their electrons

Kinetic theory and properties of matter

The kinetic theory of matter
1. The three states of matter in which substances are chemically the same but physically different are
explained by the kinetic theory of matter
2. The kinetic theory of matter gives an explanation on the nature of the motion and the heat energy.
3. According to the kinetic theory of matter, every substance consists of a very large number of very
small particles called ions, atoms and molecules.
4. The particles are in a state of continuous and random motion with all possible velocities.
5. The motion of the particles increases with a rise in temperature
Generally, the kinetic theory of matter is based on the following assumptions:
a. All matter is composed of particles that are constantly moving.
b. All particles have kinetic energy and potential energy.
c. Molecules in the solid phase have the least amount of energy, while gas particles have the greatest
amount of energy.
d. The difference between the three states of matter is the energy contents they have and the motion of
the particles.
e. A change in phase may occur when the energy of the particles is changed.
f. The temperature of a substance is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles
g. There are spaces between particles of matter. The average amount of empty space between
molecules gets progressively larger as a sample of matter moves from the solid to the liquid and gas
phases.
h. There are attractive forces between atoms/molecules, and these become stronger as the particles
move closer together.
i. These attractive forces are called intermolecular forces

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 Properties of matter
Solids
 They rigid and have fixed volume and fixed shape.
 They cannot be compressed.
 They have higher densities than liquids and gases
 The particles of gases are usually packed closer than those in liquids and gases and also highly
organized.
Liquids
 They have definite volume but do not have a definite shape. They take the shape of their container.
 They are slightly compressible
 They have have the ability to flow.
 The particles vibrate about a point, and constantly shift their positions.
Gases

 They have neither definite volume nor definite shape

 Takes the shape and volume of its container.
 They are highly compressible
 There are large amounts of empty space between the particles.
The kinetic molecular theory of gases
The kinetic molecular theory of gases is a simple model for understanding the behavior of gases that
predicts the correct behavior for most gases under many conditions
Assumptions of the kinetic molecular theory of gases:
 A gas is a collection of particles (molecules) in constant, straight-line motion.
 Gas particles do not attract or repel each other, they do not interact.
 The particles collide with each other and with the surfaces around them, but they bounce back
from these collisions like pool balls.
 There is a lot of space between gas particles compared with the size of the particles themselves.
 The average kinetic energy of gas particles is proportional to the temperature of the gas in kelvins

The Gas Laws

The gas laws express mathematical relationships between the volume, temperature, pressure, and quantity of a
gas.

1. Boyle’s Law
It explains about the relationship between the volume and pressure of a fixed amount of a gas at constant
temperature

This law states that the volume of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to the pressure at a constant
temperature. This means that at constant temperature, doubling the pressure on a sample of gas reduces its
volume by one-half, and tripling the gas pressure reduces its volume to one-third of the original.

Mathematically: V
PV = K Where k is constant at a specific temperature
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 Under two different conditions, if P1V1 = K and P2V2 = K, since K is the same;
P1V1 = P2V2
Example1. At standard temperature, the volume of a particular gas was measured to be 67.2L under standard
pressure. If the pressure is increased to 1520mm Hg, what is the new volume the gas?

Given, V1 = 67.2 L
P1 = 1 atm. (standard pressure)
P2 = 1520mm Hg (2 atm.)
Required, V2 = ?
From P1V1 = P2V2,
V2 = = = 33.6L
2. Charles’ Law
A French physicist Jacques Charles proposed the law that describes about the relationship between the volume
and temperature of a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure.

This law state that the volume of a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure varies directly with the Kelvin
temperature. This means that if the temperature in Kelvin scale of a gas is doubled, the volume is also doubled
and if the temperature is halved, the volume is also halved.

Mathematically V α T
=K

Under two different conditions, =

Example: 1. At 25 °C and 1 atm, a gas occupies a volume of 1.5 dm3. What volume (in L) will it occupy at 100
°C and 1 atm?

Given, T1 = 25 °C = 298K

V1 = 1.5 dm3

T2 = 100 °C = 373K

Required, V2 = ?

From = ,

V2 = = = 1.88 dm3 = 1L

3. Gay Lussac’s Law

A French scientist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac studied how the pressure and temperature of a fixed amount of
gas at constant volume are related. That is why it is also called the pressure-temperature law

Gay Lussac’s law states at constant volume, pressure of a fixed amount of a gas varies directly with the
temperature.

