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ECT 202 Instructional Methods Notes

f583d1cbad50ba640c6de25ad5971960
Instructional methods (Kenyatta University)

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KENYATTA UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE OF OPEN LEARNING

ECT 202
INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS IN EDUCATION.

.
D. M. MUINDI
P. N. WAINAINA
S. M. MUTHWII
MUENI KIIO
D. KHATETE
C. J. KITHINJI
N. TWOLI
J. MAUNDU

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL
COMMUNICATION AND TECHNOLOGY

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INTRODUCTION

This module aims at giving you a good perspective of what teaching means and how to

effectively perform the teaching task. The module tackles each related topic in teacher

education in a systematic and logically sequenced order. Its focus is to make the teacher

effective in disseminating information, skills, values and attitudes to his learners.

As you go through the various lectures, you will be gradually facilitated to do your own

learning on how to become an effective teacher. Each lecture will take you through a vital

area in teaching. The lecture topics are logically sequenced so as to build a firm hierarchy

of understanding the concept and practice of teaching. By the time you complete the last

lecture, you will have been helped to acquire the necessary knowledge and skills that will

greatly enhance your teaching.

Lecture one exposes you to three interrelated and basic concepts of teaching, learning,

training and education. These concepts, particularly teaching, becomes remains the main

focus of the module. Lecture two and three looks at teaching to a system in which specific

goals must be realised. This gives you a clear understanding of the various elements at

play in any teaching – learning situation and their interrelationship.

Lecture four and five dwells on the issue of learning objectives. Goals, aims, long – term

and short term objectives are discussed and the teacher guided on how to write them.

Lecture six and seven guides you into a clear understanding of the various methods of

teaching. Under each method, the positive and weaknesses are well brought out. Lecture

eight and nine guides you into the various necessary tools for teaching namely the

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syllabus, schemes of work and the lesson plan. You are also well guided into the process

of preparing schemes of work and lesson plan.

Lecture ten and eleven are aimed at equipping you with the skills of arousing learner

interest and sustaining attention. The twelfth lecture focuses on learner – teacher

communication in the classroom. Individual differences are highlighted in lectures thirteen

and fourteen and methods of minimising the individual differences as well as on

maximising the strengths of the differences. Finally in lecture fifteen you will be helped to

understand the purposes and mechanisms of learner assessment.

We hope that your eventual improved teaching will further boast the image and status of

teaching as a profession but much more importantly, benefit the intendent recipients of

knowledge and skills – learners. Welcome to this module on instructional methods in

education.

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CONTENTS

LECTURE ONE …………………………………………… 1

1.0 Teaching And Learning. ………………………………………..
1
1.1 Introduction. ……………………………………….. 1
1.2 Objectives ……………………………………….. 1
1.3 Teaching ……………………………………….. 2
1.3.1 The teacher’s role in a teaching situation. …………………………
4
1.3.2 The teacher as a student. ………………………………… 4
1.3.3 The teacher as a planner. ……………………………………….. 6
1.3.4 The teacher as a craftsman. ……………………………………….. 7
1.3.5 The teacher as a decision maker. ……………………………….. 8
1.4 Learning. ………………………………………… 9
1.5 Theories on learning ………………………………………….. 13
1.6 Training …………………………………………..
14
1.7 Education ………………………………………….. 16
1.8 Summary …………………………………………. 18
1.9 Definition of key words and concepts ………………………….
18
1.10 References …………………………………………. 19

LECTURE TWO …………………………………………. 20

2.0 Systems approach to teaching and learning ………………………… 20
2.1 Introduction ………………………………………… 20
2.2 Objectives …………………………………………. 20
2.3 Examples of a systems. …………………………………………
21
2.4 Components of a system ………………………………………… 21
2.5 General characteristics of a system. ………………………………… 22
2.6 The environment of a system. …………………………………. 24
2.7 Application of the concept of systems to education. ……… 25
2.7.1 The school as a system ………………………………………….
25
2.8 Summary …………………………………………. 28
2.9 Definition of key words and concepts ………………………….
28
2.10 References …………………………………………. 28

LECTURE THREE …………………………………………. 29

3.0 System models in the process of teaching and learning ………….. 29
3.1 Introduction ………………………………………….. 29
3.2 Objectives ………………………………………….. 29
3.3 Relevance of systems approach to teaching and learning. …………... 30
3.4 Simple model of a system approach …………………………… 31
3.5 An improved model with checks and balances …………………… 33
3.6 Glaser model of teaching and learning. …………………………… 34
3.7 Gerlach’s model of systematic approach to teaching …………… 35

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3.8 A model showing the application of systems approach to teaching and

learning. ………………………………………….. 39
3.9 Summary ………………………………………….. 40
3.10 Definition of key words and concepts ………………….. 40
3.11 References ………………………………………….. 40

LECTURE FOUR …………………………………………. 41

4.0 The aims and objectives of education …………………………. 41
4.1 Introduction …………………………………………. 41
4.2 Objectives ………………………………………….. 41
4.3 Rationale for setting (stating) educational objectives …………………. 42
4.4 The levels of objectives ………………………………….
43
4.5 General objectives ………………………………………… 46
4.6 Stating specific (lesson) objectives ………………………………… 46
4.7 Summary ………………………………………… 48
4.8 Definition of key words and concepts …………………………
48
4.9 References. ………………………………………… 49

LECTURE FIVE …………………………………………

50
5.0 The classification of objectives according to domains of knowledge.…. 50
5.1 Introduction. …………………………………………. 50
5.2 Objectives …………………………………………. 50
5.3 Domains of knowledge ………………………………………….
54
5.4 Summary …………………………………………. 54
5.5 Definition of key words and concepts ………………………….
54
5.6 References. …………………………………………. 54

LECTURE SIX ………………………………………….

56
6.0 Teaching strategies …………………………………………. 56
6.1 Introduction …………………………………………. 56
6.2 Objectives …………………………………………. 56
6.3 Teaching strategies …………………………………………. 56
6.3.1 The expository strategy …………………………………………..
56
6.3.2 The heuristic strategy ………………………………………….. 57
6.4 Summary ………………………………………….. 59
6.5 Definition of key words and concepts ………………………….
60
6. 6 References. …………………………………………. 60

LECTURE SEVEN …………………………………………. 61

5.0 Teaching methods …………………………………………. 61
7.1 Introduction …………………………………………. 61
7.2 Objectives …………………………………………. 61

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7.3 What are characteristics of an effective teaching situation …………. 61

7.4 The lecture Method …………………………………………………. 63
7.4.1 Suggestions on how to improve on the lecture method. …………. 63
7.4.2 Advantages of the lecture method. …………………………………. 64
7.4.3 Disadvantages of the lecture method. …………………………………. 64
7.5 Experiment / discovery or problem solving method. …………………. 65
7.5.1 Advantages of the experiment method ………………………….
66
7.5.2 Disadvantages of the experiment method. …………………………. 66
7.6 Field trips method / Excursions method. ………………………….
67
7.6.1 Planning for the field trip ………………………………….
67
7.7 Project method ………………………………………….
68
7.8 Discussion method …………………………………………. 69
7.9 Demonstration method ………………………………………….
70
7.10 Summary ……………………………………… 71
7.11 Definition of key words and concepts ………………………
71
7.12 References. ……………………………………… 71

LECTURE EIGHT
8.0 Syllabus and schemes of work ……………………………... 72
8.1 Introduction ………………………………... 72
8.2 Objectives ……………………………… 72
8.3 Syllabus ……………………………… 72
8.4 Scheme of work ………………………………
74
8.5 Essential elements of a scheme of work ………………………
76
8.6 Purposes for preparing schemes of work ………………………
79
8.7 Scheme of work format ………………………………
80
8.8 Summary ……………………………… 81
8.9 Definition of key words and concepts ……………………….
81
8.10 References ………………………………. 81

LECTURE NINE ………………………………………. 83

9.0 The lesson plan ……………………………………….
83
9.1 Introduction ……………………………………… 83
9.2 Objectives ……………………………………… 83
9.3 The Lesson plan ……………………………………… 83
9.3.1 The planning period. ……………………………………… 84
9.4 An example of a lesson plan ……………………………………… 90
9.5 Summary ……………………………………… 91

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9.6 Definition of key word and concepts ……………………………… 91

9.7 References ……………………………………… 92

LECTURE TEN ………………………………………

93
10.0 Motivation in the classroom ……………………………………… 93
10.1 Introduction ……………………………………… 93
10.2 Objectives ……………………………………… 93
10.3 Meaning of motivation ………………………………………
93
10.4 Types of motivation ……………………………………… 94
10.5 Motivational strategies in the classroom ………………………
97
10.6 Summary ……………………………………… 99
10.7 Definition of key words and concepts ………………………
99
10.8 References ……………………………………… 100

LECTURE ELEVEN ………………………………

101
11.0 Sustaining attention in the classroom ……………………… 101
11.1 Introduction ……………………………………… 101
11.2 Objectives ……………………………………… 101
11.3 Motivational process ……………………………………… 101
11.4 Maslow’s motivational theory ………………………………
105
11.5 reinforcement theory of motivation ………………………………. 106
11.6 Some strategies of sustaining classroom attention ………………. 108
11.7 Definition of key words and concepts ………………………
110
11.8 References ……………………………………… 111

LECTURE TWELVE ………………………………

112
12.0 Communication in the classroom ………………………………
112
12.1 Introduction ……………………………………… 112
12.2 Objectives ……………………………………… 113
12.3 The process of communication ………………………………
113
12.4 Non – verbal communication ……………………………… 115
12.5 Using a writing board in a classroom ……………………… 117
12.6 Lesson delivery techniques ……………………………………… 118
12.7 Teacher behaviours and classroom control ……………………… 121
12.8 Summary ……………………………………… 128
12.9 definition of key words and concepts ……………………… 129
12.10 references ……………………………………… 129

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LECTURE THIRTEEN ………………………………………

130
13.0 Providing for individual differences ……………………………… 130
13.1 Introduction ……………………………………… 130
13.2 Objectives ……………………………………… 130
13.3 General differences among learners ……………………………… 131
13.4 Methods of identifying learners with individual needs ………
135
13.5 Summary ……………………………………… 138
13.6 Definition of key words and concepts ………………………
138
13.7 References ……………………………………… 138

LECTURE FOURTEEN ………………………………………

139
14.0 Providing for individual differences ……………………… 139
14.1 Introduction ……………………………………… 139
14.2 Objectives ……………………………………… 139
14.3 Providing for individual differences ……………………… 140
14.3.1 Methods of providing for individual differences in the classroom 140
14.4 Summary ……………………………………… 152
14.5 Definition of key words and concepts ………………………
152
14.6 References ……………………………………… 152

LECTURE FIFTEEN ………………………………

153
15.0 Measurement and evaluation ……………………………………… 153
15.1 Introduction ……………………………………… 153
15.2 Objectives ……………………………………… 153
15.3 Meaning of measurement ……………………………………… 153
15.4 Types of tests ……………………………………… 154
15.5 Purposes of measurements ……………………………………… 154
15.6 Classroom tests. ……………………………………… 156
15.7 Construction of classroom tests ………………………………
163
15.8 Evaluation of educational programmes ………………………
165
15.9 Summary ……………………………………… 167
15.10 Definition of key words and concepts ………………………
167
15.11 References ……………………………………… 168

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LECTURE ONE

1.0 TEACHING AND LEARNING.

1.1 Introduction.

In this lecture, we are going to learn three key concepts, which are considered

useful to the practising or prospective teacher. The three key concepts are

teaching, learning and training. These words are frequently used in everyday

discussions. It is important that you as a student teacher or as a practising teacher

should have a clear understanding of what teaching, learning and training mean.

As we define the three words, it will be necessary to show how they are related

You should then be able to describe accurately your role in a teaching situation.

This will facilitate accurate description of these terms in a teaching situation.

1.2 Objectives

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

define the term ‘teaching’.

define the term ‘learning’

define the term ‘training’..

show the relationships between teaching, learning and training.

describe the teacher’s role in a teaching –learning situation.

1.3 Teaching

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Teaching is a process of telling or showing someone how to do something either

through talking, telling, explaining, showing, illustrating and demonstrating. The

‘something’ is either content, facts, skills and processes. Although teaching is a

process, the word is sometimes used to represent a system. In this connection,

when one refers to another as a teacher’, we automatically take this to mean

someone involved in teaching. This involves a series of steps which the teacher has

to go through so as for effective teaching to take place. Some of the steps are;

consultation of the syllabus.

Choice of the topics to teach.

Interpretation of the objectives.

Selection of the teaching methods.

Selection of resource materials and

Actual classroom presentation of the lesson.

For teaching to take place, there must be harmony among the various components

involved. The teacher should motivated to teach and adequately equipped with the

necessary knowledge and skills, the learner should be interested to learn.

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Note

It is very important to note from the above definition, we realise that;

a teacher teaches learners.

the teacher is assumed to have information

or message or skill that he or she passes to the learners

Therefore, for one to be able to teach, there must be at least a learner, content and a

teacher as a facilitator of the learning process (with his intentions or objectives). It is

commonly said that learners are taught by a teacher, but they also acquire information

from other sources such as books. In a teaching-learning situation, resources are very

useful.

Activity

Who is the teacher in a situation where the pupils is learning by use of

a video tape ?

a computer program?

Distant learning by use of a radio?

Correspondence?

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Question

What is the teacher’s role during a teaching situation?

1.3.1 The teacher’s role in a teaching situation.

A teacher plays several roles in a teaching situation. It is very important that we

consider some of these roles.

[Link] The teacher as a student.

It is important that you know the teacher’s role while teaching is taking place. You

should realise that the needs to continually improve himself or herself in terms of

knowledge of his subject matter. This is particularly so as new knowledge is

coming up every now and then. However, the teacher is also a student of the

following;

a. The students.

A good teacher needs to know the student’s development, their characteristics

and behaviour. From this knowledge, the teacher will able to tell about the

students’ ages, What they already know?, What types of homes they come

from? This information will assist the teacher in making his explanations and

examples clearer and relevant to the student.

b. The society.

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The students belong to a society which has a certain structure, characteristics,

aspirations and is also evolving. The teacher will need to know what are

the major characteristics of the Kenyan society and what types of education

does it want for her children?. This will enable the teacher to contextualise the

content according to the needs of the society.

c. The Nation’s educational policy

The teacher needs to know the objectives of the National policy document and

interpret them. The teacher be trying to answer the questions:

What exactly does the National policy document say on each aspect of

education?

How can these be implemented?

How can this be implemented in a learning encounter ( class room

situation)

d. Subject matter.

The various fields of knowledge he/she has to teach. Here, the teacher will

be trying to find out on:

What specific aspects of subject matter should be taught and to what

depth?

It is important to note that knowledge is not static, as new information is being

generated continously. The organisation of school subjects is also constantly

changing. Teachers are required to teach new subjects for which, they were not

prepared for at the colleges they attended. For example, in Kenya, Aids Education,

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drug abuse demands that teachers have to employ all available methods of self-

improvement to learn these new subjects and how to teach them.

Note

It is important to note that the teacher has to know about

i. the learners,

ii.. the nation’s educational goals and the society in which he/she works because

the teaching of the subject has to be closely related to these

[Link] The teacher as a planner.

In this sub-section, we are going to see the teacher as a planner. What the teacher

does in the classroom, has to be carefully planned to ensure that teaching is not

done in a haphazard manner. For the teacher to plan well, he/she has to make

major decisions based on major questions which he/she has to seek answers to.

Some of the decisions which the teacher has to make.

i. The teacher has to consider;

the meanings and implications of the national educational

goals and objectives. What for example does “promotion of national unity

mean in relation to the subject matter.

ii. specific activities should be carried out, by the

teacher and the students both inside and outside the

classroom?

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iii. Who should carry out each form of activity and what form

[writing, collecting, observing etc] should each activity

take?

iv. How long should each activity last [a period, a week, a

term, a few minutes] ?

To arrive at appropriate decisions on any of these, the teacher will be guided by his

/her earlier study of the learners, their society, the general educational policy, and

the relevant subject matter.

[Link] The teacher as a craftsman

As a craftsman, the teacher has to assist the students to learn. To achieve this,

he/she has to play the role of a skilled craftsman. He/she does this in a variety of

ways. Below are some of the ways by which the teacher acts as a skilled craftsman.

i. By presenting learning materials in an interesting way.

ii. By illustrating, demonstrating and explaining.

iii. By asking and answering questions.

iv. By giving assignments.

v. By correcting assignments.

vi. By praising learners who behave properly and helping or punishing those who

do not behave properly.

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A teacher who has planned adequately, will know precisely the most appropriate means of

interacting with the students and helping them learn. If the teacher has studied his learners

well, his/her society and his nation’s educational goals and objectives correctly, his/her

plan will tend to work better than would have been if he/she had not previously performed

all these tasks.

[Link] The teacher as decision – maker.

The teacher is constantly making decisions. As he studies his society, the school

system and the subject matter, he has to decide on how to relate these to one

another. Out of a variety of possible procedures, he has to decide on which one. At

the end of the learning, he has to decide if learning has actually taken place.

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A diagrammatic representation would help illustrate the decision making process.

Objectives

evaluate deliberate and on alternative solutions

implement choose the most feasible alternatives

Note

It is very important to realise that teaching has many sides to it. It is best

seen as a process as opposed to specific teacher’s roles. Even if one of the

teacher’s roles is taken in isolation, we will find that it has several

components and stages.

In this lecture, we have seen the definition of teaching and the role of the teacher in a

teaching episode. Let us now define learning and see how it relates to teaching.

Activity

Choose a topic from one your teaching subject and identify specific

components and stages of the teaching process

1.4 Learning.

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Psychologists have been investigating the subject of learning over the years. They

have given a psychological definition of learning as a change or modification of

behaviour or response as a result of some form of experience’. From this

definition, several key words have to be understood.

Question.

What does change in behaviour as a result of learning mean?

As a teacher you should know which changes in behaviour will signify that learning has

taken place. It is therefore very important that we examine the meaning of change in

behaviour as a result of learning.

The word “change”

The word ‘change’ implies that the learner goes out of a learning situation as a different

person from the one he/she was before he/she went into it. If we look at the learner as a

different person at two different extreme ends of a continuum in a learning situation, then

it will help us to understand what the teacher does during the teaching/learning process.

Let us now examine what ‘change in behaviuor’ means.

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i. Change in behaviour

The change in behaviour referred to does not mean a change in physical

characteristics such as the child growing bigger or stronger. Rather, it refers to

change in intellectual and emotional functioning. For example, as a result of some

new form of experience, the individual reasons in a different way, and looks at a

problem from a different perspective or becomes a ware of the complexity of a

particular problem and interacts in a more socially acceptable way with others in

his environment.

iii. The change in behaviour is the result of some form of experience.

A person’s behaviour can deviate from normal because of the effects of drugs. For

example a quiet person can become noisy and quarrelsome after smoking

marijuana. Similarly, an individual can change in behaviour as a result of fatique.

Note

A man who had earlier lifted twenty logs into a truck and who finds it impossible

to lift the twenty first log would be described as having changed in behaviour
.

You will therefore need to understand that ‘experience’ as used in learning means

that the individual will have been helped to:

realise that a particular activity can be carried out in a variety of ways.

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realise that it is possible to arrive at the solution to a particular problem, by

adopting a new method.

see the other side of an argument,

appreciate the beauty of a poem, a piece of music or a work of art.