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Mathematically: P T

=K

Under two different conditions: = K and =K

Since K is constant, =

Examples: [Link] pressure of a gas in a cylinder when heated to a temperature of 250 K is 1.5 atm. What is the
initial temperature of the gas if its initial pressure was 1.0 atm?

Given; T2 = 250 K Req. T1 = ?

P2 = 1.5 atm From = , T1 = =

P1 = 1.0 atm T1 = 166.67 K

4. The Combined Gas Law

Sometimes, a sample of a gas can undergo simultaneous changes in temperature, pressure, and volume. In
such cases, the three variables should be considered at the same time.
Combined gas law is the gas law that expresses the relationship between pressure, volume, and temperature
of a fixed amount of gas in one mathematical equation.
From Boyle’s law: V
PV = K
From Charles’ law: V α T
=K
From Gay Lussac’s law: P T
=K
The combined gas law is the derivative of these laws and is given by:
PV T
=K

Under different conditions, =

From this formula it is possible to derive formula for P 1, V1, T1, P2, V2 and T2

Example: 1. A 140 mL sample of gas exerts a pressure of 330 mm Hg at 25 °C. At what temperature in °C
would it exert a pressure of 470 mm Hg in a volume of 220 mL?

Given: V1 = 140 mL, P1 = 330 mm Hg, T1 = 25 °C = 298 K, P2 = 470 mm Hg, V2 = 220 mL Req. T2 = ?

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From = , T2 =

T2 = = 667 K = 394°C

Exam type questions

PART I. Choose the correct answer from the given alternatives

1. Which of the following is correct about the physical states of matter?

A. Gases particles are more compacted than liquids and solids

B. Solid particles vibrate relative to one another but continuously change their position

C. At a given temperature the kinetic energy of gases is greater than that of liquids and solids

D. At a given temperature, solid particles possess large volume of space than liquids and gases

2. According to Gay Lussac's law:

A. The volume of a gas is directly proportional to the kelvin temperature under constant pressure

B. The pressure and the temperature of a fixed volume of gas are directly related to each other

C. The volume of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its number of moles

D. The pressure and the temperature of a fixed volume of gas are inversely related to each other

3. Which one of the following happens when the Kelvin temperature of a fixed amount of gas is increased?
A. The number of moles of the gas increases

B. The stability of the gas molecules increases

C. The velocity of the gas particles increases

D. The collision between the molecules decreases

4. At 27 °C and a pressure of 3 atm , a quantity of gas has a volume of 30 L. What will be the volume of the
gas under STP conditions?
A. 60 L B. 40.95 L C. 81.9 L D. 15 L

5. A sample of argon gas occupies 100 L under a pressure of 2280 mm Hg at 30 °C. What volume would it
occupy at 30 °C if the pressure were changed to 1.5atm?
A. 200 L B. 100 L C. 300 L D. 150 L

6. Particles of matter that collide with the wall of the container with very high rate are that of:
A. Solids B. Gases C. liquids D. Plasma

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PART II. Give the correct answer for the following questions

7. Explain about the volume of gases in terms of change in temperature and change in pressure
8. What are the variables that mentioned in Gay Lussac’s law? Explain the relation of these variables
9. How much moles of CO2 gas occupies a volume twice that of 5 moles of CO gas at STP?
10. The volume of the gas in a container is 112L at a temperature of 323K and pressure 3040 torr. At what
temperature does the gas occupy a volume of 560 L, if the pressure is lowered to 1570 torr?

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 Lesson 11
Gas laws (Avogadro’s law, Ideal Gas equation, Graham’s law of Diffusion)

At the end of this section, the students will be able to:

 Explain the behavior of gases by using the variables volume and number of moles
 Compare the nature of real gases with ideal gases
 Solve problems related to the ideal gas equation
 Define diffusion
 State Graham’s law of diffusion
 Solve problems related to Graham’s law of diffusion
Avogadro’s law
The main concept in Avogadro’s law is that at the same temperature and pressure, equal volumes of all gases contain
equal numbers of moles.

Mathematically: V n

=K
This equation states that for a gas at constant temperature and pressure, the volume is directly proportional to
the number of moles (molecules) of gas.

Under two different conditions, =

The volume occupied by a mole of gas at STP, is called the standard molar volume. It is nearly constant for all
gases. The standard molar volume of an ideal gas is equal to 22.4 L per mole at STP. For an ideal gas: 1 mole of
a gas = 22.4 L.

Example: [Link] volume in liters is contained by 213 g of Nitrogen gas at STP?

Given m = 213g

Required V = ?

First convert the given mass in to mole

1 mol of N2 = 28g

? = 213 g

= 7.6 mol

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Calculate volume from the number of mole:

1mol = 22.4 L = 170.24 L

7.6 mol = ?

The ideal gas equation

An ideal gas is a hypothetical gas that obeys the gas laws. Real gases only obey the ideal gas laws closely at high
temperature and low pressure. Under these conditions their particles are very far apart.

The ideal gas law is a combination of Boyle’s law, Charles’ law and Avogadro’s law

Boyle’s law: V α P (at constant T and n)

Charles’ law: V α T (at constant P and n)

Avogadro’s law: V α n (at constant P and T)

This relationship indicates how the volume of gas depends on pressure, temperature and number of moles.

From the above relations it can be deduced that: V

VP = RnT

R is proportionality constant called gas constant and its value is derived from:

R= = = 0.0821

The equation VP = RnT is the ideal gas equation

Example: 1. A balloon was filled with SO2 gas which has a volume of 25 ft 3. How many grams of SO2 gas
would be required to inflate this balloon to a pressure of 1140 torr at 25 °C? (1 ft 3 = 28.3 L)

Given; V = 25 ft 3 = 707.5L

P = 1140 torr. = 1.5 atm

T = 25 °C = 298 K

Required m = ?

The mass is derived from the number of moles (n)

From PV = nRT , n=

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n= = 43.43 mol

m=nxM

m = 43.43 mol x 64g/mol = 2779.52 g

Graham’s Law of Diffusion

What is diffusion?

Diffusion is spreading of gas molecules throughout the container.

A Scottish chemist Thomas Graham studied the rate of diffusion of different gases and proposed that gases
having low densities diffuse faster than gases that have higher densities.

Based on his observations, he postulated the relationship between the density of a gas and its rate of diffusion,
which is known as Graham’s law of diffusion.

Graham’s law of diffusion states that, at constant temperature and pressure, the rate of diffusion of a gas, r, is
inversely proportional to the square root of its density, d, or molar mass, M.

Mathematically:

Where:

r = rate of diffusion

d = density

M = molar mass of the gas

For two gases (Gas 1 and Gas 2), their rates of diffusion can be given as

By rearranging the above two equations, we obtain:

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The rate at which a gas diffuses is also inversely proportional to the time it takes to move a certain distance.
Mathematically this can be defined as:
r

If two different gases (gas 1 and gas 2) under the same conditions of temperature and pressure diffuse through a
porous container, then the time required to diffuse for the two gases can be given by the following formula:

= =√
Example 1: Under a given condition, if f CO2 Gas diffuses at a rate of 2.4 x10 -4mol/hr, what is the rate of
diffusion of SO2 under the same condition?

Given = 2.4 x 10-4

Required =?

= = 2.0 x 10-4 mol/hr

Hydrogen gas diffuses at the rate of 2.0 x 10-4 mol/hr

Exam type questions

I. Choose the correct answer from the given alternatives

1. Among the following gases, which gas diffuses more rapidly?

A. Kr B O2 C. N2 D. H2

2. What is the molecular mass of a gaseous compound having a density of 4.95 g/L at -35 °C and 1020 torr?
A. 85 g/mol B. 120 g/mol C. 72 g/mol D. 24 g/mol

3. A balloon was filled with nitrogen gas which has a volume of 1.5L. How many grams of nitrogen gas would
be required to inflate this balloon to a pressure of 1560 torr at 45 °C?
A. 0.12 B. 11.5 C. 26 D. 3.2

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4. Under what conditions do real gases obey gas laws?
A. High pressure and high temperature

B. Low pressure and low temperature

C. High temperature and low pressure

D. High pressure and low temperature

5. Which of the following is correct according to Graham's low of diffusion?

A. The density of a gas is directly proportional to the square root of the rate of diffusion

B. The Rate of diffusion of a gas is directly proportional to the square root of its density

C. The density of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of the rate of diffusion

D. The Rate of diffusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its density

6. “Equal volumes of different gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal numbers of
molecules”; this is a statement of:
A. Gay Lussac's law C. Avogadro's law