Our focus therefore is on a positive change in behaviour as a result of learning.

For example, a child who has been violent or withdrawn due to drugs abuse and

has stopped the habit as a result of effective counselling, will interact in a friendly

manner with other people. This friendly relationship is a positive change in

behaviour.

The learner’s encounter with a new experience will involve his interacting with

other persons for example by way of listening to a talk and act, by asking and

answering questions or perhaps by arguing with people. Interaction with others

may also take the form of observing natural scenes eg forests, rivers, situations

such as people drinking together or dancing or phenomena such as thunder,

rainfall, the individual carrying out some investigation or experiment.

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Note:

It is very important to recognise that learning can be defined as a process by

which, an individual acquires and retains knowledge, skills, values, attitudes etc

which cannot be attributed to natural growth and development.

Activity

Identify some changes in behaviour which are as a result of natural growth

and development

You should know that there are changes, which seem to come about ‘naturally’. For

example, a baby’s efforts to move about such as in crawling or walking tend to start at a

particular period in life. Menstruation and getting married as a result of maturation are

normal processes of the individual growing up developing Whereas maturation is different

from learning, it may facilitate learning. For example, the legs must be strong enough for a

toddler to learn to walk.

1.5 Theories of learning.

Psychologists have attempted to study learning mostly by studying animals and by

putting people in experimental conditions [as opposed to normal, everyday

conditions] in the laboratory. They have then generalised their findings to apply to

conditions under which students learn in classroom situations. Such theories as

stimulus – response ( Povlov: 1959), gestalt, programmed learning (Skinner :1966)

have raised heated controversies over what the right theory on learning should be.

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You, as the classroom teacher need not bother with the controversy over the

theories of learning. Instead, you should see the different theories as

complementary to one another. i.e., no single theory of learning can explain to you

everything that you may needs to know about a particular concept.

Note

It is important to recognise that as the class room teacher, you should focus more on;

i. a clear understanding of what learning is,

ii. a clear idea of the factors which make learning easier.

Relationship between teaching and learning

You may have realised that learning is very important in teaching. It is therefore
necessary for you to identify the relationship between the two concepts.

i. teaching is supposed to promote learning.

ii. Incidental learning helps in teaching as it provides the necessary foundational
experience for the learner and thus make the teacher’s task easier.
iii. Teaching in itself involves some amount of learning by the teacher.
Both teaching and learning are processes, which are continous in nature. The learner can
sometimes be the teacher since he/she also influences the teacher’s behaviour.

i.

Let us now consider the concept of training, which is related to teaching and learning.

1.6 Training

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As the teacher guides his/her learners through a teaching – learning situation, there

may be certain instances when a training situation may arise. The training here

may involve the learner being taught how to perform a certain task. In such a

situation, we would have the teacher as the trainer and the learner as the trainee.

The teacher (trainer) would be seen as assisting the learner (trainee) to perform a

particular task.

In this situation, we can see the learner going beyond listening and understanding (as

is necessary in teaching), to repeating the motions of performing a certain task as

shown by the teacher. In our earlier discussion of teaching, we explained it as telling,

talking, explaining or showing the content to your learners. In doing so, there may be

certain methods to be followed so as to perform the task of teaching easily and

effectively. In achieving this, the teacher would need to learn some basic teaching

principles such as:

Methods of planning

Preparation

Exposing

Evaluating the teaching materials and

Understanding your learners’ behaviours.

However, understanding these principles may not necessarily lead to you becoming a

confident teacher. Confidence is developed through performing the teaching task. The task

of teaching will therefore need to be defined, understood and then analysed into sub-tasks.

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You ,as the student – teacher will then need to perform each sub-task. In the process, you

will be;

i. shown through a demonstration by the teacher, how the task is performed.

ii. put in a situation (simulated) where you will be guided through the sub-tasks until

you have mastered it ( you would have your peers as you learners for this purpose).

iii. required to perform the sub-task together (integrating all the sub-skills) to perform

a teaching task on your peers.

iv. perform the teaching task in an actual situation such as a normal classroom under

the direct supervision of your teacher.

v. once you have repeatedly performed the task to the satisfaction of your teacher,

you will then be described as a trained teacher.

In the situation described above, the trainee began by getting some basic information

about the task to be performed, understood it then performed the task repeatedly until

he/she attained skill in the task’s performance. This is the same as the procedure used in

most training programmes.

An understanding of the training process makes it possible to observe and know the results

of a performance on the basis of the final product.

Activity.

Identify and explain the key differences between teaching and training .

1.7
Education.

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After being taught or trained, the individual will live in a society where he will
apply the acquired knowledge and skills. This close contact with other human
beings will require him or her to act, react and interact with others. The knowledge
or skills acquired should be skilfully channelled into helping his or her fellow
human beings.

Education goes beyond teaching and training. It has to do with the individual
using the acquired knowledge and skills to increase, adjust and enrich his/her past
knowledge so as to be helpful to others. An educated person therefore should be
seen as the one whose interaction with others is socially acceptable.

Question.

What is the relevancy of ‘education’ in a teaching – learning situation?

How can the teacher modify his/her teaching process so as to ensure that the
learners are receiving ‘education’?

There are three forms of education. Let us now discuss briefly the three forms of
education.

1.7.1 Formal education.

This is education carried out in institutions which follows a structured curriculum.
Examples are schools and colleges. In these institutions, there are syllabuses and
time - tables to be followed. Occasionally, there is supervision by inspectors, and
the final mark of education is formal evaluation and awarding of certificates.

1.7.2 Non - formal education.

This means any organised activity outside the structured or formal system but
which is meant to meet needs of a particular group of people. It could be a group
of children, youth or adults in the community. An example is the agricultural
extension officer, who may be meeting with some villagers to a lert them of a
livestock disease outbreak and how to protect their livestock. Another example

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could be the health and family planning officer explaining to a group of people on
new methods of practising family planning.

1.7.3 Informal Education.

Most of the learning in informal education takes place unconsciously at home,
among peers and through the environment. It pursues its own course at its own
pace by its own means throughout each person’s life. The learning is not
structured.

1.8 Summary
Teaching involves passing knowledge in the form of facts, concepts,
procedures and principles.
Training involves using the acquired knowledge in the form of applying learnt
skills in a repetitive action.
Education goes beyond teaching and training. It may start with some basic
knowledge about the learner and his environment. The knowledge would assist
the learner to increase and apply the acquired knowledge.

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1.9 Definition of key words and concepts.

Teaching Teaching is a process of telling or showing someone how to do

something either through talking, telling, explaining, showing,
illustrating and demonstrating.
Learning A process by which an individual acquires and retains knowledge,
skills, values and attitudes which cannot be attributed to natural
growth and development.
Training A process of teaching someone how to perform a task efficiently
through repeated practise.

1.10 Referances
Ayot, H. O. Patel, M.M. (1992) Instructional Methods. London Institute of
Education and Kenyatta University Faculty of Education, project series on the
provision of leadership training in Teacher education (supported by ODA )

Brownhill, R. (1983): Education and the nature of Knowledge. London;

Groomhelm.

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LECTURE TWO
2.0 SYSTEMS APPROACH TO TEACHING AND LEARNING.

2.1 Introduction

A systems approach is applied in everyday life situations consciously or sub-

consciously. In a system approach, certain steps are followed in a logical way, with
certain steps being essential and therefore indispensable.

System approach has already found its place in the everyday vocabulary of persons
working in the field where some kind of technological knowledge is applied. The
purpose for this unit is to see whether systems approach can find a place in the
process teaching and learning.

The term system has been defined by various scholars. The most basic definition is
by Roiszowki (1981) who states that system is a set of elements or components or
objects which are interrelated and work towards an overall objective.
Groenewegen (1993) defines system as a complex of factors interacting according
to an over-all plan for a common purpose.

2.2 Objectives

At the end of this unit, the learner should be able to:

Define the term system.

Identify the four distinguishing components of a system.
Explain the main characteristics exhibited by a dynamic system.
Explain the environment of a system.
Explain the application of systems approach to classroom teaching.
Identify system models that apply to the process of teaching and learning.

2.3 Examples Of Systems.

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To understand the concepts of a system and reasons for using it in Education we

revisit some examples of system which we are familiar and use in our everyday
activities.

Human Body Systems: - In our bodies, we have system such as digestive,

circulatory, nervous etc
Mechanical Systems: - For examples refrigeration systems, generator system,
computer systems and different types of engines.
Social Systems: - These include such organisations as a family, educational
systems, political parties, trade unions movements, industries, churches etc.
Natural Systems: - For example, physical entities such as rivers, forests etc.

Any system has a goal or mission which it must achieve. A system can either be
open or closed. An open system is one which can interact with its environment. It
demonstrates a phenomenon called principal of equifinality, which states that an
open system can reach its final state in a number of different ways because it can
interact with its surroundings by receiving ideas and inputs from the environment.
An example of an open system is a school which takes from the environment
(society) and gives back to the same environment. A closed system is one which
operates in isolation from its environment. It does not get any input from it s
surroundings. Its final state is dependant on its initial state. However, most systems
are open since it is difficult to completely isolate a system from all outside
influences.

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2.4 Components of a system

Generally, a system is distinguished by the following components: -

Goals – Every system has a goal which is the target to be achieved. All members
work towards the achievement of the set goal.

Elements – There are more than one elements. The elements in a system are
interrelated and interacting subjects.

Harmony – Coherent interaction for attaining the common goal. Elements work
in harmony, but each has its own function which it contributes in achieving the
goal of the system.

Feedback – A provision for assessing the suitability of the success level in the
interaction leading to the attainment of the intended goal.

Activity I

Explain how the digestive system fulfils the concept of a system.

2.5 General characteristics of a system

Goals and mission – Each system works towards a specified goal or the
accomplishment of a given mission.
A system exists in a hierarchy of relationships. Each functional unit forms a
sub-system with elements that cannot work independently. A supra system is

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one that has sub-systems each of which has a measure of performance but is
interdependent on other sub-systems.
A system has boundaries which distinguish each part form the other parts of
the system thus ensuring that a specific task is performed at a particular point,
yet both parts depend on each other.
Each system has an environment. This consists in a set of conditions that are
relevant but not directly under the influence of the system usually environment
of a system contains the resources and constrains.
Systems are likened to living things because they receive input and act on them
to produce output and are capable of growth. In this context, open system
receive ideas inputs from the environment. There is always some degree of
disorder. System objectives operate within environmental constrains and there
is a critical point at which the system may collapse. There is thus a need to
ensure flexibility in operational objectives of a system to minimize entropy.
Feedback – This is specific input into the system that gives information about
the achievement (output) for purposes of re-examining the system.
Growth – A system grows through either transformation or diversification or
multiplication.
Dynamic stability – Each system is dynamically in harmony with the
environment and exhibit levels of balance among its elements or sub-systems
based on common expectations.
Equifinality – The same final point can be reached from various starting or
original points or initial conditions.

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Note:

A system is made of the following important components.

Goals to be achieved.
Elements – more than one which are interrelated and interacting
Harmony – working together to achieve the goal
Feedback – to assess the attainment of the intended goal.

2.6 The environment of a system.

Every system has an environment in which it operates. This is a set of all objects, a
change in whose attributes affect the system and also those objects whose
attributes are changed by the behaviour of the system of the system.

According to Richey (1986) a system is a complete whole and functions as part of

a larger system or environment referred to as the supra systems. He argues that the
supra system and the immediate environment makes up the entire environment.
Within the target system, there are sub-systems with organized and identifiable
structures. There purposes and functions are limited to the target system itself. A
sub-system is a characterised with a structure process or role associated with the
structure. The ultimate function of a system is necessarily determined by the
component processes operating with the target system.

There is a flow both inward and outward the system into the environments. In
order to survive, the system must interact with and adjust its environments and the
other parts of the supra system.

Richey further agues that, there is a relationship between the system and its
environment such that: -

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Environment provides the input such as money, people, resources etc. which
enter the system and which will to a great extent determine the quality of the
operation of the system.
The environment and the supra system establish the constraints such as
inadequate material upon the system.
The supra system receives the product of an open system which becomes a
functioning parts of the environment, thus influencing the operation of the
supra system.
The environment consists of resources and constraints that affect the system
either positively or negatively realized through its products.
Each system has a dynamic stability (equilibrium) with the environments and
exhibits various levels of balance among its elements based on common
expectations and goals.

Question:

Why is the relationship between the system and

its environment so important

2.7 Application of the concepts of system to education.

According to Hooper (1971) Education is a system because it has a set of inputs

(money, children etc) which are subject to a process, in order to attain certain
objectives which appear as outputs (educated children). It is further argued that
Education can be viewed as a system because of self adjusting combination of
interacting people and things designed by human to accomplish some
predetermined purpose.

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2.7.1 The School as a system.

From the foregoing can a school be considered as a system? The answer is yes, the
concept of a system is applicable to the school organization.

Goal – The school receives raw materials (the learners) whose behavoiour is
transformed through the process of education. The output is then is of adults whose
behaviour has been transformed and the quality of this transformation has been
accepted by the quality controller.

The school receives its goals from the society. Society is the environment as well
as the supra – system of schooling from which the school receives its goals.

In Kenya, most of these longtime goals come from the Ministry of Education and
will therefore, be stated in school syllabuses or educational reports. The teachers
with the help of other school operators have the duty of discerning, defining
objectives of different subjects.

These longtime goals include the six National Goals of Education. These are
National Unity, National Development, Individual Development and Self
Fulfillment, Social Equality, Respect and Development of Cultural Heritage,
International Consciousness. Whatever is done in the system must address these
goals.

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Elements – These are the goals which must be processed in the system for the
goals to be realized. They include headteachers, teachers, learners, teaching
learning resources, physical facilities, non-teaching staff etc. The operators of the
school should be able to interact with each other as well as the learners so as to
move from an input condition of original or entering behaviour to an output
condition of modified behaviour. All these elements are part of the Education
System.

Harmony – For the goal to be realized, the elements or those involved in the
Education process must work harmoniously otherwise the goals will not be
realized if one element is out of control.

The headteacher as administrator must provide effective administration. The

teachers’ task is to facilitate learning. He has to establish conditions which make it
possible to achieve effective learning. The teacher should teach in class the right
material at the right time. Teachers should provide an environment with optimum
conditions of learning.

The learners must work harmoniously with their teachers, headteachers and
support staff for learning and teaching to be effected. The learners must be
disciplined because lack of order will disrupt learning and therefore the attainment
of goals.

Support staff must perform their respectful roles e.g. cooks, nurses, cleaners etc
must do their parts.

Feedback – Both the teachers and the learners need to get feedback from the
learning process to test whether the products are being processed in the desired
way. The feedback can be positive or negative. If feedback is positive, the teacher
will be encouraged to continue knowing that he is in course. If the feedback is
negative, the teacher will have to apply quality control – by adjusting his teaching
methods, resources, approaches and class management to have the learners back in
the track.

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Note:

School as a system has:

- Goals – from the society

- Elements – include teachers, students resources, physical facilities
etc.
- Harmony – evidenced by working together of all in the school.
- Feedback-obtained through evaluation of all the school
- activiaties can be positive or negative.

Acitivity II

Discuss the elements of a systems approach in the school organisation.

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Summary:

A systems approach is applied in every day life consciously or

sub-consciously.
Systems include human body systems, mechanical systems,
social systems and natural systems.
A system is composed of goals, elements, harmony and
feedback.
The school as a system is composed of similar components.
Systems have certain characteristics and so does the school.
Environment is very important in the functioning of a system.

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LECTURE THREE

3.0 SYSTEM MODELS IN THE PROCESS OF TEACHING AND LEARNING

3.1 Introduction

As stated earlier in the introduction a systems approach is applied in everyday life

situation consciously or sub-consciously. But in Education, we have to make
effort to apply the concept consciously to enable all concerned to reap all inherent
benefit in the approach.

Before discussing different models, let’s revisit the concept of the systems
approach and see how different scholars have made effort to apply them in
Education.

3.2 Objectives:

By the end of the lesson you should be able to:

- Identify system models that apply to the process of
teaching and learning
- Draw a simple model of a systems approach
- Draw an improved model with checks and balances.
- Describe Glaser model of teaching and learning.
- Explain how the systems approach can be applied to
teaching and learning.

3.3 Relevance of systems approach to teaching and learning.

Ryans (1975) defines systems approach as an operational concept, referring to a

scientific systematic and rational procedure for optimizing outcomes of an
organization or structure by implementing a set of related operations to study and
existing, solve problems and develop new or modify existing systems.

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Mukwa (1979) defines systems approach as a process by which needs are

identified or problems and requirements for the problems solutions are selected
from alternatives, methods and means are obtained and implemented, results are
evaluated an required revisions to all or part or the system are made so that the
needs are eliminated.

Kaufman (1970) summarizes system’s approach in two words: analysis and

synthesis, where analysis relates the identifying components parts and determining
the relationships among those parts and between the parts and the whole system.
Synthesis on the other hand involves the design of a new system so that the
identified problem can be solved.

From the foregoing, we can conclude that system’s approach is scientific in nature,
is orderly, is a process or procedure, has elements which are interrelated and has a
purpose to fulfill. We can also conclude that the systems’ approach fits in very
well with our school programme.

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Questions

? What is the advantage of applying a systems approach to the

teaching/learning process in a school?

Activity III

What is the advantage of applying a systems approach to the

teaching / learning process in a school.

3.4 Simple model of a system approach

The simplest technological model consists of three basic elements: - Input, Process and
Output. This is diagramatically represented as shown.

Illustration I

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

The above diagram reveals that if you want to produce some new product, you have to
carry out certain processes on the original material. In case of Education, learners are
the input who are put in the Educational system and processed at different levels of
Education, coming out as Educated individuals (output of the system). Here, the
model does not say anything about the quality of the product. It is obvious that
anybody undergoing a process will come out as a changed person. In Education, we
need to know or see the Effect of the changes.

To be able to know this, Ayot and Patel improved the simple model to include
elements of quality control. They did this by adding some more elements such as

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specification of the desired output, checking actual output against expected output and
processing the unaccepted output.

Illustration II

DESIRED OUTPUT

FEEDBACK

YES
PROCESS OUTPUT

NO

Simple model of system approach with quality control

In this model, the results of the process is checked through the feedback mechanism.
The actual output is evaluated against the expected output. If does not measure up to
the specified standard, it will go back through the process. Despite this, there is still
one snag. Teaching – learning is a dynamic process, but in the model the element
process is like a dark box. No one knows what is going on inside the box.

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If we consider that the box – process represents a classroom teaching – learning

programme, then it is under the control of the teacher to plan his approach, to use the
necessary device to check the final product, to modify his approach on the basis of
feedback, and to make sure that the quality meets the required standard. This needs to
add checks and balances in the process.

Illustration III

DESIRED OUTPUT

FEEDBACK

CHECK CHECK

YES
OUTPUT
INPUT

NO

3.5 Improved model with checks and balances

There are other educationists who have developed models of system approach. They
have done this with some modification because it is difficult to implement the idea of
the system approach in education without proper understanding.

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One such educationist is Glaser who has accommodated the ground rules of a system
but his model is different from our input process output model. He has come out with
four major elements in his model.

Illustration IV.

Instructional Entering Instructional Performance

Procedure behaviour objectives assessment

3.6 Glaser model of teachings and learning.

If we want to make sure whether this model follows a system approach or not,
we have to check against those basis criteria.