B. Thomas Graham's law D. Ideal gas law

7. As the time for diffusion of a gas is elongated, the rate of diffusion of the gas will be:
A. Increased C. Decreased

B. Remains the same D There is no relation between time and rate of diffusion

8. At STP, 3 moles of CO2 gas will have:

A. A volume of 67.2 L C A mass of 132 g

B. 1.8 x 1024 molecules D. All are correct answers

9. The rate diffusion of CO is greater than that of CO2. This is because:

A. CO2 is more stable than CO

B. CO is more reactive than CO2

C. The molar mass of CO is less than that of CO2

D. The density of CO is greater than that of CO2

10. Which one of the following conditions can affect the rate of diffusion of gases?
A. Change in temperature C. Change in the duration or time of diffusion

B. Change in pressure D. All can affect the rate of diffusion

17
 Lesson 12
Colloids and Solubility as an Equilibrium Process

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

 Define a colloid and distinguish it from a true solution and a suspension;
 Explain the characteristic properties of colloids, using examples;
 Define solubility and explain factors affecting it;
 Describe the distinctions among unsaturated, saturated and supersaturated solutions.
Questions for discussion
Answer the following questions correctly
1. How do the characteristic properties of colloids such as the Tyndall effect, and stability help us
identify them from daily life?
2. How does the Tyndall effect help differentiate colloids from true solutions?
3. What happens to the solubility of sugar when temperature increases? Explain using molecular
interactions.
Colloids
They are heterogeneous mixtures in which insoluble particles of one or more substances are suspended
uniformly throughout another substance.
Properties of Colloids
 A colloid appears to be homogeneous but actually, it is heterogeneous.
 Its particle size is between suspensions and solutions.
 The particles of a colloid cannot be seen through naked eye.
 The particles of colloids do not settle down if left uninterrupted.
 We cannot separate the particles of a colloid through filtration.
 We use a method called Centrifugation to separate the particles of a colloid.
 Colloids are stable in nature.
 A colloid scatters a beam of light passing through it. As a result, these rays as well as colloidal particles
become visible.
 The phenomenon in which the particles in a colloid scatter the beams of light that are directed at them
and make the path of the light beam visible is called Tyndall effect.

18
Types of Colloids
 Based on the dispersed (internal) and dispersion (external or continuous) medium there are 8 different
types of colloidal solutions.
 The component present in smaller proportions is the dispersed phase while the one present in greater
proportion is the dispersion medium.

Table 1 Types of colloids

Dispersed Phase Dispersing Medium Type Example
Liquid Gas Aerosol Fog, clouds, mist
Solid Gas Aerosol Smoke, automobile exhaust
Gas Liquid Foam Shaving cream
Liquid Liquid Emulsion Milk, face cream
Solid Liquid Sol Milk of magnesia, mud
Gas Solid Foam Foam, rubber, sponge, pumice
Liquid Solid Gel Jelly, cheese, butter
Solid Solid Solid sol Colored Gemstone, milky glass

Coagulation
 It is the process in which colloidal particles come together and settle down, losing stability.
 It is the process by which the dispersed phase of a colloid is made to aggregate and thereby separate
from the continuous phase.
Example: The curdling of milk when it sours

Association Colloid
 It is formed from certain special molecules called surfactants (like soaps/detergents) associate to form
micelles. Many surfactant molecules join to form spherical structures called micelles.
 It is a colloid in which the dispersed phase consists of micelles.
 When molecules or ions that have both a hydrophobic (water hating) and a hydrophilic (water loving)
end are dispersed in water, they associate, or aggregate, to form colloidal-sized particles called micelles.
Example: Ordinary soap in water (sodium stearate, C17H35COONa).
The hydrophobic end point inward toward one another and the hydrophilic ends (carboxyl group, COO-)
are on the outside of the micelle facing the water molecules.

19
Figure 1: The cleansing action of soap

Table 2 differences among colloids, True solution and suspension

Solution Colloid Suspension
1 Homogeneous mixture of Seems homogeneous but Heterogeneous mixture of a solid
solute and solvent actually it is heterogeneous dispersed in a liquid or gas.
mixture of solute and solvent
2 The size of the particle is The size of the particle is b/n The size of the particle is greater
very small solution and suspension than colloid
3 The solute particles The dispersed particles can be The dispersed particles can be
cannot be seen even with seen with a power full seen with naked eyes
a power full microscope microscope
4 The entire solution passes The particles can passes The particles cannot passes
through filter paper through ordinary filter paper through filter paper
5 The solute particles do not The solute particles show The solute particles may or may
show Tyndall effect Tyndall effect not show Tyndall effect
6 The particles do not settle The particles do not settle due The particles settle down due to
due to gravity, so stable in to gravity, so stable in nature. gravity, unstable in nature.
nature. Eg. Starch in water. Eg. Chalk powder in water, soil
Eg. Salt or sugar solution. in water.

Solubility as an Equilibrium Process

 Solubility is defined as the maximum amount of a substance that can be dissolved in a given volume
(usually 100 mL) of solvent at a given temperature.
 Solubility of a substance depends upon the nature of solute and solvent as well as temperature and
pressure
 When an ionic solid dissolves, ions leave the solid and enter the solvent.
 Solubility equilibrium is the physical state described by the opposing processes of dissolution and
recrystallization occurring at the same rate.

𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
Solid (solute) Dissolved ion
𝑪𝒓𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒛𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
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Unsaturated, Saturated, and Supersaturated Solutions

 A saturated solution is a solution that is in equilibrium with an excess of solid at a given temperature.
 A solution that contains a high concentration of solute than does a saturated solution is known as
supersaturated solution.
 If a small crystal of solute is added to a supersaturated solution, the solid will at once crystallize out and an
equilibrium will be established. This is known as seeding.

Table 3 differences among saturated, unsaturated, and supersaturated solutions

Saturated Unsaturated Supersaturated
Definition A solution that A solution in which A solution at a particular temperature
cannot dissolve any more of the solute is more concentrated (contains more
more of the solute at can be dissolved at a solute) than its saturated solution at
the given temperature given temperature that temperature
Solute Maximum solute Less than maximum
Concentration dissolved solute dissolved More than maximum solute dissolved
Stability Stable Stable Unstable (can crystallize)

Exam style questions

Prat I: Write "true" if the statement is correct and write "false " if the statement is incorrect.
1. Colloidal particles are larger than particles in true solutions but smaller than particles in suspensions.
2. The dispersed phase in a colloid must always be a solid.
3. Colloids are unstable mixtures that separate quickly when left undisturbed.
4. The Tyndall effect can be used to distinguish a colloid from a true solution.
5. An unsaturated solution can dissolve additional solute.
6. Seeding can trigger crystallization in supersaturated solutions.
7. Solubility of ionic solids involves ions entering the solvent.
8. In equilibrium, recrystallization and dissolution occur continuously.
Prat II: Choose the correct answer from the given alternatives.

1. Which property is shown by colloids but not by true solutions?

A. Homogeneity C. Settling down of particles
B. Tyndall effect D. Able to filtered by ordinary filter paper
2. Which one is an example of an aerosol where the dispersed phase is a liquid and the dispersion
medium is gas?
A. Smoke B. Mist C. Shaving cream D. Jelly

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3. Which of the following mixtures does not show the Tyndall effect?
A. Milk B. Starch in water C. Salt solution D. Fog
4. Which of the following best describes a colloid?
A homogeneous mixture of solute and solvent
B. A heterogeneous mixture with insoluble particles uniformly suspended
C. A mixture whose particles settle on standing
D. A pure substance
5. Which solution type will NOT form crystals when a seed crystal is added?
A. Supersaturated B. Saturated C. Unsaturated D. Concentrated
6. What happens when a small crystal of solute is added to a supersaturated solution?
A. It dissolves completely C. The excess solute crystallizes out immediately
B. It does nothing D. The solution becomes more concentrated
7. Solubility is defined as:
A. The amount of solvent that dissolves in 100 g of solute
B. The amount of solute in grams present in 100 mL of solvent
C. The amount of solute that never dissolves
D. The temperature at which solute dissolves
8. Solubility of a substance depends on:
A. Nature of solute C. Temperature and pressure
B. Nature of solvent D. All
9. A solution that contains more solute than it should at a particular temperature is called:
A. Dilute B. Saturated C. Supersaturated D. Unsaturated
10. When an ionic solid dissolves in water:
A. The molecules break into smaller molecules
B. Ions leave the solid and enter the solvent
C. The solid becomes heavier
D. Nothing happens
11. Solubility equilibrium occurs when:
A. Dissolution stops completely
B. Recrystallization stops completely
C. Dissolution and recrystallization occur at the same rate
D. Solvent evaporates

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