Goal – Instructional objectives are to be formulated.

Elements – It has four elements
Harmony – Reversible arrows, suggest that there is inter relationship among
elements.
Feedback – Performance assessment provided feedback to the elements.

To teach a specific part of the content following this model, one will have to
check with learners present knowledge or their performance level, which is
their entirely behaviour. This will help a teacher to know the level of his pupils
on the basis of which he can decide from where to start and how to go.

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In this model some elements are left out on the assumption that they are
implied. There is no mention of content or material needed for conducting a
learner’s activity. So need to modify the model or use own version of Glaser
model.

Another Educationalist has also used the ground rules of a system to come up
with his own model. Gerlach in his book teaching and media came up with a
model with ten elements.

These elements are: -

i. Specification of objectives
ii. Selection of content
iii. Assessment of entering behaviour
iv. Teaching strategy
v. Organisation of pupils into groups
vi. Allocation of time
vii. Learning space
viii. Selection of resources
ix. Evaluation of learning performance
x. Analysis of feedback

Note:

- There are several illustrations of a systems approach

from simple, with quality control to one with checks
and balances.
- Various educators have defined systems approach in
their works and agree that it is a process.
- Systems approach is scientific in nature.

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Illustration v.

Content Teaching Strategies

Entry Group Size

Behaviour
Space

Objectives Time Assessment

of
Resources Performance

Etc

Analysis
of Feedback

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3.7 Gerlach’s model of systematic approach to teaching

In this model the elements are arranged in such a way that one can see the
integration among them. Gerlach has retained the concept of Glasers four
elements, but he has added some elements.

The operation of Gerlach’s model requires the teacher to specify the objectives
which should be realized by teaching a given topic. Based on objectives,
content will be selected or vice versa. In order to know where the learning has
to start, the knowledge level of the learner in relation to the content has to be
determined. For instance, one has to find out what the learner knows about the
content to be taught or the experience he has about that content. This will be
the starting point of learning as the teacher progresses from known to
unknown. The entry behaviour will influence and will turn be affected by the
teaching strategies to be used, the type of group organization and the time
allocated for the content to be taught. The learning space available is important
in determining the effectiveness of the teaching method adopted. The content
and objectives will further influence selection of resources to be used in
teaching for the achievement of the stated objectives.

At every stage of the learning/teaching process, evaluation is done. This is

meant to check whether or not the content is being learnt and objectives are
being achieved. If there is any dissatisfaction, then the process has to start all
over, that is, after analyzing feedback, the product has to go back to the
process, or objectives have to be re-stated again, content selected a fresh the
entry behaviour determined, teaching strategies arranged etc. before
assessment is done again.

Double arrows between content and objectives show that content can influence
objectives and vice versa. The same applies to entry behaviour and assessment
f performance and related elements.

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Thus Galach’s model also justifies the requirement of a system approach.

Teaching and learning is done systematically using the syllabus which specify
the objectives of each content taught and which must be related to goals of
education. In conclusion we can consider a model which is different from the
Glaser’s and Gerlach’s models and recommend it to be used by teachers while
applying systems approach to teaching and learning.

Question:

Why is it necessary to examine different models

of a system approach?

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Illustration VI

Objectives Evaluation

Feedback

Activities
Content level of Methods Learning Yes
pupils Outcome
Resources

No

3.8 A model showing the application of system’s approach

teaching and learning.

In this model, technical terms are translated into educational and more familiar
terms which make it easier for teachers to understand. The model is applicable
to the education system as a whole or to teaching of a unit or even to a single
lesson.

The most crucial part of this system which differentiates it from other systems
is sharing of a box by objectives and evaluation. His element is the same as the
quality control elements of any science and technological system. You exactly
know what you want to produce since the specifications of the standard
outcome are described or decided in every detail.

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Activities

Define the term system.

i Show how the concept of a system is applicable to
the school organisation.
ii Discuss at least five general characteristics of
systems and explain how they
apply to the teaching of your subject.

Why is it important to consider the following elements in

the teaching / learning process?

i Entry behaviour
ii Instructional procedures.

Some secondary schools in this country are known for

producing reliable and responsibility citizen, while others
produce social misfits and deviants. To what extent
would you attribute the differences of the two types of
schools to their respective elements?

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3.9 Summary:

- This unit has looked at the definitions of system, systems approach and their
relationship to education.
- A system was seen as an entity with different elements on part interacting to
achieve a specified goal.
- A system has further been seen as a complete whole ordered, with many
components which have relationships and operating in an environment.
- A system’s approach refers to a scientific method by which parts of a system are
interrelated and arranged in such a way as to fulfill various identifiable principal
or goal.
- The various activities undertaken in Education, point to the fact that Education is
a system and the approaches employed in its attainment are systematic approach.

3.10 Definition of key words and concepts.

3.11 References

1. Ayot H. O. and Patel M. M. (1987) Instructional methods (General methods).

Nairobi, Kenyatta University.

2. Gagne Robert ed. (1987) Instructional Technology foundations: London,

Lawrence erlbaum associates, Publishers.

3. Hall A. D., Fagen R. E. (1987) Definition of system in B. D. Reuben and J.Y. Kim
(eds) General systems Theory and Human Communication New York, Mayden
Book Company.

4. Miller J.G. (1987) Living Systems, New York: McGraw Hill Book Company

LECTURE FOUR

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4.0 THE AIMS AND THE OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATION

4.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we are going to define an educational objective and an aim of
education. Educational objectives fall into different levels. I will explain to you
the levels unto which they fall in fact an aim is a kind of objective belonging to
one of the levels. As a teacher it is necessary that you state objectives when you
are planning to teach, there is a rationale for doing this, which I will give you.

You as a teacher need to be aware that there are good and bad educational
objectives. My concern is the good objectives. There are conditions, which any
good objective should fulfil. I will list down these conditions for you.
Finally educational objectives fall into certain areas or domains or taxonomies of
knowledge. You should ensure, when you are preparing for teaching, a course,
that, your objectives cover all the domains because by doing so you are ensuring
an in-depth coverage of the content because all areas of knowledge should be
included in your teaching.

4.2 Objectives
By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
Define what an educational objective is:
Differentiate between objectives at different levels, an aim and a goal of education.
List the conditions of a good objective should fulfil.
Identify objectives, which belong to different domains/taxonomies of knowledge.

An educational objective is a description of what learners will do (or be able to do) once
instruction has been completed. This is a learning product which you as a teacher hopes
will result from the instruction whether in one lesson, unit course or curriculum. It implies
the competencies your learners are supposed to achieve after a specified period of time,
which can be short or long.

4.3 Rationale for setting (stating) educational objectives.

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Why is it necessary for a teacher to set objectives or define clearly what to achieve by the
end of his/her teaching period?

At the beginning of any mission or activity it is important to be clear on what to

accomplish. A good example for you is a teaching activity. As you set out to teach a
session or a topic which might take a number of lessons, you need to know what you
should accomplish by the end of what you intent to teach (or have a rationale for your
teaching). This means you have to define clearly what you intend to accomplish or set
objectives to achieve.

The following are the reasons for setting educational objectives:

1. To be able to determine with some precision whether or not the teaching has
brought about the terminal activity (or product) desired by the teacher at the end
of the learning process whether it is by the end of one lesson, a number of related
lessons covering one topic or a whole curriculum.
2. To give direction and establish a criteria for measuring success.
3. It implies an orderly and ordered learning activity one in which the order consists
in the progressive completing of the learning process.
4. It means foresight in advance of the end for possible determination of learning at
the end of a sub-topic taught in one lesson or a unit taught in a number of lessons.
5. Setting of objectives influences the steps taken to reach the end choice of content,
materials, methods and strategies.

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4.4 The levels of objectives

It is important to note the following:-
That objectives fall into different (various) levels of planning depending on how long
they take to be achieved e.g. by the end of one lesson a number of lessons or many
lessons which cover a whole course.
That an aim, a goal, a general and a specific objective are all targets towards
which a teacher aims at achieving, the difference is the length of time each takes to be
achieved; However they all form a support system.

Objectives range from very general to very specific. Most objectives fall somewhere
between the two extremes. The objectives continuum I have given you will help you
understand what this means.

Note:
It is very important to note that objectives depending on the time they take to be
covered/achieved can be short-term or long-term. The most short-term objective is
covered in one lesson. There are those covered in varying period of time like the topic
objective, unit objective up to the course and curriculum objectives. So different levels of
objectives do exist.

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The educational objectives continuum

Most General Very General General Specific Objectives

Objectives Objectives Objectives

Educational
Educationalobjectives
objectives Course objectivesoror
Courseobjectives
for a
for a curriculum
curriculum oror goals
goalsofofeducation
education Unit Lesson objectives
Objectives objectives; a also called
the
theaims
aimsofofEducation
Education (e.g.
([Link] fora a
objectivesfor
(e.g.
([Link]
fora asecondary
secondary one courseinn
onecourse i aa unit is like a instructional or
school
schoolcurriculum).
curriculum). curriculum
curriculume.g. e.g. topic behavioural
secondary school
secondaryschool objectives.
Biology.
Biology.

As shown, objectives fall into a continuum from the very general (aims of education) to
the very specific or the lesson or instructional or behavioural objectives. In the hierarchy
as the continuum shows, the slightly less general objectives than the aims of Education
which are the course objectives are called the goals of Education (goals for a particular
course). This means every course has its own goals. As you can notice from the
continuum objectives then get less general to the very specific ones, which are supposed to
be achieved in a lesson. These are called lesson, instructional or behavioural objectives.

Activity
From the 8:4:4 syllabus:
List down the aims of Education in Kenya.
List five goals or course objectives for one of your teaching subjects.

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Question

How do the objectives of education relate?

As mentioned earlier, aims, goals, general and specific objectives of education all form a
support system. In other words they help achieve the other, from the most specific (the
lesson objective) to the most general. For example, lesson objectives for teaching a
number of subtopics help achieve the more general unit or the topic objective. In fact the
unit or topic objective can also assist in formulating the lesson or the subtopic objectives.
This is the kind of relationship, which exists among them up to the highest levels of
objectives, the aims of education. The relationship can be presented diagrammatically in
the following way:
Several objectives are stated from
one more general one

AIM GOAL GENERAL SPECIFIC

OBJECTIV OBJECTIV

One general objective assists in stating a number of less general ones

Here is an example of a general objective for a topic and two specific lesson objectives
stated from it.

4.5 General Objective:

By the end of the topic the students should be able to discuss the difference
between the Celsius and the Fahrenheit temperature scales.

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Specific or lesson objectives stated from it.

Given thermometers with the two temperature scales, the students should
be able to read and record temperature in Fahrenheit and Celsius degrees.
By the end of the lesson the students will be able to interpret the
temperatures indicated either in Fahrenheit or Celsius scales.

Note
You should note that:-
1. Objectives are stated in terms of what the learner will be able to do
not the teacher.
2. The lesson objectives are stated in terms of what the students
should be able to achieve by the end of the lesson.

4.6 stating specific (lesson) objectives

What is a good lesson objective? What conditions should it fulfil?

As you can note in the examples of the specific objectives given, each of them consists of
a statement that tells in complete sense who will perform the behaviour or the activity
during the learning process (who is the learner): You can also note that the activities given
in the two are overt. These are actually some of the conditions a good lesson or
instructional objective should fulfil. This is a complete list of the conditions that such an
objective should fulfil:

It should have an overt behaviour or action verb, which is observable.

The activity should be measurable
The objective should be stated in a clear language (not vague).
A lesson or instructional objective should be short and to the point; however as given
in the previous point it should be clear.

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The standard of performance expected should be indicated. This is not done always.
There are times it can be assumed because it is expected anyway.
Sometimes, it is necessary to give the conditions under which the action or behaviour
will be performed.
Always a specific objective must have an action verb.
A specific objective should be stated in terms of what the learner should be able to do
by the end of the lesson (stated in future tense).

Here are some examples, which can help you understand or clarify the conditions given:
By the end of the lesson the learners (or students or pupils) should be able to give five
examples of cash crops produced in Kenya.
Given type-writers, the students should be able to type at a speed of one hundred
words per minute (by the end of the lesson).
By the end of the lesson, the students should be able to draw the human alimentary
canal.

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Note:
You should note that:
A lesson can have more than one objective.
Since you know the action should be achieved by the end of the
lesson you don’t have to repeat this part of an objective.
Note the condition of performing the act given in objective 2 (given
type writers) and the standard of performance expected (Type a
speed of a hundred words per minute).

Activity:
From one of your teaching subjects, state ten objectives which fulfil the
conditions which a good instructional objective should fulfil. The four of
these objectives should indicate the condition of performing the act and the
degree of performance expected from the learners.

4.7 Summary:
In this lecture we have seen the definition of a educational objective, the different levels
of objectives, the rationale for stating an objective and the conditions a good
instructional objective should fulfil.

4.8 Definition of key words and concepts.

Levels of objectives.
These are the categories into which objectives fall as determined by the length of
time an objective takes to be achieved. The first category ( which takes the shortest
time) is the specific objectives, which takes one or double lessons to achieve. (The
specific or lesson objectives) and which takes the longest time to achieve ) being
the aim of education.

Objectives continuum

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This is an arrangement of objectives linearly showing how they relate depending

on the period of time each takes to achieve.

Aims of education.
These are the general objectives of education meant for a whole curriculum.

Goals of education.
These are objectives for a whole course.

4.9 References for further reading.

Ayot, H.O. Paleh M.M. (1987) Instructional Methods London Institute of

Education and Kenyatta University Faculty of Education, Project
Series on the Provision of Leadership Training in Teacher
Education (Supported by ODA).

Bloom, B. [Link], (1956): Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, the Classification of

Education Goals
Longman, New York.

Bloom, B.S. (ed.) (1971): Taxonomy of Educational objectives, Handbook I

Cognitive Domain.
McKay, New York.

Brown, L.M. (ed.) (1970): Aims of Education

New York: Teachers College Press.
Brownhill, R. (1983): Education and the Nature of Knowledge
London: GroomHelm.
Carroll, A.J. [Link], (1978): Learning by Objectives; a Teachers Guide London:
Hutchinson.
The Kenya 8:4:4 Secondary School Syllabus by K.I.E.

LECTURE FIVE
5.0 The classification of objectives according to domains of knowledge

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5.1 Introduction.
Knowledge is divided into three main areas or domains. The criteria used is the
nature of knowledge in each category. The categories are cognitive which includes
knowledge involving simple recall, affective which is knowledge involving values,
attitudes and interests, and the third is psychomotor which covers knowledge
involving practical skills.

Teaching-learning objectives also fall into the three areas or domains or

taxonomies. Lecture five deals with the classification of objectives into different
domains.

5.3 Domains of knowledge.

There are three main areas or domains of knowledge, Cognitive, Affective and
Psychomotor. Instructional objectives are classified according to these domains or
taxonomies of knowledge.

Question.

Why are instructional objectives classified according to the taxonomies of knowledge?

When you are teaching a topic or a course you need to have an in-depth coverage of the
content. There are skills and abilities which you need to identify and expose learners to.
The importance of classifying objectives is to be able to judge the depth and the variation
of the content you have to cover when planning so that students are exposed to all what
they need to know. Classifying objectives into taxonomies of knowledge helps you do
this effectively.
Each of the three taxonomies deals with knowledge in the following areas:
Cognitive domain – Concepts, ideas, factual knowledge.
Affective – appreciation, attitudes and morals.
Psychomotor – skills.

Note:

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Note that any objective which has to do with the learning of a concept, an idea or factual
knowledge is classified under cognitive domain, the one which has to do with appreciation or
attitudes, affective and the one which has to do with skill psychomotor.

Knowledge in cognitive domain is also classified into categories or levels of thinking.

This is according to complexity starting from the simple or simple knowledge level to the
most complex, evaluation. Here are examples of objectives in different levels of
knowledge in cognitive domain and also in the other two domains, Affective and
Psychomotor. Go through them and do the activity given below.

Activity:
State at least two objectives in:
All the levels of knowledge in cognitive domain.
Affective and Psychomotor domains.

Knowledge
Deals with ability to recognise and recall. It includes the recall of principles,
generalisations, theories and methodology. e.g.
By the end of the lesson the learners will be able to define: digestion and excretion.
The learners will be able to name six capital cities in Africa.

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Comprehension
Abilities higher than simple knowledge which include ability to translate or explain
information. e.g.
(i) The learners will be able to explain the function of the heart (human)
(ii) The students will be able to describe the growth process in his own words.

Application
Higher than No.2 if a learner can be able or has understood information he can apply
it. e.g.
(i) The students will be able to translate simple word problems into algebraic
equations.
(ii) The student will be able to convert yards into meters accurately.

Analysis
Category higher than application.
It involves analysis of relationships, elements. e.g.
(i) Students will be able to spot inconsistencies in the explanation.
(ii) Students will be able to identify the major themes of a novel.
(iii) The students will be able to determine logical fallacies in an argument.

Synthesis
Involves the ability to produce unique communication.
Put together ideas in a constructive manner. e.g.
(i) Students will be able to propose a suitable method for determining the
chemical content of course.
(ii) The students will be able to design a plan for community participation in
Machakos District.
(iii) The students will be able to create a logical outline of describing the biological
problem.

Evaluation
This is the highest taxonomy.

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It includes the ability to make judgements. e.g.

(i) By the end of the lesson the students will be able to distinguish between a well-
developed character and stereotyped one in a Bantu culture.
(ii) The student will be able to write a critique of the English programme.
(iii) By the end of the lesson the student will be able to distinguish between
decision making and problem solving (in History and Government).

Affective domain
(i) The students will be able to show interest in literature by doing extra reading.
(ii) The students will be able to participate wholeheartedly in the biology classroom
discussion.
(iii) The students will be able to find pleasure in studying ecology.

Psychomotor domain
(i) Students will be able to play golf.
(ii) Students will be able to swim 100 metres in four minutes.

Note:

There are action verbs, which are not suitable for stating objectives because
they are not measurable. E.g. understand, demonstrate comprehend. Those
which are covert
Note this does not apply to affective domain.

5.4 Summary:
In this lecture, we have seen the classification of objectives into taxonomies of knowledge. We
have seen why instructional objectives should be classified. Some examples have been given to
assist you know how to state objectives belonging to different classes.

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5.5 Definition of key words and concepts.

Domains of knowledge.
These are the taxonomies into which knowledge is categorised depending on its
nature.

Cognitive domain.
This is the kind of knowledge which involves recall of factual knowledge.

Affective domain.
Is the taxonomy or area of knowledge which deals with values, attitudes and
interests.

Psychomotor domain.
Deals with knowledge which has to do with learning practical skills.

5.5 References
Ayot, H.O. Paleh M.M. (1987) Instructional Methods London Institute of
Education and Kenyatta University Faculty of Education, Project
Series on the Provision of Leadership Training in Teacher
Education (Supported by ODA).

Bloom, B. [Link], (1956): Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, the Classification of

Education Goals
Longman, New York.

Bloom, B.S. (ed.) (1971): Taxonomy of Educational objectives, Handbook I

Cognitive Domain.
McKay, New York.

Brown, L.M. (ed.) (1970): Aims of Education

New York: Teachers College Press.

Brownhill, R. (1983): Education and the Nature of Knowledge

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London: GroomHelm.
Carroll, A.J. [Link], (1978): Learning by Objectives; a Teachers Guide London:
Hutchinson.

The Kenya 8:4:4 Secondary School Syllabus by K.I.E.

LECTURE SIX
6.0 Teaching strategies.

6.1 Introduction.
The following three lectures of this module explore the classroom strategies and
methods available to teachers for organising students’ learning. Before discussing
the various strategies, it is important to review briefly how students learn.

Students learn through making effective choices, through trial and error,
experimentation, reflection, discussion, debate, argument, constructive feedback

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and criticism, inspiration and curiosity. It is important to know how students learn
because this has implications for the teaching strategy that the teacher will adopt in
the classroom. It is obvious that no one strategy is likely to be adequate to be meet
the diversity of these learning needs.

6.2 Objectives.
By the end of the lecture, students should be able to :
a. define expository and heuristic strategies of teaching.
b. Discuss the characteristics of both strategies of teaching.
c. Give examples of both strategies..
d. Give examples of intermediary methods.

6.3 Teaching strategies.

In order to organise learning experiences for students or pupils teachers use
teaching strategies. Teachers use a great variety of teaching strategies.. Two
notable strategies are the expository strategy and the Heuristic strategy.

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6.3.1 The expository strategy.

The expository strategy is characterised by;
The teacher providing students with information, the meaning of things,
examples, definitions, generalisations, notes and even evaluation.
The learners play mostly the role of receivers of this information.
The teacher presenting opportunities for the learners to practice new skills on
the new information taught.
The teacher testing or assessing for the adequacy of reception recall or
understanding of the information by (repeating, rephrasing information base on
the feedback received or the non-verbal messages observed.
Learners listening, taking notes, asking or answering questions if given the
opportunity.
Teacher – centred activities where the teacher ‘s autonomy is evident.

Question.

Are students completely passive during expository strategy

teaching ? Discuss.

6.3.2 Heuristic strategy.

This strategy is characterised by:
The teacher usually organising the task, providing and suggesting resources to be used
and monitoring the performance of the tasks.
The learners being involved in seeking and finding information, discovering meanings,
attempting translations and definitions, thinking up examples and applications, making
notes, summaries and compositions and critically judging.
The teacher observing and testing the understanding of the activity, experienceent or
the practical being done or the principles and generilizations being drwn.
The teacher adopting the philosophy of ‘keep your hands off and your eyes on, unless
there is a need to assist’
Allowing students to plan, execute and evaluate their own activities.

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Encouraging students to develop self-confidence and poise especially if they have to

present their findings to the class.

Note

i. The heuristic strategy is also known as the discovery strategy or the

experimental strategy.
ii. All these titles give the idea of teaching strategies that get the students to
‘find out for themselves’ the expository strategy is teacher – centred while
the heuristic strategy is student – centred.

These two strategies may be considered as two extremes of a continuum with a

combination of these strategies in between the expository and the heuristic. The diagram
below illustrates this idea.

Expository…………………………intermediary………………………Heuristic

It is evident that one strategy is not likely to be adequate to meet the diversity of learning
needs of students. Effective teaching seems to be provided by teachers who make informal
decisions about the strategy most appropriate to particular needs, and particular students at
various types.

So far, strategies have been discussed in general terms. It is necessary to be more specific
when talking about strategies on the continuum. The term strategy is difficuilt to define
precisely because other words are used interchangeably to mean more or less the same
thing. For our purpose, we will focus on the definition of strategies bu Ayot and Patel
(1987), who refer to teaching strategies as ‘a set of processes combined to achieve an
expected outcome’

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Note.

Notice how this definition has included the word process.

i. Teaching strategies involve using processes.
ii. Other words are also used to describe processes for example
methods or approaches.

These two processes, methods or approaches will be discussed in details in the next two
lectures. Examples of methods in the expository side of the continuum include the lecture ,
textbook reading and demonstration. Examples of methods in the heuristic strategy
include field trip, experimentation, laboratory work and discovery.

Activity

Explain how the examples given above reflect the essence of each strategy.

In the next lecture, we are going to discuss the main methods of teaching in each teaching
strategy.

6.4 Summary.
In this lecture, we have learnt that;
In order to organise learning, experiences, teachers use teaching strategies.
Teachers use a great variety of teaching strategies.
Two notable strategies are the expository strategy and the heuristic strategy.
Strategies involve processes, methods or approaches.
Effective teaching involves wise choice of strategies of teaching.
Each strategy has specific methods or approaches that lean heavily on it.
These methods or approaches will be discussed later.

6.5 Definition of key words and concepts.

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Strategies. A set of processes combined to achieve an outcome.

Expository strategies. Teacher centred approaches to teaching.
Heuristic strategies. Learner centred approaches to teaching.
Diversity. Variety, different.
Experiential based on experience.

6.6 References
1. Ayot H. O. and Patel M. M. (1987) Instructional methods (General methods).
Nairobi, Kenyatta University.

2. Gagne Robert ed. (1987) Instructional Technology foundations: London,

Lawrence erlbaum associates, Publishers.

3. Hall A. D., Fagen R. E. (1987) Definition of system in B. D. Reuben and J.Y.

Kim (eds) General systems Theory and Human Communication New York,
Mayden Book Company.

4. Miller J.G. (1987) Living Systems, New York: McGraw Hill Book Company

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LECTURE SEVEN

7.0 TEACHING METHODS.

7.1 Introduction.

There is no single best method of teaching. A good teacher uses several methods of
te aching in a single lesson . Depending on the teaching / learning situation of a
given lesson . In this unit we discuss several teaching methods , when each
teaching method can be applied and the advantages and disadvantages of each
method .

7.2 Objectives

By the end of this unit you should be able to :

describe the characteristics of an effective teacher and effective teaching .
explain the characteristics of different teaching methods .
discuss the advantages and disadvantages of different teaching methods.
apply appropriate teaching methods to your classroom teaching situation .

7.3 What are characteristics of effective teaching ?

A lesson can be said to be effective if the following characteristics are satisfied :

The teacher knows his/her subject matter ( contract) very well.
Organises the contend well and prefer it in clear language .
The teacher uses different teaching strategies in a given lesson which appeals
to the learners .
The teacher is purposeful and committed to his/her work .
The teacher makes the lesson interesting and enjoyable to the learners .
Expects the students to concentrate on the subject.

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Effective and clear communicator in setting the subject matter across to the
learners in simple clear language .
Relates the concepts in everyday life experiences of the learners .
The teacher is enthusiastic and humorous in his/her teaching .
Makes concepts and ideas appear simple and reasonable and easy to
understand and to apply.
The teacher shows respect to the learner , and avoid embarrassing them in
class.
Encourage pupils to ask questions as the lesson continues .
Encourages pupils to be creative and express their ideas and view points freely
.
Is friendly and warm to pupils .

Activity

Spare about 10-15 minutes of your lesson and ask pupils to write down what they
consider to be
a) Excellent teacher in your subject
b) Excellent lesson in your subject.

For more honest views , ask them not to write their names.
There are various approaches and methods available to you in your business of
teaching . It is up to you to choose which methods to employ and when . The
choice is dictated by various factors which include :
The general objectives of the subject. For example in biology there are
objectives and there is no any one method of teaching that can effectively
lead to achieving of all the ten objectives .
Whether you will teach in the classroom , laboratory or field course.
Availability and quantity of apparatus and materials .

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Specific objectives of a given topic .

The level of the learner .

7.4 Lecture method

The lecture method is a process of delevering verbally a body of knowldge to the

learners. In its strict sence it is characterised by :
One way communication, from the teacher to the learners.
The teacher presents ideal and concepts while the learners listen and take
notes .

When a brief lecture method can be useful ,for instance when :

Introducing a new topic
Presenting essential material that are not easily accessible to the learners .
Due to shortage of time, you want to cover alot of material in the little time
available .
Inculcating interest in the learners .
Conveying information such as instructions to an experiment .
Supplementing textbook material .
Summarizing important points at the end of the topic .
Explaining concepts such as carbon fixation in photosynthesis.

7.4.1 Suggestions on how to improve on lecture method

At lesson preparation stage consider the objectives you want to achieve and
the style of presentation that will enable you to achieve them .
Use many appropriate examples to illustrate the main ideas and concepts.
Your personality should be good , for example your appearence , manner of
dress and poise are important .

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Use a well-modulated voice and correct pronunciation.

Facial expression and gestures should be used to give emphasis .
Talk to your students not to the chalk board .
Constantly check on learner’s understanding encourage them to interact and
ask questions.
Adopt the language to the level of students understanding .
Make use of illustrative devices/teaching aids.
Development of the lecture should be logical so that concept development is
easily followed by the learners .

7.4.2 Advantages of the lecture method.

The main advantages of the lecture methods are :

Is suitable for large classes where material resources are inadequate .
Is inspirational in for example story telling type of lesson .
The teacher covers a large ground in a limited time .
It is economic as not as not many teaching material are used .
Students don’t spend alot of time exploring an finding out .
There is less effort on the part of the teacher in terms of organising the class.

7.4.3 Disadvantages of the lecture method

The main disadvantages of the lecture method are:

The learner is not actively engaged in the learning process. Thus they are
passive recipients.
Does not develop creative and critical thinking among the learners.
Does not provide the learners with the opportunity to organized their thinking
and verbally communicate to their peers during the lesson.

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Activity

How useful do you think lecture method can be in teaching your

subject to secondary school children?
Reflecting on your subject, what other advantages and disadvantages of
lecture method can you think of ?
Would you encourage your colleagues teaching the same subject to use
lecture methods? Give reasons for your answer.

7.5 Experiment / discovery or problem solving methods.

Many educationists advocate discovery approach in their teaching / learning

process. This school of thought advocates thought advocates not the teaching of
knowledge itself, but to teach the learner the skills by which he /she can generate
knowledge that can ever be known, an impossible task . Discovery approach is
used in the teaching of principles and concepts.

The discovery method is also referred to as inquiry or Problem Solving Approach.

The student is presented with a problem and has to go through the problem solving
process that consists of five main steps.

Identification of the problem

Formulation of hypothesis ( informed guesses)
Collection of and analysis of data.
Drawing conclusions.
Developing meaningful generalisalisations.

The science subjects of both primary and secondary level and beyond use the
experimental discovery methods where :

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They use empirical data obtained through first hand experiences with real
materials , facts and ideas .
Use experimentalogy and data collection and analysis.
Use scientific method in knowledge generation.

In this process your role as a teacher is that of a facilitator while the learner is
actively involved in the learning experiences.

7.5.1 Advantages of experiments / discovery method.

The advantages of discovery methods are that:

Leads to understanding all opposed to note learning.
Learners are actively engaged in the teaching / learning process instead of being
passive recipients.
Pupils find such lessons more interesting and makes pupils more enthusiastic.
They can apply such knowledge concepts and skills to novel situations much
more easily.
Enhances research and critical thinking skills in the learner, thus enhancing
scientific culture.
Learners are exposed to scientific methods of research.

7.5.2 Disadvantages of experiments / discovery methods.

The disadvantages of discovery method are that

It is time consuming for both the teacher and learner.
It is costly in terms of materials.
It requires very careful planning and preparation by the teacher.
Unless well supervised some learners might not gain from experiments /
discovery method.

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Activity
What argument would you put forward in staff meeting to counter greater
emphasis sceptics use to avoid using experiment / discovery method?
Improvisation is encouraged to cut down the costs of teaching /learning materials.
To what extend can you improvise in your subject ...

7.6 Field trips / Excursion method.

In this method the learners visit place of educational value such as museum, a
harbour, an airport a dam for learning. For the learners to benefit more from the
field trip or excursion, you as a teacher should carefully plan for it .

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7.6.1 Planning for the Field trip.

Spell out the purpose and objectives of the field trip.

Notify the school authorities and the authorities of the facility you want the
students to visit.
Assemble all the materials and equipment needed for the field trip.
List the main questions to guide the students.
Organize and book the transport.
Organize for accommodation if students will be away one night or more.
Organize for meals.
Inform the personnel who will accompany the students.
Inform students on appropriate clothing.
Take safely measures very seriously and let the students know it .
Prepare for the follow up activities such as report writing or class representations
or a written test.

Activity

What are the advantages of field trips.

What are the main risks associated with field trips .
What are the disadvantages of field trips

7.7 Project Method.

In the project method the learner is expected to carry out a project to solve a
defined problem or achieve a set goal. They can carry out the project as individuals
or groups. A project can be short taking few weeks or long term taking several
weeks to the whole school term or year.

Let the pupils choose their own projects rather you as teacher assigning the
projects. However, when they have chosen the topic, you should discuss each pupil

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or group of pupils their projects with the aim of scaling it to manageable levels ,
whether the equipment and materials to carry the project are available , and
whether it can be done within the available time . The project should be to the level
of the learners.

For the project method to be effective as a teaching strategy you should;

Decide the learning outcomes you expect the learners to achieve.

Ensure that the topic chosen are likely to develop interest in the learners and
will be stimulating to intellectual pursuits as they carry out the project.
You must approve every project before the pupils go ahead with it.
Ensure that all equipment’s and materials are available for the completion of
each project.
Arrange for regular consultations as the project proceeds so that, pupil do not
go a stray in their work.
Ensure high standard of safety.
It is advisable to let the learners know what you will be looking for when
marking the projects.

Activity
Why is it better for the learners to choose their own project topics rather than
you assigning them the topics?
What are the advantages of the project approach.
What are the disadvantages of the project approach?

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7.8 Discussion Method.

The discussion method can either be small group discussions or whole discussion.
The method has several advantages;

It promotes exchange of ideas and opinions.

Promotes critical thinking where ideas are criticized and evaluated by the
learner with supportive evidence for their arguments.
Promotes democratic principles in class.

To make the discussion method more effective, note the following:

Its recommended that the smaller the group the better as it allows each member of
the group to participate.
The learners in each group should sit in a way that they face each other for
effective group discussion.
The topics for discussion should be interesting and challenging to the learners.
Each group should have a group leader to control discussion and a recorder to
record points.
Should respect each other’s point of view and not personalize the differences in
opinion.
Make the groups of mixed ability.

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Activity

What do you think are the main disadvantages of the discussion method
If not well handled, the more vocal learners will dominate the discussion.
How can this best be regulated
Why is it advantageous to have mixed ability groups

7.9 Demonstration Method.

Demonstration method involves the teacher carrying out an activity on behalf of the
learners to teach them a certain skill or show the demonstration method more effective
you should:

Let the learners know why you are carrying out the demonstration.
What the learners should look for during the demonstration.
Ensure the materials and equipment are working before the demonstration
Every pupil should be in a position to see the demonstration.
Involve the pupils in the demonstration e.g , in assembling of equipment or making
the observations and readings .

Activity

State at least three conditions which will compel you to use demonstration method
What are the Main advantages and disadvantages of the demonstration method

7.10 Summary.
In this lecture we looked at the various method of teaching available to you as a
teacher. There is no one best method for all teaching situations. Research findings
show that learning is more effective if learners are actively involved in the learning
process.
During the time of planning for teaching you should give a clear thought on what
method or methods of teaching you are going to employ depending on various factors

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such as the topic, the level of the learners, the availability and quantity and contend of
materials, class size etc.

7.11 Definition of key words and concepts.

Strategies. A set of processes combined to achieve an outcome.

Expository strategies. Teacher centred approaches to teaching.
Heuristic strategies. Learner centred approaches to teaching.
Diversity. Variety, different.
Experiential based on experience.

7.12 References
1. Ayot H. O. and Patel M. M. (1987) Instructional methods
(General methods). Nairobi, Kenyatta University.

2. Gagne Robert ed. (1987) Instructional Technology foundations: London,

Lawrence erlbaum associates, Publishers.

3. Hall A. D., Fagen R. E. (1987) Definition of system in B. D. Reuben and J.Y. Kim
(eds) General systems Theory and Human Communication New York, Mayden
Book Company.

4. Miller J.G. (1987) Living Systems, New York: McGraw Hill Book Company

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LECTURE EIGHT
8.0 Syllabus and schemes of work.

8.1 Introduction
One of the most crucial factors in classroom teaching is preparation. This involves equiping
one-self with three documents which are essential in planning for teaching. These are the
syllabus, the schemes of work and the lesson plan. In this unit, we are going to consider the
syllabus and schemes of wok. We shall also explain the relationship between the two
documents before showing you how to prepare schemes of work.

8.2 Objectives.
By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
e. explain the meaning and importance of a syllabus.
f. Explain the meaning and importance of schemes of work.
g. Explain the importance of preparing schemes of work.
h. Identify and explain the necessary considerations before writing a scheme of work
i. Identify and explain the basic elements of a scheme of work.
j. Prepare a scheme of work in one of your teaching subjects.

8.3 Syllabus.
The syllabus is a document, which shows the content to be covered in a given subject in a
particular level. It is a very important document in the teaching – learning process. It helps
the teacher to have a broad view of the subject and to select appropriate content to teach.

In Kenya, the syllabus is centrally prepared by a curriculum development committee or

team, which is carefully selected and operates under the guidance of the curriculum
development officer at the Kenya institute of Education (KIE) in the appropriate subject
area. As a teacher, you should have skills on how to prepare schemes of work from the
syllabus.

A syllabus is a very important teaching tool in teaching. It guides the teacher in identifying what is to
be taught in a particular level of learning. The ministry of Education, for example, have syllabuses
for primary school, secondary school as well as for other levels of the schooling system.

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Note

A syllabus is a document that contains mainly a summary of the objectives and content
to be taught in a particular course or programme

Let us emphasise the objectives. In the syllabus, you will find;-

the National aims of education

the general objectives of the subject
instructional objectives for each topic
the subject content written as topics and sub-topics.

You should be able to extract from the syllabus the topics that you plan to teach over a period of
time. As you organise the topics you have chosen and allocate time to each topic, you will now be
preparing what is known in schools as schemes of work. This involves listing a series of topics to
be taught in the course of a term in the order in which they are to be taught.

Activity

Who prepares the school syllabus ?

8.4 Schemes of work

Schemes of work are a written description of the work that has been planned for a particular
content to be covered over a specified period of time. It can also be defined as a document
that contains topics and sub-topics from the syllabus which are broken down into sub-topics
which are to be taught over a specified duration or period of time for example one school
term or one year.

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As a teacher, it is necessary that you acquire the skill of preparing the schemes of work and
the lesson plan. I will now explain to you about the schemes of work and how to prepare
them.

The preparation of schemes of work, is about breaking up the content of a syllabus into
meaningful components or units, and arranging these components in a logical sequence for
teaching.

Schemes of work no doubt represent an effort by the teacher to plan systematically. It

means therefore that you prepare your schemes of work before embarking on the teaching
period. As you prepare the schemes of work, it is necessary for you pay attention to
changing times, changing nature of students, the available learning facilities as well as
changes in the subject matter. The schemes of work that you prepared in 2002 for a form 2
class in geography is not suitable for use in 2003 for the new form 2 class unless you have
accommodated the changes that may have occurred.

Question.

Give reasons why schemes of work prepared for a certain group of learners may not be
suitable for another group.

Each subject area in the school ought to have a description of what is to be taught within a given
period of time for example one school term. The description should include the key resource
requirements.

Before and during the schemes of work preparation stage, you ought to carefully consider the
following guidelines.

i. Familiarize yourself with the topics and sub-topics (content) in the syllabus from
which, you will prepare the schemes of work.

ii. Establish the number of teaching weeks available in the school term.

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iii. Find out the number of lessons/periods allocated to teaching the particular subject each
week and throughout the term. In doing this, you must take into consideration the lessons to
be used for

class tests
revision
holidays/mid term breaks
examinations
other school activities.

Allocate or distribute the available time to the topics or sub-topics. As you do

this, consider the difficulty of the concepts to be taught, the amount of information to be
covered and the teaching methods that you intent to use.

Arrange the topics such that a sequence of instruction is developed. For example the topics could
be arranged such that teaching progresses from simple to complex topics or from the
known to the unknown or from the familiar to the unfamiliar.

Find out what previous knowledge and skills the students already have. The students’ entry
behavior should include such information as;

Knowledge/information already learnt

The students’ intellectual competence
The students’ logical competence
Their observational skills

Read or consult the relevant textbooks, knowledged persons and other resources to
identify the content to be included in each sub-topic. This will help in choosing
appropriate teaching methods.

Consider the teaching methods to be used. The topics to be taught by the project method should
appear early in the term so as to give the students time to work on the project.

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Note

There are certain essential elements in a scheme of work, which should be included in
its preparation. You need to justify their inclusion in the schemes of work.

8.5 Essential elements of a scheme of work.

The essential elements of a scheme of work include:

Administrative details.
While writing the schemes of work, you will usually begins by stating some preliminaries
and administrative details such as;-
Name of school
Class
Subject
The term and year.

You should write these details on the front page of the schemes of work.

Activity

Differentiate between long – term and short term educational objectives

long - term objectives

The long – term objectives should be a statement of what the learner should be able
achieve after being taught the content ( the topics and sub-topics) schemed for. After the
long term objectives, in each column but linked horizontally are;

Week.
A school term has about 13 weeks. However not all the weeks would be available for
teaching. Some weeks will be spend on end of term tests. You should therefore indicate the

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time schemed for in terms of weeks available for teaching in the particular school term and
the available teaching lessons each week.

Content
The content is the subject matter to be covered. It is written in form of topics and sub-topics,
which you plan to teach over period of time. You should give the content in form of topics
and sub topics to be taught. The content will have been sourced from the syllabus.

Objectives
In writing your objectives, you will be guided by the following questions:-

i. What do you want to be learnt by the students?

ii. How do these objectives relate to the long - term objectives of the subject?

Learning activities.
Learning activities are a description of what the students will be doing or involved in, during
the teaching-learning process. You should indicate the learning activities for each of the
lessons in the schemes of work. Only the main learning activities are necessary in the
schemes of work. The learning activities ought to be;

varied and involving use of all senses.

related to and helping in achieving the objectives of the lesson
appropriate in keeping the learners meaningfully occupied in learning some skills.

In writing the learning activities, you should be guided by such questions as;-

i. what learning activity should you provide in order to achieve the intended
learning outcomes?
ii. How should you sequence the content so as to ensure continuity in the schemes of
work?

Activity

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Why would listening be inadequate as a learning activity

The resource materials

During the learning/teaching process, you will need to use certain materials so as to simplify the
content being taught. The materials may include non-reading materials such as charts, maps,
pictures and objects. In selecting such materials, you will guided by such questions as;-

i. What resources, facilities and equipment will be required?

ii. How much time will be available?

Remarks column
In this column, you should write comments to indicate whether the topic was adequately covered or
not. As you write your comments, you will be making an assessment on your successes and failures
of your lesson. Your comments should assist you in planning the next lesson.

8.6 Purposes for preparing schemes of work.

Schemes of work serve several purposes including the following;

i. In case of a transfer, the incoming teacher will take over from you without a break in
the continuity of teaching.
ii. You can allocate adequate time to each topic according to its requirements
iii. You should be able to assemble the relevant teaching resources early enough. For
example, if you plan to teach about germination in the ninth week, you may wish to
have seeds at different stages of germination by this time.
iv. At a glance, you can tell how much work is yet to be covered.
v. You can re-arrange the topics according to the level of difficulty as simple topics are
taught before the difficult ones.
vi. Schemes of work will guide you in writing a lesson plan.

8.7 Schemes of work format

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School------------------------------------------- Form------------------------ Subject----------

Term--------------------------------------------------------- year-------------------------------

Teacher’s name-----------------------------------------------------------------

Main objectives

i. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

ii. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

iii. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Week lesson content objectives learning activities resources
remarks
and ref.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1 1
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2 1
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3 1
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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Activity

Write down five broad topics from any of your teaching subjects. Break each of
the topics into all the sub-topics that you will need to teach and arrange them into
a suitable teaching order.
Write a scheme of work for one of the topics.

8.8 Summary.

The syllabus is an important teaching tool.

The teacher should be able to identify content to be taught from the syllabus and write
the schemes of work.
There are certain essential elements that should be observed while writing the schemes
of work.

8.9 Definition of key word and concepts.

Syllabus A document that contains mainly a summary of the objectives and content
to be taught in a particular course or programme.

Schemes of work. A written description of the work that has been planned for a
particular content to be covered over a specified period of time.

8.10 Referances

Ayot, H. O. Patel, M.M. (1987) Instructional Methods London Institute of

Education and Kenyatta University Faculty of Education, project series on the provision of
leadership training in Teacher education (supported by ODA )

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Brownhill, R. (1983): Education and the nature of Knowledge London; Groomhelm.

Obanya, Pai; (1983): General methods of teaching. Macmillan Nigeria publishers Ltd,
Ibadan.

LECTURE NINE.

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9.0 The Lesson plan

9.1 Introduction.
In the previous lecture, we discussed about two important teaching documents namely the
syllabus and the schemes of work. In this lecture, we shall deal with the lesson plan. You
will need to have a guide as to how you will spend the time duration allocated to your
lesson.

9.2 Objectives.
By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
i. explain the meaning of the term “lesson plan”.
ii. identify the questions that will guide you in the pre-teaching phase.
iii. explain the basic considerations in lesson planning.
iv. identify the key considerations when preparing the
introduction.
developmental (main body).
conclusion parts of a lesson plan.
v. explain the main components of a lesson plan.
vi. prepare a lesson plan in any of your teaching subjects.

9.3. The lesson plan.

A lesson plan can be described as the teacher’s work plan showing what the teacher and
his/her students should cover during a single or a double lesson. At the lesson planning
stage, you should visualize the actual teaching – learning situation and prepares an
instructional guide (lesson plan) to the content to be taught.

The teaching of any single lesson has a relationship with what the learners already know,
what they were taught during the last lesson and what they will be taught in the next and
subsequent lessons. It is therefore not easy to identify the specific beginning point for a
particular lesson. However, three distinct phases of a lesson can be identified.;

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9.3.1 The planning period [ pre-teaching phase]

At this phase, you will take a closer look

at the content,
your objectives,
The learning experiences that you hope to offer the learner,
the resources that you hope to use for teaching

Actually you should rearhse to yourself what you intent to do in the classroom.

Note

Your planning of the daily lesson is part of your pre-teaching exercise and it involves
seeking answers to the following questions.
What content to teach?
For whom?
Why?
How?

Let us try to understand what these questions mean.

The Question ‘What’ ?

As you answer this question, you will be concerned with clarifications on what content or subject
matter to teach. This question should be easy to answer if your schemes of work is well written. It
should be easy to locate the exact topic or sub-topic to teach.

The question ‘for whom’?

At the schemes of work preparations stage, you had a full understanding and description of the
group of learners for whom the schemes of work were prepared for. If planning at the question stage
was correctly carried out, the question for whom will be easy to answer. However the answer to this
question should be focused to the learners ages, socio-economic back - grounds, learning
environments etc.

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The Question ‘why?’

As you answer this question you will be attempting to specify the objectives of the lesson. Your
focus here should be on what the learners should gain in terms of knowledge, skills, values,
attitudes etc. as a result of being exposed to the content as identified in the ‘what’ question. The
objectives to be achieved are the short – term objectives. You will need to phrase your objectives
such that they are as specific and as clear as possible such that they spell out clearly what you
intent to be the outcomes of your instruction. For example, “by the end of the lesson, the learners
should be able to …”

Activity

Differentiate between specific and non-specific instructional objectives.

Your statement of the objectives should always be such that they spell out exactly what is expected
of the learner. Such verbs as to appreciate, to understand, to know and to speak are not adequately
clear and have varying interpretations. Therefore, you should use explicit action verbs such as
explain, list, name, illustrate, evaluate, outline, state, discuss and analyse.

The Question how?

Once you have answered the question ‘what?’, For whom ? and why?, you have to finally answer
the question how? This Question is about the methods to be used in teaching. You need to decide
on the strategies to adopt so as to make the task of teaching and learning easier.

To answer this question, you will need to look closely at the group of learners to be taught. i.e what
they already know, what skills they already posses, their interests, values and attitudes etc. You will
them need to match their entry-behavior to the objectives to be achieved.

The learner’s present state of knowledge, skills, attitudes, values etc represent what is known as the
learners entry behavior. The materials to be learned and the objectives of the teaching learning are

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meant to change the learners into something else ( usually something more socially desirable). This
changed person is expected to emerge at the end of the lesson. Your efforts are meant to help the
learner change his behavior.

As you go about planning the enabling behaviors that you intent to offer the learner, then you are
answering the Question ‘How?’

In almost all classroom teaching situations, it is possible to identify certain distinct phases through
which a lesson should pass. Let us now consider the distinct phases of a lesson

A revision phase
An introduction phase
A developmental phase
A recapitulation phase

The actual number of steps or stages in a lesson will depend on the nature of the lesson and the
conditions under which it is to be taught.

The introductory phase.

Here, you should introduce new material for the day’s lesson. You should present the material in a
dramatic manner so as to adequately get the learners full participation.
As part of the introduction, the teacher could carry out some brief revision of the previous lesson.
The revision could;
consists of revising what has been taught in previous lessons.
seek to ensure that previous lessons have been mastered well enough for both the teacher and
the learner to make further progress.
Enables you and the learner to relate past to present learning ie integrating aspects of subjects
matter in the minds of the learners.
In revising, you may give an oral summary of the main points of the previous lesson. Oral
summary saves time but may not be effective in achieving its intended purposes. It is therefore
wise to improve on the oral summary by for example asking questions.
You should give details in the lesson plan of what yourself and the learners will be doing during
the lesson revision phase.

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Note

It is very important that you ask questions that require minimal effort before those that require
more effort. Prepare questions in advance ie gradually increase in difficulty eg requiring learners
to justify. The secret of asking good questions is to prepare them in advance.

Developmental phase (main body)

It is here that the actual teaching of new materials takes place. The main body is arranged in
sequential steps so as to facilitate an easy and organised coverage of the content. The most
commonly used method in developing the lesson is for the teacher to give the facts. However as
you give the facts, the learners are likely to be passive. It is better therefore for the learners to be
mentally and physically engaged for them to fully participate as this ensures better understanding of
the lesson.

The recapitulation phase ( Conclusion part)

During this phase, you should revise the day’s lesson with the learners. The most commonly used
method is for the teacher to summarise either orally or in writing the major points of the lesson on
the Chalk-board. Even though this saves time, you should plan for a fair learner oparticipation at all
phases of the lesson. For example, you could guide the learners to summarise key points by use of
carefully structured Questions.

During the recapitulation phase, you should make an effort to relate bits and pieces of facts, figures,
concepts and information to one another and therefore ensure that the materials learnt forms a
structure in the minds of the learners ie they are able to see the interelationships between the
several facets of a subject.

Note.

It is wise to remember that an important component of the recapitulation phase is the

provision for an assignment or continuing activity.
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9.5 The lesson plan layout.

There are some important components of the lesson plan, which should always be reflected
in your lesson plan layout. We shall now explain the lesson plan layout.

Administrative details.
These are details which you should give at the top of the first page. The details include such
information as name of the school, form/class, date, time, subject, topic and sub topic.

Objectives ( Instructional objectives).

As explained to you in Unit three, there are several types of objectives. In the lesson plan,
the objectives referred to are the instructional objectives.
Note

It is very important to remember that you should write your instructional objectives in a
such away that they are;-
observable/measurable
set an acceptable level of attainment
specify the conditions of attainment
are learner centred

Time
Time is a critical factor in your lesson planning. It determines the amount of practice of skills and the
application. The timing shows the number of minutes that each phase and each stage or step of the
lesson plan will take. As a general guide, the revision and the introduction phase should together
take five minutes, the developmental phase thirty minutes and the recapitulation phase five minutes.

Content.

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The content is the main focus of the communication in the classroom. It is an indication of the
details of what you will cover in each stage or step of the lesson and is stated in form of topics and
sub topics. It includes knowledge, skills, attitudes and values. You should have a thorough
knowledge of the content so as to guide the learners effectively.

Learning activities.
This will be an indication of what the learners will be doing or involved in at each step or stage
during the learning process. Some examples of learning activities are making notes, discussing in
small groups, writing, listing, classifying and responding to questions.

Resource materials.
Instructional resource materials are a means of conveying information. They will help enhance your
interaction with the learner and also simplify abstract concepts as well as allowing for skill
development. They include such materials as maps, diagrams, pictures and text books.

The following is a sample lesson plan, which you can use as a guide in preparing yours.

9.4 An example of a lesson Plan.

Name : Issa bin Omar

School : Chemelil progressive School Form : 1 W
Date: Tuesday 21st September 2003 Time : 2.00 – 2.40 p.m.
subject : Geography

Topic : Tourism In Kenya

Sub-topic : National Parks

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Objectives
By the end of the lesson, the learner will be able to;

i). define the term ‘national park’.

ii). differentiate between a national park and a game reserve
iii. locate various national parks in Kenya.
iii). describe the economic importance of national parks to Kenya

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------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Time Content Learning activities Resources
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Introduction learners listen, respond to teacher’s pictures of
various animals
5 mins Definition of National parks. questions and make notes.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------
Development
30mins Step 1
Definition of National parks Question and answer method Dictionary
and game reserves Pictures of animals

Step 11
Types of National parks. Learners respond to teacher’s questions
Map of Kenya,
Names and locations of national make notes, and identify locations of
chalkboard
parks in kenya. national parks in kenya. illustrations,
and pictures.
Matching cards.
Step 111
Economic importance of National small group discussions, each group to
parks in Kenya. report their conclusions.
The future of National parks
in Kenya
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5 mins conclusion
Review key points of the Learners’ respond to questions.
Lesson

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Activity

Choose a sub topic from one of you teaching subject areas and prepare a lesson plan. The topic
should be based on the schemes of work that you prepared in lecture seven.

a. the actual interaction

with the learners [ classroom interaction phase]
The classroom interaction phase involves the actual interaction with the learners.

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b. The post –mortem period [post teaching phase]

The post teaching phase will involve you conducting a post-mortem on the
activities that you have carried out with the learners during the classroom
interaction phase. As you carry out the post – mortem, you may answer such
questions as why certain procedures did not quite succeed.

Your conclusions will be very important as you will incorporate them

into your next planning phase

9.5 Summary.
In this lecture, we have discussed the meaning of the term ‘ lesson plan’. We have also
identified the questions that will guide you in the pre-teaching phase and explained the key
components of a lesson plan. And finally, we prepared a lesson plan. In the next lecture,
we shall discuss how to motivate and sustain the learners’ attention while teaching is taking
place.

9.6 Definition of key words and concepts.

Lesson plan.
A lesson plan can be described as the teacher’s work plan showing what the teacher and
his/her students should cover during a single or a double lesson.

9.7 Referances

Ayot, H. O. Patel, M.M. (1987) Instructional Methods London Institute of

Education and Kenyatta University Faculty of Education, project series on
the provision of leadership training in Teacher education (supported by
ODA )

Brownhill, R. (1983): Education and the nature of Knowledge London; Groomhelm.

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Obanya, Pai; (1983): General methods of teaching. Macmillan Nigeria publishers Ltd,
Ibadan.

LECTURE TEN

10.0 Motivation in the classroom

10.1 Introduction

Motivation is a very important concept in learning and in the world of work. Educationists and
employers know that it is essential to motivate learners and employees so that they can work hard
to produce good results in whatever they do. It is also known that some motivation originates from
the individual and encouragement is necessary for that motivation to be sustained.

In this lesson, we are going to define motivation, examine the types of motivation and
highlight motivational strategies in the classroom. We shall then move on to discuss key
concepts in the study of motivation.

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10.2 Objectives

By the end of the lesson, you should be able to;

define the term motivation
distinguish between Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
explain intrinsic and extrinsic motivational strategies in
the classroom.
define key concepts used in the study of motivation

10.3 Meaning of motivation.

Motivation is a general term used to describe the conditions that cause one to begin an
activity and pursue it with vigour and persistence.
James [Link]., define motivation as “all those inner striving conditions described as
wishes, desires, drives etc.” It is an inner state that activates or moves a person to
work hard, to sustain a pace of hard work, to achieve certain goals.
The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English defines motivation as “to provide
someone with a strong reason for doing something.” Motivation therefore as a state of
being motivated means that one has a strong reason or motive to do something.
Motivation is manifested in an individual as deep desire and an urge to direct energy in
one direction to the exclusion of others for the purpose of learning for the realisation of
a goal or for accomplishing a task.

Note
Clearly, we can see that motivation has to do with a person,
desires, drives, urges, wishes, actions, goals and in the
classroom achievement and success.
Motivation involves a person’s desire to perform and succeed.
Motivation is key to behaviour change.

10.4 Types of motivation

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There are two types of motivation, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

a. Intrinsic Motivation
It is also referred to as self-imposed motivation. An activity that leads to learning
may be its own reward and may continue for no other reason than its own
occurrence.

When the reason for acting is in the action, motivation for it is said to be
intrinsic.
Simply put the drive, wish or desire is from within an individual
Intrinsic motivation goes deep into our personality.
One does a task or job because it interests him or her.
Such a task makes one happy or is satisfying.
For example a student who loves mathematics will work a certain number of
sums or problems each day.
One who is not mathematics inclined will only do the assignment given by the
teacher just to fulfil the requirement and probably avoid punishment.
When one performs the task in question, he/she considers the task useful and
important.

NOTE

It is very important to note that in intrinsic motivation, the motive,

drive or desire is from ourselves.
Intrinsic motives or drives support learning more than extrinsic
drives or motives.

b. Extrinsic Motivation

When motivation depends on other rewards that are external to the action itself,
it is said to be extrinsic.
This type of motivation is supported and enhanced by external influences such
as promised rewards, promotions, commendations and so on.

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Students may work very hard to get good grades so that they can be promoted
to the next class.
The motivation originates from other people, the environment, situations,
experiences etc.
The most common forms of external motivation in schools are rewards and
punishments.
If well used both can be stimulating for while, but their efforts are short-lived.
Examples of rewards include, praise or words of commendation, items in kind such
as exercise books, text books, story books, pens and pencils, school outings, field
trips, merit certificates and trophies for various achievements.
Punishment takes many forms as motivational strategies. Examples include giving
extra duties, verbal rebukes, withholding certain privileges such as school outings,
asking students to repair damages where possible and so forth.
Corporal punishment is discouraged because it does not result in positive
motivation at all. Indeed it has been abolished in schools.

NOTE

External motivation should be based on good teacher-student relationship. If one is not a

genuine teacher even if you promise student anything, they will always suspect you and
may not be motivated.
If one is kind, caring and respectful, students will jump at the promise because they know
you will keep it.
Extrinsic drives are external to the individual and do not support learning as much as
intrinsic ones.
Extrinsic motivators are external rewards that have meaning or value after performing the
work.
They provide little if any satisfaction when the work is being done.
In a job situation pay is often an extrinsic motivator.
Rewards and punishments should be appropriate to the age and the character of the
individual as well as the achievement or offence committed.

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Question
Why should teachers study motivation?
Why is it important to distinguish between intrinsic
and extrinsic motivation in the classroom?

10.5 Motivational Strategies in the Classroom.

Certain pre-conditions are essential for efficient motivational strategies to be realised. It is

necessary to:
provide a supportive environment. If you tell students to refer to certain books in the
school library, ensure that the books are available.
give students work with appropriate level of challenge or difficulty. Too challenging or
difficult tasks will result in failure and frequent failure is demotivating.
set meaningful and worthwhile learning objectives. Students enjoy learning what is
interesting and useful to them.
make moderation and variation in strategy use. Use rewards, praise, reinforcement,
punishment and so on to avoid monotony in strategy use.
use promotions, praise, recognition, field trips and relevant treats such as lunches to
motivate learners.

a. Intrinsic Motivational Strategies.

Motivate by maintaining success expectations. Focus on success rather than

failure. It is important to note that intrinsic motivation does not always arise first.
The teacher may have to supply the motivator by a promise of something, then the
student internalises the thing, takes it seriously and intrinsic motivation sets in. This
should not be confused with extrinsic motivation.
Provide opportunities for active response.
Incorporate interesting activities into the learning e.g. games, puzzles.
Minimise performance anxiety, avoid threats and fear.
Encourage project intensity such as in depth study of a phenomenon e.g. research.
Encourage enthusiasm in the phenomenon e.g. its importance and relevance.

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b. Extrinsic Motivational Strategies.

Emphasise rewards as incentives for good performance. Use material rewards,

personal and group rewards.
Link students knowledge and skills with their present and future life outside the
school e.g. career development, self-employment, and community service.
Prepare group and individual competitions for prizes or recognition. For example,
in school houses, classes or clubs.
Provide an environment conducive to learning with suitable and sufficient resources
and good working equipment.

Activity

Identify a class of your choice and outline the

activities/resources you would use to provide external
motivation for the students in a specific subject in practical
work.
How would you recognise highly motivated students in your
class?

10.6 Summary

In this lecture we have defined motivation. Like ability it explains behaviour. It

cannot be observed directly but only through the performance of an individual.

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Motivation directs behaviour, while some move towards a certain activity,

others may tend to move away. When some are ready to face a challenge,
others prefer to avoid it.
Motivation energises behaviour, implying action and effort.
There are two types of motivation: intrinsic and extrinsic.
Intrinsic motivation results in more permanent learning than extrinsic
motivation.
Intrinsic motivation is from within an individual while extrinsic motivation is from
without or outside the individual.
There are strategies for supporting both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
These strategies must be varied to avoid monotony and to be effective.

10.7 Definition of Key Words/Concepts

Motives - Reasons for action, that which prompts somebody

to act. They are hypothetical constructs which
explain why people are doing what they are doing.
Motives and drives are sometimes used
synonymously.
Drives - Are inner forces usually physiological or
psychological that urge living things or creatures
to satisfy their basic needs such as hunger, thirst,
anxiety, tiredness etc.
Goals - These form the objectives or targets to which a
sequence of behaviour is directed. They are
important in motivation.
Strategies - These are the methods that one uses to achieve
the goal to satisfy it or at least to respond to the
motive or drive.

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Intrinsic motivation Motivation arising from inside a person.

Extrinsic Motivation Motivation that is externally induced and
supported.

These concepts account for initiation, direction, intensity and

persistence in classroom behaviour.

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10.8 Further Reading

Farrant. J. S. , 1982, Principles and Practices of Education, Longman Group Ltd.

Harlow, Essex CM 20, 2JE, England.

James H. Donnelly, Jr.

James L. Gibson and
John M. Ivancevich – 1992: Fundamentals of Management, IRWN Homewood, 12
60430, Boston, MA 02116, 8th Ed.
Maslow A. W., 1954, Motivation and Personality, Harper and Row, New York

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LECTURE ELEVEN

11.0 Sustaining attention in the classroom

11.1 Introduction.

In the last lecture we defined motivation, discussed types of motivation and examined
how to ensure that students are adequately motivated to learn.

Once someone has been motivated, it is important to ensure that the attention and the
motivation gained is sustained throughout the learning period.

To do this we shall look briefly at the motivation process to expose how it works and
how to recognise its waning with the view of changing strategies to revive its action.
This will be followed by two motivation theories relevant to understanding human
behaviour and Motivation Factors or Strategies to consider to sustain interest in the
classroom will follow. The last section will focus on key words that lead to enquiry and
active learning which in turn sustains attention in the classroom.

11.2 Objectives

By the end of the lecture you should be able to:

explain the motivation process and its importance in classroom
teaching/learning.
explain two theories that have contributed to the study of
motivation and human behaviour.
discuss five techniques of sustaining classroom attention.

11.3 Motivational process

In the process of learning paying attention is very important. It helps one to focus
on every detail of an experience so as to get the most out of it.

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It is the teacher’s responsibility to assist in training students to listen and observe

because these are essential ingredients in learning.
The need for assisting students is great because their attention span is limited
especially when certain methods of teaching such as lecturing are used.
Motivation is important in getting students to learn once their attention is captured.
Once they want to learn the teacher’s task is easy. However, attention may not be
sustained throughout the lesson.
That is why the teacher is challenged to observe and cater for individual
differences in class, and pay attention to them to sustain interest.

The motivational process can be seen as proceeding through a sequence of steps

such as the following;

An unsatisfied need is the starting point in the process of motivation.

A deficiency of something within an individual is the first link in the chain of events
leading to behaviour.
The unsatisfied need causes tension within the individual, leading the individual to
engage in some kind of behaviour to satisfy the need and thereby reduce the
tension.
This activity is directed toward a goal. Achieving the goad satisfies the need and
the process of motivation is complete.
Once satisfaction is reached some students may just fall back into a state of
inattention and laziness.
That is why the teacher needs to understand how motivation works so as to
recognise when to re-energise students again.

These steps can be diagrammatically represented as follows;

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Diagrammatic representation of the motivational process.

2. Physical /psychological
1. Unsatisfied Need
Tension.

3. Goal-directed
behaviour
4. Need
Satisfaction

Note.

Need satisfaction is a continuos process since new content or skills, often give rise
to new needs. These needs vary from one learner to another.

Activity

Identify a specific need that could arise in the teaching of a named topic at the
secondary school level and suggest how you would attempt to satisfy
this need.

Many theories of motivation exist to explain why people behave the way they do.

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Two most discussed groups of theories are CONTENT THEORIES and PROCESS
THEORIES.
Content theories are concerned with identifying what is within an individual or the
work environment that ENERGISES and SUSTAINS behaviour.
Process theories try to explain and describe the PROCESS of how behaviour is
energised, directed, sustained and finally stopped.
Process theories first attempt to define the major variables necessary for
explaining choice.
Should I work hard? This calls for Effort.
How hard do I need to work? and Persistence,
How long do I need to keep this pace?
Two content theories i.e. Maslow’s need hierarchy and Hertzberg’s two-factor
theory are important in understanding Motivation.
Two process theories i.e. Expectancy and Reinforcement are important in
motivation.

Note

Only TWO theories will be discussed in this lesson

These are Maslow’s Content theory referred to as Maslow’s Motivation theory
based on hierarchy of needs.
Reinforcement theory which is a process theory of motivation.

Question:

Why do teachers need to learn about motivation

theories when sustaining students attention in
class?

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11.4 Maslow’s motivational theory.

Maslow (1954) proposed that motivational needs operate in a hierarchical manner from
mere physiological needs to complete development of the self. This is illustrated in the
pyramidal figure shown.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.

5. Self
Actualization

4. Esteem Needs

3. Social Needs

2. Safety Needs

1. Physiological Needs

5 - Highest need level, need to fulfil oneself, to grow and use abilities to the fullest and
the most creative extent.
4 - Need for esteem of others, respect, prestige, recognition, need for self-esteem,
competence or mastery.
3 - Love, affection, and a sense of belonging in one’s relationship with other people.
2 - Security, protection and stability in the physical and interpersonal events of day-to-
day life.
1 – Basic needs of food, shelter and clothing.

These needs are organised because of different levels of importance.

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Maslow states that if all of a person’s needs are unsatisfied at a particular time,
satisfaction of a more predominant need is more pressing than the others.
Those that come first must be satisfied before a higher-level need comes into play.

Note

A hungry student cannot be motivated to learn before he/she is given some food.
His attention cannot even be captured, leave alone sustained.
Physiological needs of an individual are in the lowest level (basic) and they must
be satisfied before other needs in most cases.

11.5 Reinforcement Theory of Motivation

This is a process theory of motivation which:

considers the use of positive and negative reinforcements to motivate or create an

environment of motivation.
This theory is not concerned with needs or why people make choices.
It focuses on the environment and its consequences for the person.
That is behaviour is considered to be environmentally caused.
If a person works hard at a job and he/she is given a pay bonus he/she is likely to
work harder hoping to get another bonus.
If a student works very hard and scores an A in a subject where his/her best score
was always a C or a B, he/she is likely to work hard to score another A.
One works hard because his/her behaviour was reinforced.
Reinforcement theory works on the law of effect which states that Behaviour that
results in a pleasing outcome is likely to be repeated; behaviour that results in an
unpleasant outcome is not likely to be repeated.
There are two types of reinforcement POSITIVE and NEGATIVE ones.
Positive reinforcements include rewards such as praise, recognition, pay bonuses,
field trips and school visits.
Negative reinforcements also aim at reinforcing the desired behaviour.

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However, instead of providing a positive reward, the “reward” is that the student or
employee avoids some negative consequences such as a reprimand.
Two other negative reinforcements used are extinction (witholding positive
reinforcement) and punishment which involves actions such as a public reprimand
or being left in school when others go for an outing.
Positive and negative reinforcements address issues of having employees or
students learn desired behaviours.
Unlearning undesired behaviours involves the use of extinction or punishment.
In applying positive reinforcement to motivate desired behaviours, teachers and
managers, can use either a continuous reinforcement schedule or an
intermittent reinforcement.
A continuous reinforcement schedule involves administering a reward each time a
desired behaviour occurs.
An intermittent reinforcement schedule involves rewarding desired behaviour
periodically.

Note

According to research:
Continuous reinforcement schedules result in fast learning.
Intermittent reinforcement schedules result in slower learning but stronger
retention of what is learned.

Activity

Identify four positive and four negative reinforcements that are

commonly used in schools to motivate desired behaviours
among students. Discuss their effect.

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Having considered these two theories let us look at some strategies of sustaining classroom
attention.

11.6 Some strategies of sustaining classroom attention

We shall do this by examining the following considered suggestions. These are

highlighted as follows:

Use stimulus variation or attention drawing signals in class.

Examples include pausing, hand signals, use of pictures and making occasional
calculated movements up and down the class or across the class instead of
standing or sitting in one place.
Establish incentive contingencies e.g. let students take five minutes to sketch an
item and after that pick on a few to draw on the chalkboard or to explain their
diagrams to the class.
Use of feedback – comment on a students performance positively.
Avoid distraction such as noise and disorganisation in the classroom especially
during group work.
Use dramatic examples such as humorous comments.
Give students adequate work to keep them busy.
Vary your mode of delivery, tone and voice during teaching.
Look out for signs of fatigue and restlessness and address them appropriately and
promptly.
Use active words that lead to enquiry when giving students assignments.
Use key words that lead to enquiry for learning purposes such as, demonstrate,
construct, clarify, discuss, investigate, evaluate, create, imitate and describe.
Note

For these suggestions to be realised, students need an attractive

environment, conducive to learning, suitable and sufficient
resources and good working equipment.

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Question:

Explain why is it necessary to sustain attention in the

classroom after motivation has been achieved?

Activity.

In this lecture we have looked at the motivation process and its importance in
explaining the cycle of human behaviour. We have also examined two
motivation theories that explain why people do what they do.

In addition we looked at some ways of sustaining attention in the classroom.

Finally, we defined key words or concepts encountered in the lesson.

11.9 Definition of Key Words/Concepts

Sustain - to keep up the strength, spirit or

determination.
Attention - the act of fixing the mind on something
especially by watching, listening, full thought
and consideration.
Hierarchy - An arrangement according to order from low
to high positions.

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Need - the condition in which something necessary,

desireable or very useful is missing or
wanted.
Reinforcement - to strengthen something in motivation
positive behaviour.
Reward - something gained or received for positions or
meritorious performance.
Punishment - a case of rough or damaging treatment.
Theory - a set of properly argued ideas intended to
explain facts or event.
Enquiry - request/seek for information.

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10.10 Further Reading

Farrant. J. S. , 1982, Principles and Practices of Education, Longman Group

Ltd. Harlow, Essex CM 20, 2JE, England.
James H. Donnelly, Jr.
James L. Gibson and
John M. Ivancevich – 1992: Fundamentals of Management, IRWN Homewood,
12 60430, Boston, MA 02116, 8th Ed.
Maslow A. W., 1954, Motivation and Personality, Harper and Row, New York

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LECTURE TWELVE

12.0 COMMUNICATION IN THE CLASSROOM

12.1 Introduction:

The process of communication is vital if some learning is to take place in a classroom.

There are many professionals who spend a large part of their working lives in a face-
to-face interaction with others and teachers form one such a group. Others are
doctors, nurses, social workers, counselors and sales persons, to name but a few.

Until recently, the training of these professionals has focused almost entirely on the
acquisition of specialized knowledge but included little or no direct reference to or
study interpersonal communication, like what goes on in a classroom between a
learner and a teacher. But it is now known that professional competence of any type
involves the effective implementation of the three main sets of skills, namely:

Cognitive skills – which forms the knowledge base of the profession

Technical skills – the manipulative and process skills required by a profession
Social or communication skills – which give the individual the ability to interact
effectively with others in the professional context.

In a traditional setting, the education and training of most professional groups including
teachers has placed emphasis on the first two sets of skills at the expense of
communication skills. This is rather surprising given the very important role or ability of
communication to contribute to the success of any profession. This, however, is
beginning to change as a new realization of the role of communication skills emerge.

Those who have taught or interacted with a group of people on academic levels in a
classroom may think that what matters is subject matter knowledge (cognitive and
technical skills). It is however; known that there are those teachers who already know
so much more than their learners but how to explain clearly what they know is often the
challenge. Knowing how to teach or communicate effectively what you know becomes
important for effective learning.

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This lesson unit will consider the main factors, which are likely to affect the interaction
in a classroom. It tries to guide the learner on the interplay among teacher-learner-
resources in order to bring about classroom harmony that is likely to maximize on the
learning process. To do this we shall consider a number of areas that contribute to
effective communication and management in a classroom. These will include: process
of communication, delivery techniques; teacher qualities and classroom control; Q-
technique and feedback; handling routines.

12.2 Objectives:

At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

1. Explain the process of communication using the S-M-C-R model.
2. Outline the main delivery techniques in a lesson.
3. Be aware of and utilize the main qualities of a teacher in classroom control.
4. Apply questioning and feedback techniques in a classroom.
5. Handle common behaviours and routines in a classroom.

12.3 The process of communication

In any communication process there are two main points, the source and the receiver.
The source sends out information or message and the receiver plays the role of the
message recipient. In between the source and the receiver there can be other varying
modes of transmitting the message for example, there can be a channel, which can
send messages in various forms, verbal or non-verbal. The receiver can give some
feedback to the source if it is required. This process can schematically be represented
as:

Fig: 6.1 Communication Process

Verbal
Source Message Channel Receiver
Non-verbal

Feedback

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In a classroom situation the teacher usually initiates the communication process. The
teacher performs the role of a source. The learner or student is the receiver of the
message. Let us apply this to a common situation in a classroom where a teacher
asks a question. In this case the teacher is the source of communication, and the
message is the question. The channel used is verbal and the receiver of course is
the student. The student may answer the question. The answer to the question is the
feedback.

As indicated earlier, classroom communication usually uses two channels – verbal and
non-verbal. From experience we can say that verbal communication is by far the
commonly used channel by teachers in a classroom. For verbal communication to be
effective in a classroom a number of aspects need to be given attention.

First, you should use or employ appropriate voice volume such that it can be heard
clearly from all corners of the classroom. It is recommended that a teacher should not
shout in a voice that makes learners feel that their eardrums are tearing. On the other
hand, he/she should not be so soft that learners have to stretch their necks in attempt
to capture the information. There should be an appropriate voice level which allows a
student to listen comfortably enough to assimilate information from the teacher.

Second, your voice should carry an appropriate pitch. The pitch of a sound has to do
with how high or low (deep) the sound is. Some people naturally talk in a low or high
pitch. Both extremes can affect reception of a message. In a classroom situation, a
deep voice tends not to be audible enough while a high pitched voice appears to
‘disturb’ the ears. A useful compromise here would be to moderate whichever way to
come up with an average pitch to be used for most of your voicing. It is however useful
to vary the pitch or tone in situations where you need to make some emphasis.

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The other characteristic likely to affect verbal communication is clarity of the voice. Clarity has
to do with the way we pronounce words. Words and terms should be clearly pronounced using
the set conventions. Some technical words and terms have been known to present difficulties
in pronounciations. Words such as, choir, lead, iron, crystallization, identification etc have been
identified as some common words that frequently present pronounciation problems to teachers
in a classroom. Pronounciation problems in English have also been linked to ethnicity. There
are some ethnic languages, which do not emphasize certain letters as in English. For example,
some ethnic languages do not have letter r but use l instead. So that if for example they want
to say “If you want to fry rice”, it sounds as if they are saying “if you want to fly lice”. This can
be a local inhabitation but is an inhabitation, which has been known to go or reduce if an
honest effort is made to work on the proper pronunciation.

Mrs. B speaks too

fast. She talks like
a ‘pikipiki’. I wish
Mr. A knows Geography but
she could allow us
he speaks too softly for us at
to take some notes.
the back to hear. He also
looks reserved

Lastly, if your verbal communication is to be effective one should speak when facing the
audience for most of the time. If you are in a classroom, then speak clearly and loud enough
while facing students. You may even give brief notes as you teach. In such a situation it is
useful to ensure also that the writing is legible and accurate.

12.4 Non-verbal Communication

Non-verbal communication is a common form of communication in classrooms. Use of
gestures, facial expressions and contact are just some of the commonly used non-
verbal communication modes used in our classrooms. These can send special
messages from teacher to a learner. Take an example where a teacher asks a
question. A student is selected and gives a response. The teacher nods his/her head
after the response. What message is sent to the learner?

This is a definite indication to the learner that the teacher is satisfied with the response.
That it is the right answer.

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What non-verbal head sign a teacher is likely to use to show disapproval or wrong answer?
?

Let us consider another classroom non-verbal interaction between a teacher and a

learner. A teacher asks a student “How do you spell the word necessary?” The
student starts:
N – E – C (teacher nods the head) – E – double S – S – (teacher nods the head) – A –
R – Y. (teacher nods the head)
The teacher’s nods send very special messages to the student. The nodding seems to
be ‘telling’ the student “you are right, go on”. The last nodding gives the last
evaluation, that the spelling is correct.

These non-verbal communications are playing a reinforcement role. They are

encouraging a learner to ‘move on’… with the task or in other words, they are giving
feedback to the learner that the task is well done. Thus, non-verbal communications
such as head-nods, smiles, gestures (thumbs-up) have a reinforcing message. On the
other hand frowning, closing your eyes and moving away can be considered as a show
of disapproval.

Note: The teacher nods only at critical stages – after C and at double S. The teacher (from experience)
knows that many students often use S or C and also use only one S instead of double S.

Non-verbal communication is not unidirectional, from teacher to learner. A keen

teacher can pick and utilize a number of non-verbal cues from his/her students. Let us
suppose a teacher puts a question to a student. The student looks up in the roof.
What message is the student sending to the teacher? Very likely the student is
communicating to the teacher the information that “I am thinking hard about the answer
(please give me a little more time).” A teacher is expected just to do that – give some
time to the student.

Non-verbal signals can also be observed among students. Take a case where a
teacher asks a question and a student gets it obviously wrong. Immediately after the

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(wrong) response, even before the teacher comments, several hands go up. What
message is the student getting? The main message here is likely to be that “the
answer is wrong”.

Both verbal and non-verbal modes of communication can be very effective if used
properly. Your tone of voice, body language, eye contact, posture, mobility and
general personality go a long way in supporting your communication level in a
classroom.

In summary we can say that verbal and non-verbal classroom communication should
emphasize the following:
Have a clear voice and articulation
Speak at a moderate rate
Use a strong loud voice
Vary the tone of the voice
Use facial expressions
Establish eye contact with individuals and the whole class
Be dynamic (mobile) and enthusiastic
Use proper language (pronounciations)

12.5 Using a writing Board in a classroom

There are times when a teacher writes on the chalkboard. These may be the rare or
difficult words. You may also write on the chalkboard new technical terms that you
want to explain. In a lesson, you may also give short notes as the lesson progresses
as you write on the chalkboard. It is useful to ensure that the writings are legible and
accurate. The letters should be bold and large enough.

It happens sometimes that one or some words on the chalkboard is not correct in
spelling or correct use. In an active class, some students can draw your attention to
these words but a class of slow students may just not see it. That is why it is advisable
to frequently check on the chalkboard by reading through your work just to be sure that
the content and spellings are right.

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12.6 Lesson Delivery Techniques

Some people often claim that teachers are born not made. While this might be right,
there are some basic techniques which are key in the delivery process when teaching.
If most of these techniques are correctly applied by any teacher, then the lesson is
likely to be effective.

We have already mentioned the importance of the use of a clear and loud enough
voicing in a lesson. The next important is the organization of your lesson. Your points
should be delivered in some order or pattern. The use of semantic marker has been
found to be useful in this regard. Semantic markers are words or phrases which serve
as signals for the meaning and structure or pattern of the lesson. They tell us how the
ideas are organized and emphasized. Semantic markers have also been referred to
as linking phrases. Semantic markers have several useful functions:

1. Linking, listing or sequencing, such as firstly, secondly, thirdly, my next point,

lastly etc.

These help learners to identify main points, characteristics or rules in a lesson.

You might have noticed that as soon as a teacher says … the next point or the
next characteristic is…the learners pay special attention at this point.

AIMS OF EDUCATION

Too many people can be considered to have many roles.

First, education should be designed so as to provide for each individual the kinds of experiences
through which he/she can achieve the measure of control over the environment. This…

Secondly, education should produce people who have respect for their culture and community in
general…

Thirdly, education should aim at producing people with high levels of moral standing. This will
help to reduce…

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2. They show the learners the cause and effect relationship between one idea and
another. The use of such words as so, because, therefore, since
e.g. Birds migrate because they are looking for warmer climate (weather)

3. They are used to indicate that the teacher is going to illustrate a point by giving
examples. Such words as:
For instance…. Let’s take … for example/ an example of this is…
e.g. There are some mammals which do not reproduce by giving birth to young
ones, for example …

4. Semantic markers can be used to introduce an idea which runs against what has
been said or going to be said, e.g.
but, nevertheless, on the other hand, and yet, although …

5. They can be used for summing up, e.g. to summarize, it amounts to this, in other
words, if I can just sum up in a nut shell, what I have been saying is …

6. they can be used for emphasis:

- It is worth noting that …
- I would like to direct your attention to …

Semantic markers are useful when applied in a classroom communication as they help learners
to focus attention on particular important points.

Quality of classroom communication has also been strongly linked to the use of colloquial
English language. Excessive use of colloquial English language in communication can be
associated with poor communication. Use of phrases such as:
- all things being equal
- no hidden tricks up the sleeves
- expect you to have these at your finger tips
- a point ‘we will pick up later on’.

While teachers may feel confident in using such phrases, most of these teachers are unaware
that their learners are quite ignorant of their meanings.

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Language as a medium of instruction and especially if that language is a second language, can
add considerably to the communication difficulties in a learning situation. Every subject area or
discipline has its own unique technical or special terms, which carry unique meanings in the
context of the subject area. Studies, which have been done in this area of the use of technical
terms, show that technical terms associated with subjects were a cause of misunderstanding
for learners. This was more significant in the sciences.

Words, which were understandable in normal English usage changes, their meaning when
transferred into or out of a science situation. Let us take an example of the word ‘volatile’.
Students assumed this word to mean ‘unstable’, ‘explosive’ or ‘flammable’. Its scientific
meaning for those who know is ‘easily vaporize’, but many students were not aware. One can
say that the reason for the confusion is the context. Volatile applied to a person in the general
usage of the word does imply instability or excitability and this meaning were naturally carried
over into the science context with subsequent confusion.

There are likely to be many special words in subject areas, which need special attention in
terms of explanation or definition before they are used in the subject context. The words
themselves do not have an intrinsic difficulty level, but depend very much upon context. Words
like simultaneous, converse, correspond, factor, liberate etc, have been known to cause
misunderstanding among secondary school learners. Misunderstanding breeds discomfort
among learners and this can spill over in any direction including misconception and indiscipline.
To avoid this, we are encouraged to use simple and suitable words which capture a full
meaning in the given context and level of education.

12.7 Teacher Behaviours and Classroom Control

1. Teacher Qualities
Characteristics of a good teacher will be determined by a number of factors – some
external factors such as age, ability and socio-economic backgrounds of the children.
The performance of a teacher based on these factors is situation dependent. So, what
works for one teacher in one set of circumstances, therefore, may very well not work
for another teacher or the same teacher in other circumstances. Nevertheless, there
are certain important qualities about which we can generalize – about good teachers.

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(a) Fairness
Fairness has been rated high by learners. To most learners, fairness means that a
teacher adopts a uniform set of standards and procedures when relating to the class or
individuals. To this it can also be added that a teacher who cares about learners
should ensure that they are given equal opportunities, help and support.

(b) A Sense of humour

Close to fairness in importance in the minds of learners is a sense of humour. Many
learners appreciate a teacher who can share a joke with the class. A shared humour
reduces the barriers between teacher and class and provided it is not overdone, helps
to see the teacher as an ally and friend rather than as a member of an opposing
species. It is considered that learners are more likely to co-operate with such a
teacher, thus, reducing the number of incidents that can lead to class control and
communication problems.

(c) Relaxation, self-control and patience

A teacher who is calm and relaxed is less likely to become angry when faced by
control or communication problem. Anger, especially when it goes with outright loss of
temper can make a teacher to over-react and may use bad language.

Linked to calm a relaxed manner is the value of patience. A patient teacher considers
the learning difficulties of learners and helps them accordingly.

(d) Explaining things appropriately and having time with learners

Many class control problems occur not because the content is uninteresting or not
unrelated to children’s need but just because he or she is unable to convey or
communicate it to them in a suitable way. The children are thus prevented from
constructing the cognitive map (understand) of the content. Putting material across in
a suitable way so that the learners understand largely depends on the cognitive
development of the learners. This is why teachers are encouraged to “communicate to
the learners level”, using the language, examples and technical terms that your
learners can follow at the level.

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Activity: One can determine the qualities of teachers by using a questionnaire

administered to some learners. An example of the questionnaire is given here. It is
called Student Preferred Teacher Characteristics (SPTC) questionnaire.

In this activity, you are expected to administer this questionnaire to one Form Four
class. Using the results:
(i) Determine the most preferred characteristics
(ii) Determine the least preferred characteristics
(iii) Comment on the level of scores for language (communication) oriented
characteristics.

Student Preferred Teacher Characteristics (SPTC)

I am interested in learning to be a good teacher. I believe that your judgement as a student about
good and poor teaching can be helpful to me. I am asking you to record your honest reactions on
this form. Do not write your name on this form. Your reactions will be kept confidential (secret).

They are twenty statements about teachers. You are to read each statement carefully to ensure you
understand it. Tick in one of the boxes for each statement. Tick good if you find that the
statement refers to a good teacher behaviour. Tick Not sure if you cannot decide quickly enough
and tick poor if you think the behaviour is bad.

You should end up with twenty ticked boxes. “Think about a teacher who…”

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Good Not sure Poor

1. Makes the subject matter interesting
2. Keeps learners active in class
3. Speaks in a very soft voice when teaching
4. Knows the subject and makes it easy to learn
5. Threatens learners who do not answer questions
correctly
6. Punishes the whole class for the misbehaviour of
one student
7. Sits in a corner to read a newspaper while learners
do an assignment
8. Is ready to assist weak learners in class
9. Rewards (e.g. by saying ‘good’) learners who
answer questions correctly

10 Hardly smiles in class

.
11 Encourages learners to think
.
12 Makes too many jokes in class
.
13 Puts on smartly everyday
.
14 Is always punctual for the lesson
.
15 Gives and marks homework
.
16 Speaks very fast when teaching
.
17 Sets very easy tests for CATS
.
18 Puts notes neatly on the BB
.
19 Uses difficult language when teaching
.
20 Teaches in a systematic way
.

2. Investing in classroom control:

For teaching to go on effectively there should be some form of order in a classroom. A
classroom where there is noise, movements etc. is definitely not suitable for learning.
There are particular incidents which seem to pose a sharp, immediate threat to the
teacher’s control of the class. Which are the main incidents that may threaten a

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teacher’s classroom control and what can be the teacher’s response? A survey
indicates that the following are major incidents that can pose problems to teachers in a
classroom.

(i) Discipline: Every teacher is well aware of occasions when a learner

(pupil or student) reacts with seeming insolence to something the teacher says or
does. This insolence can take varying forms – can be in the form of a verbal remark or
a display of what many teachers refer to as “dumb insolence”, the learner may cast
eyes heavenwards; or sighs deeply or looks contemptuously at the teachers or walks
away when the teacher is talking. In the event of any such a reaction of rudeness,
what can the teacher do?

First, avoid a situation, which is likely to provoke anger or direct confrontation. Let us
remember that anger lessens teachers ability to self-control and therefore to act
objectively. Acting with anger would suggest to the pupil or student that rude actions
have made an impact on the teacher, and that the teacher is hurt by them, which is
often exactly what the pupil wants. The anger by the teacher would therefore be a
form of reinforcement to the pupil and most likely to all others looking on.

Keeping one’s temper on such occasions is not easy but remember that this is an
important pre-requisite to classroom control. It is useful to understand that anger is
likely to brew confrontation. Where possible try to avoid a situation developing to a
direct confrontation between you and a pupil or any learner. As it has often been
observed, “in the event of direct confrontation it is the senior party which ends in
shame”. The teacher will feel more shame than the learner.

What next should a teacher do in case of rudeness in class? When you are calm you
can control the situation in a number of ways. It is important that whatever action is to
be taken should be swift and decisive. If the teacher remains calm and responds
decisively, then the message to the pupil is that “the rudeness had no effect”. There
can be two options to a teacher at this stage:
1. Teacher may decide to ignore the learner thus, indicating that he or she is not
bothered by the incident and carries on with the lesson.

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2. Teacher may decide to make a quick intervention. In such an approach, teacher

should be brief and to the point, ensuring that there is not situation of a long
dialogue of accusation and counter-accusation.

(ii) Use of questioning technique and feedback

We often use the questioning technique in our teaching. The question/answer mode is
extremely valuable as a way of guiding developmental thinking, to stimulate creative
thinking, to initiate discussion and stimulate quick recall of facts. It is for these reasons
that teachers are encouraged to use the technique. But if this mode is to be used
effectively, then it has to be used well, otherwise it has been known to be a source of
discipline and by extension a source of communication problems in a classroom. For
example, it is useful to remember certain important rules when using this technique.
Study carefully the following set of ‘rules’:

Getting responses from students – do’s and don’ts

Pose the question before you call on someone.
Do not call on students in only one area of the room for all answers.
Ask shyer and slower students low-level questions.
Save high-level questions for brighter students.
Do not direct a series of quick questions to students row by row (or in any clear
pattern).
Do not call only students who volunteer.
Wait at least five seconds prior to accepting responses to high-level questions. Inform
the students that you are going to do this.
Tell the students that there is no penalty for incorrect or partially correct answers. Tell
them it is not a quiz, but a learning experience.
Question.
Give the reason for discouraging teachers to pose the question before calling on a
learner to respond.
Handling learners responses is equally important. Study carefully the following guideline on
handling learner responses.

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Handling student responses – do’s and don’ts

1. Ask another student to agree or disagree and give his or her reasons for doing so.
2. Take a “straw vote” (“Let me see the hands of those who agree with Jack, those who
disagree, those who aren’t sure.”) and follow up with a request for justification.
3. Frown a bit and ask, “Are you sure?”
4. Ask other students to add to the answer of the first student.
5. Ask the student to explain how he or she arrived at the solution.
6. Ask if there is another way to solve the problem.
7. Do not accept mixed chorus responses.
8. If a student cannot answer a difficult question, ask a contingency backup question on a
lower level.
9. Refuse to accept responses that are not audible to all students.
10. Give praise for partially correct responses to complicated questions.

Activity: It is recommended that a teacher should employ a variety of opening question

– phrases such as what is …? Or why is …? Write down five questions using
different opening question – phrases.

Learners will work hard if they get feedback for their efforts. They need to know how they are
doing. Nothing is quite so satisfying as success coupled with knowledge of success. Positive
communication to learners about their success is encouraging. Saying ‘good’, ‘well done’, ‘try
hard’ etc. is motivating to a learner. Let us avoid negative remarks whether verbal or in print
when marking student books. Even for a very weak student who scores only 30% should be
encouraged with remarks such as “you can do better”.

12.8 Summary:

Suitable or proper classroom communication has many important roles as has been
outlined in this lesson. There is almost no learning without organized communication,
especially between student and teacher. It is therefore, important that teachers take
special attention to the pattern and nature of language used to interact with their
students.

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There are many roles of good communication in a classroom. The first and perhaps
the most important of them all is that proper communication in the form of explanation
brings about the clear understanding of the concept or to be content learnt. It is not
enough for a teacher just to know the content of the subject, but also important is to
clearly explain to the learner in a such a language that the learner understands just as
well. The second reason why communication in the classroom is emphasized is that it
helps in motivating learners. The use of reinforcements such as praises does give
learners an added impetus to like the subject and aspire for more. In the process the
learner invests more time and energy in the subject leading to an improved
performance or grade. There is a third role for communication in the classroom. Most
classrooms are often faced with some sort of student misbehaviour, e.g. rudeness,
defiance etc. use of proper language to the students has been found to moderate such
misbehaviours and in fact improve classroom control. A class which is in good control
has all the potential for meaningful learning thus ensuring the attainment of the set
objectives.

For the above roles of communication to be realized, voicing has to be clear, loud
enough and at the right level. Poor voicing creates a strain in listening. A student
should receive the message without straining to listen. Straining to listen creates a
situation where there is divided attention. Part of the attention is placed on listening
while the other goes to strive to get the message or the concept. In this way, one part
is likely to lose out and usually the concept or content ends up being misunderstood or
lost all together.

Thorough preparation for what you are to teach and other class control mechanisms
enhances communication. It helps you to communicate correct information and at the
right pace and level. Early preparation gives one a high level of confidence while in
class and confidence facilitates communication. There is nothing as frustrating to
learners as listening to a teacher who frequently and obviously looks or sounds unsure
of his/her content.

Lastly, try to be a model to your learners with respect to communication in your class.
Young people like copying and carrying over what they see as good examples. The

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way you interact with them in responding to questions, discipline matters [Link]
determine your value as a model in communication.

12.9 Definitions of Key Words & Concepts

Feedback: is any information communication to teacher or student, verbal or non-
verbal, on results of instruction
Semantic marker (or links):
These are words, phrases or statements, which link one part of an
explanation to another part

12.10 Further reading list:

a. Hargie O. (1986): A Handbook of communication skills. Croom Helm.
London.
b. Cohen and Manion (1981): Perspectives on classroom and schools: Holt
Rinehard and Winston, London.
c. Fontana, D. (1986): Classroom control: British psychological society and
Methuen, London.

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LECTURE THIRTEEN

13.0 PROVIDING FOR INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

13.1 Introduction
Every regular class is made up of learners with unique individual needs. This is
because no learner is like any other learner, even identical twins as the components
parts which make up an individual are not the same. That is why an individual grows
up to be different from every one else. Every individual has a history that is unique to
himself/herself and makes them differ from other people including family members.

This lecture will focus on individual differences that exist among learners. These
differences have far reaching implication on teaching and learning.

13.2 Objectives.

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

Explain the meaning of the term ‘individual differences.’
Identify and explain the individual differences which exist among
learners
Identify ways of identifying learners with special needs.

Activity

?Identify some of the areas where learners differ

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13.3 General differences among learners.

Learners differ in many areas such as their gender age and physical characteristics
(height, colour of skin). They also differ in their approach to learning, their rate of
learning and their reaction to learning resources and situations.

There are psychological factors which are likely to account for individual differences in
learning such as interests, attitudes, motivation, home background, learning
environment, intelligence and aptitude. In addition, learners may also have problems,
which are likely to inhibit learning such as physical disabilities (deafness, blindness,
orthopaedic impairment, auditory impairment and emotional disabilities (lack of love,
parental care and attention). These disabilities are likely to become a handicap to
learning and social life. The differences that exist among learners cause

Note

Your should realise that some of the above characteristics may

be of no significance as far as learning is concerned for
example height, colour of skin, hair and eyes. However, others
are extremely important for learning because what is good for
one person may not be good for another. For example learning
style preferences determine how much a pupil/student learns
depending on how one prefers to learn it. This is only possible
when each learner’s preferred learning style has been carefully
identified and thereafter information to be learnt is presented in
the way the individual learner prefers to learn.

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It has also been observed that pupils/students learn at different rates. For example in a normal
classroom you are likely to have the following groups of learners:
Group 1 – average learners who need more time and effort in order to learn the
same materials as in group 1.
Group 2 - average learners who need more time and effort in order to learn the
same materials as in group 1.
Group 3 - below average students who learn with a lot of difficulties.

The differences in learning rates are especially noticeable if individual differences are ignored
in the techniques used by the teacher where children are taught everything in the same way
and at the same time and pace. Think of what would happen to the groups mentioned above if
the teacher failed to provide for group needs:

Group1 - This group would continue to progress successfully in the academics.

Group 2 - The group would begin to fall further and further behind as before they are
able to understand or successfully master a learning task, the teacher will
have moved to the next step.

Group 3 - The group is like to give up all together and probably drop out of school.

As a teacher you should bear in mind that:

differences do exist among learners in any classroom where there is more

than one learners.
differences that exist among learners should be considered in teaching. It is
ridiculous to believe that any strategy can be applied to all the learners
regardless of capabilities or disabilities.
there is need to provide opportunities for learners to use the style they prefer
most and suits them.
there is need to be familiar with some ways of finding out important
characteristics of each individual learner in the class.

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the differences existing among the learners should be used to enhance one’s
effectiveness as a teacher.
many of the differences that exist among the learners can be modified in order
to help different groups of students to learn successfully.
Question

? Why is it important to be aware of individual differences which

exist among learners in the class?

Since not learners are alike, you as a teacher have a formidable challenge of recognising and
developing the potential of each individual learner. That is why when walk to a new class, you
should keep in mind that each class is made up of unique individuals with varied differences,
needs and their own rights.

Therefore you need to;

find out the nature of each student in order to know something about each child’s
background, strengths and weakness so us to begin where the learner is.
give each individual learner special or additional work according to the child’s interest and
readiness for learning.
study the limitations of each individual learner in order to help the learners overcome their
obstacles.
play the role of guiding and counseling learners who have problems which are likely to
affect academic performance.
Note

In a classroom situation individual differences

tend to be hidden and you only discover them
after interacting with learners for some time.

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13.4 Methods of identifying learners with individual needs

You can use both informal and formal methods to identify learners with various needs.
Informal methods would include:

Observation of:
Learners behaviour in and outside the classroom e.g. participation or lack of it in class
activities, restlessness fidgeting, problem with reading and writing boredom,
domineering, isolation, carelessness, hostility, absent mindedness, anxiety, curiosity,
temperaments.

Physical appearance for example dressing, general cleanliness and health.

Physical deformities such . blindness, orthopaedical impairment, deafness and hard of
hearing.

Oral interviews – done to get as much information as possible about the learners
without their knowledge. Informal interview should cover areas such as the learner’s
history home background, interests, attitudes, goals and aspirations.

Written questionnaires – should cover more or less the same area covered by oral
interviews. It is advisable to tell your pupils/students not to write their names. This will
encourage them to pour their hearts to you without fear of victimization or being
exposed. Where names are written you should assure learners of confidentiality.

You can also use formal methods to find out information about learners. Some of these
methods are outlined below:

Study records of individual learners such as .

i. Admission records – these records can furnish you with information about
the learner’s age, home back ground, religion, health status.
ii. Medical records/reports – they can reveal information concerning some
disabilities that cannot be seen such heart defects, kidney problems.

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iii. Attendance register – irregular attendance might be due to sickness, lack of

school fees, lack of interest in learning, ,family problems and peer influence.
iv. Progress records – show academic progress of each child. The teacher can
use it to find out which students need special attention depending on their
performance.
v. Individual record cards – more or less the same as admission records except
that they re more adoptable in the sense that when a student transfers to
another school a copy of the card can be send to the new school. This will
give useful information to the headteacher of the new school concerning the
learner’s history, capabilities and weaknesses.
i. Punishment book – can be used to check on the past behaviour of a difficult
learner. Records will show the kind of offences to which the learner is prone to
in order to find out the underlying causes.

In the following will be a discussion of other methods of providing for individial differences
among learners. They include:

Use of teacher-students’ conferences – Teachers and students hold formal conferences

where the latter talk freely about their needs. Through these conferences teachers are
able to gather as much information as possible about learners’ problems attitudes and
interests.

Use of open days – here teachers, learners and parents hold conferences where the
progress of the learners is discussed. During the conferences the teacher can find out
information about the learner’s background from the parents.

Use of tests – A test refers to a particular set up for the purpose of making an
assessment. Pencil and paper test is an example. This involves the presentation of set of
questions through which you would obtain a measure of a characteristic of a person.

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Activity:

Outline other ways, which you could use to

identify learners with special needs.

Your main aim as teacher should be to have a session of effective teaching whenever you
go to the class. It is also part of your professional role to recognize and to develop the
potential of each individual learner – the meek, the bold, the strong and the weak, the
disabled and the gifted. This is not an easy task considering that every learner, regardless
of abilities and disabilities has a right to a broad and balanced curriculum. However it
should be noted that;

It may not be practical to attend to each learner individually due to lack of time, size of
class, amount of content to be covered, your experience and nature of learners’
problems.

Some individual differences need to be handled by specialists as they are beyond your
control e.g. the deaf, the dumb and the severely mentally retarded.

You can handle some of the individual differences by creating activities that help
learners in reducing the gaps of individual achievement.

Since every class is made up of learners with individual differences, you as a teacher
should seek for maximum growth of each learner rather than a maximum standard for the
whole group. Therefore you should value their differences and plan effectively in order to
cater for them. In the next lesson, we are going to discuss the characteristics of learners
who require special help in the class and give suggestions on how to provide for their
individual instructional needs.

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13.5 Summary:

In this lecture we have learnt that there are individual differences that exist among
learners. These differences could be physical, social, emotional or psychological.
We have also learnt that individual differences that exist among learners cause
them to learn at different rates. It has also been pointed that there is need for the
teacher to assist each learner to realise his/her full potential regardless of their
individual differences. In the next lesson we are going to discuss ways of
providing for individual needs, in a classroom situation

13.6 Definition of Key Words and Concepts

Academically Talented: Learners who are endowed with a high

level of general intelligence.
Individual Differences: The differences in various individual
characteristics for example, age, gender
intelligence, attitudes, interests,
physical appearance.
Intelligence: the ability to understand and learn and
make judgement or have opinions that
are based on reason.
Physical Characteristics: Refer to one’s appearance such as
height, colour of skin, hair.
Physical Disabilities: some disability affecting the physical
state of the body e.g. sight, hearing and
movement.

13.7 References for further reading.

1. Ayot H.O. & M.M. Patel(1992) Instructional Methods (General

Methods.
2. Mukwa C.W. (1986) General Methods. University of
Nairobi.
3. Obanya (l980) General Methods of Teaching.
MacMillan Nigeria.

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LECTURE FOURTEEN

14.0 Introduction

In the previous lesson we learnt about individual differences which exist among
learners in the classroom. It was noted that every class is made up of unique
individual differences, individual needs and their own rights. In this lecture we are
going to discuss methods of catering for individual differences in the classroom.

14.1 Objectives

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

Identify learners who need special help in the class

Explain ways of catering for instructional needs of learners
who require special help.
Explain problems which are likely to arise as a result of
catering for individual needs in the class.
Suggest possible solutions to problems which arise in an
attempt to cater for special needs of learners in the class.

Note:

The degree of uniqueness in a classroom situation pauses a great challenge to the

teacher since it means that the expectations of every student must relate to the
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14.3 Providing for individual differences.

Although every individual learner is unique and different from the other members of the
class it is impossible to attend to each learner individually. There are many factors
which militate against this such as time, amount of content and class size.

Activity:

Identify others factors which make it impossible for the teacher

to provide for individual needs of each learner in the class.

14.3.1 Methods of providing for individual differences in the classroom.

Grouping.
This is best method of providing for individual differences in a class which consists of
bright, average, weak, poor and disabled grouping can take any of the following forms:

mixed ability grouping – involves mixing students of various mental and physical
abilities together in a group. This method has several advantages e.g.

- It prevents the rejection of the less students able by the bright students.
- It diminishes feelings of inferiority, superiority and aggression among learners.
- It promotes spirit of co-operation among learners of different capabilities.

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- It encourages social interaction among learners

- It enables students to learn from each other
- It gives access to the same content using same teaching methods.

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Questions:

? What are the limitations of using mixed

ability grouping?

Homogeneous grouping – consist of learners with similar characteristics

e.g. gender, ability, interests, needs, vocation, goals and aspiration. You
would find this method suitable because:

- it is easy to select content and methods that will be suitable for all learners
in the group.
- It reduces heterogeneity in a class thus handling learners with similar
needs together.
- It makes certain aspects of the problems of providing for individual
differences in a learner a little more manageable.

Note:

It is important to be aware of some of the limitations of homogeneous

grouping for example

- In practice, homogeneous groups are not truly homogeneous.

They could be similar in one or two characteristics but otherwise
they cannot be exactly a likely physically, mentally emotionally
socially or according to capabilities.
- It leads to diluting content and methods for the slow learners.
- It encourages negative labeling of the weak learners by the bright
ones.
- Slow learners do not get challenge from their talented peers.

Differential abilities grouping – This involves:

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- Giving different assignments to learners according to their ability.

- Stating objectives in such a way that some cater for sow learners while others cater
for quick learners.
- Specifying different learning activities for different learners or group of learners.
- Handling the same at different levels of difficult depending on learners’ ability.

c. Differential abilities grouping has the following advantages:

learners are given tasks according to their ability.
Learners learn at their own pace
It easier to teach learners of the same ability then those of mixed different abilities.

Activity:

List down limitations of using differential

ability grouping to cater for individual
differences

d. Friendship grouping – It involves grouping learners who are friends

together. The friendship could be due to their social, economic and religious
backgrounds. They could also be from the same neighbourhood.

- When learners are grouped according to friendship they enjoy learning since they
have common interest. However there is danger in that they can engage in
activities which are not worthwhile as their share pleasant past memories.
d. Interest grouping – Involves farming groups according to what interests the
learner. Learners are free to join groups on the basis of interest in a given task.
Therefore learners with the same interest can work together to achieve some goal.
This promotes spirit of co-operation and also motivates learners as they work on
what interests them.

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Note:

It is important for you to be aware of other methods which

you could use to cater for the needs of learns besides
grouping. Their effective utilization will transform lives of
the learners.

In the following paragraphs we are going to discuss other methods of providing for
individual differences among learners. They include:

Use of a Variety of Instructional Resources- In order to provide for

individual differences in the classroom, you should use multi-media approach
to teaching and learning. Use of a variety of resources will suit learners
interests, needs and ability levels. In a classroom where individual
differences are provided for should be full of attractive usable, readily
available for the learners to use. Careful selection should be made to ensure
that the resources will enable the learners to utilize various senses.

Need for attractive Learning Environment – The learning environment

should allow and encourages learners to develop a greater independence
and take greater responsibility for their own learning. The environment needs
to be attractive and stimulating e.g.

- Seating arrangement should be conducive for learning. Naught you

troublesome learners should be made to sit within teacher’s easy reach.
- Arranging the furniture and equipment in an orderly manner.
- Organizing for thorough cleaning of the classroom.
- Positioning the disabled learners in places which suit them.

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Use of Appropriate Teaching Strategies –You use a well planned and

carefully thought approach to teaching and learning in which there are
differentiated tasks. This means giving tasks which will build on the learners
past achievements, after challenges which learners can tackle successfully,
removing barriers to learning and allowing learners to assess their own
progress against identifiable criteria. To achieve this, you should develop
assessment strategies which permit all learners, including those with special
needs, to demonstrate their capabilities and achievements.

Use of a Variety of Learning Activities – Learning activities are the key to

success in teaching and learning. Therefore you should identify suitable
activities to involve the learners in during the lesson. The activities should be
meaningful and relevant according to learner’s age, interest, attitude, level,
mental ability and physical characteristics.

Provision of Suitable Curriculum: The curriculum should be diversified to

give learners opportunity to study in areas that interest them. You should guide
learners in the selection of the right subjects so that they can pursue their
special interests and explore their special talents.

Use of Special Help- You should single out learners who are different from
the majority of members of your group for special help. In this section we are
going to discuss ways of catering for then needs of the slow learner, the
academically talented, the physically impaired, the economically
disadvantaged and the emotionally disturbed.

The Slow Learners – Those who do not keep with the rate of learning. They
seem to be having difficulties in grasping content. They also have problems in
reading, writing and expressing themselves verbally. They understand ideas
and relationships at a slower rate than the average class. In cases where
achievement tests are given they tend to score lower than most of the class
members.

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Note:

There are different types of slow learners depending on the

cause. Therefore, to be able to solve the problems of slow
learner, you need to know the category and the causes of the
problem.

Categories of Slow Learners

Category 1 – Those who do not have the intellectual capacity to cope with a
particular level of instruction. Such learners lack general intelligence.

Category 2 – Those who may learn fast in one subject for example Home Science
but will move slowly when they study another subjects, say for example Business
Education. Such a learner is therefore not lacking in general intelligence but may be
lacking in aptitude for Business Education.

Category 3 – Learners who lack neither general intelligence nor aptitude but whose
problems are largely affective. Such learners generally lack interest, positive attitude
and motivation towards work and school in particular.

How to cater for the needs of slow learners

We are now going to give suggestions on how to help each category of slow learners.

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Category 1
Provide them with stimulating environment necessary for the exercise of
intelligence. You can for example expose them to variety of resources such as:
Teach them in a way that involves exercise of intelligence – exploring, describing,
questioning.
Reteach at the slow learner’s pace and use methods appropriate to their style of
learning.
Show patience and understanding towards them.
Give them remedial work.

Category 2
Give them more time to study the subject where aptitude is lacking.
Improve the quality of teaching to create interest in the subject.
Give them the assurance that the subject is not beyond their understanding
Draw the relationship between those subjects they know and those they do not
know or are not interested in.
Exercise patience with them and reinforce all their successful efforts
Given them more out of class practice in the subject.

Category 3
Develop the learner’s interest and motivation towards learning through good
teaching
Add persuasion to good teaching
Show them the relevance of some specific subjects to their future life.
Use appropriate teaching methods which will enable to understand why they are
learning
Be kind and friendly to them.

The Academically Talented – These are children who possess superior intelligence making
their academic performance above their age. They may also have a high degree of aptitude
for specific school subjects or specific learning tasks. In addition they may be highly interested
in school work and may excel in everything, including physical development. In some cases
the gifted child can also be troublesome. This group exhibits the following characteristics:

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alertness, resourcefulness, precariousness, unusual powers of concentrations, excessive

energy, unusual curiosity, accuracy, creativity ,logical reasoning, neatness, leadership
qualities, boredom, restlessness.

How to Cater for the Needs of the Academically Talented.

The teaching programme should be enriched for the gifted to give them interesting challenging
and motivating environment where they will have little to criticize (spock and Rothenberg 1945).

- They should be encouraged to do individual initiative in planning programmes that

interest them.
- They should be exposed to a wide range of instructional materials to learn from such
as the audio, visual and audio-visual..
- They should be given opportunity to share knowledge with other students through
activities such as symposiums and discussions.
- They should be encouraged to give creative expressions in written and oral work.
- They should be given more challenging work then the other students to check their
speed.
- They should be given research work involving independent inquiry.
- They should be given leadership roles e.g. school prefects, club leaders to instill
concern for others.
- They should be introduced to programmed learning if technology is available in the
school learning on computers or using special prepared programmes helps the
talented to move at their own pace without getting bored.
- The gifted should be paired so that they can discuss ideas at same level “very
capable students do enjoy learning with intellectual peers and often miss stimulation
when the peers are not available” (Rimm 1935).
- You should provide some counseling outside class time so that the gifted one able to
grow socially and morally as they speed along the fast track of learning things.

Question:

?
How else do you think you would cater for

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The Physically Impaired

The physically impaired include those learners with speech defects, the hard of hearing
the visually impaired and the orthopaedically impaired. A student with a physical
disability is just as capable of learning as one without if the teacher caters for their
needs. In any case learning is a game we play with our minds. We are going to
discuss methods of catering for the needs categories of the physically impaired.

Catering for the Needs of Students with Speech problems

- Have the same expectations for them as you have for the other learners e.g. standards
of effort and behaviour.
- Encourage them to answer oral questions, allowing them to complete the answers.
- Help them through the use of the tape recorder, computers, typewriters and other
similar aids.
- Health them to build self confidence by not allowing room for underachievement.
- Encourage them to get help from a speech therapist.

The Hard of Learning.

- Provide recording facilities so that the recorded information can be repeated over and
over for them to get the message.
- Allow them to sit in a comfortable place where they can hear the teacher with excess
strain.
- Encourage them to use hearing aids.
- Use teaching methods which will involve more reading and observation than
listening.

The Visually Impaired

- Accommodate the student close to the chalkboard so that they can read better than
if they were at the back.
- Arrange for them to copy notes later to compensate for their lack of speed in this
area.
- provide for recording facilities to help them revise written work missed during class
time.

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- provide them with relevant instructional materials in form of three-dimensional

visuals. Make the resources accessible to them without fumbling around the class.
- Give them more time to finish their work
- give them extra tutorials especially in science, practical and technical subjects.

The Orthopaedically Impaired

These are learners with physical deformation of bones through natural causes or injury. Their
cases are more obvious as their handicap is normally visible. The teacher should make them
comfortable in class by:

- Making sure that they sit at places where they can walk in and out easily.
- Assisting them where necessary especially during practical work.
- Encouraging them to use wheelchairs and crutches.
- Treating them the same as the other students ‘Fairness to all is a rule that is
appealing to all, the handicapped and the regular students. (Stocks and Rothenburg
1945).
- Making same demands to them as to the regular learners.

The Economically Disadvantaged.

This is a very common group in a developing country like Kenya. Their condition is
identified through the following: language patterns, posture and mode of carriage, general
health and well being, mode of dressing, absenteeism, lack of instructional materials. The
teacher should cater for their needs in the following ways:

- Make them feel important and appreciated

- Reward them appropriately for their input
- Arrange for learners to share their books as a way of minding for each others
welfare.
- Provide for guidance and counselling outside class time.
- Try to motivate them to learn
- Arrange for bursaries for them where possible.

Question:

?
Explain the relationship between language
patterns and one’s economic status.

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The Emotionally disturbed

The emotionally disturbed learners are identified through the following:- underachieving,
shoddy appearance, low self-esteem, excessive fear, poor interpersonal skills, being
uncooperative, lack of concentration, being mischievous, easily irritated, noisy prone to
lying, very sensitive, depressed, and absent mindedness. This group could be helped by:

- Being guided and counselled.

- Subjecting them to the same code of ethics like others.
- Establishing positive climate in which they are encouraged to work hard.
- Appreciating their contribution in class activities.
- Offering challenges to them and removing learning barriers.
- Providing frequent reinforcement by marking and displaying of their work.
- Being friendly, kind, sympathetic, trustworthy and reliable to all the learners
regardless of their state.

Activity:

What other forms of individual differences not

discussed in this chapter are you familiar with?
Describe them and suggest ways of tackling
them in a normal classroom setting.

The foregoing are some of the ways of catering for the needs of individual learners in
the classroom.

According to Deurden and Juky (1980) the teacher should be an adviser and an
enabler who encourages and gradually facilitates learning opportunities.

Problems Likely to Arise in an Attempt to Provide for Individual Differences in the Classroom.

You should be warned of problems which are likely to arise in an attempt to cater for the needs
of learners in the classroom so that you can be able to cope with them if they arise. They
include:

- loss of control of the rest of the class leading to indiscipline.

- Restlessness among the unattended learners.
- Negative labelling of the so called ‘favoured’ making them feel uncomfortable or
embarrassed.
- A lot of time is likely to be consumed thus make it impossible to cover the syllabus.
- Emotional tension may crop up between different groups in the class.

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- Some learners are likely to be over-reliant on the teacher.

- Alienating and isolating of some students may result to lack of interest in learning.

Activity:

Explain how you would handle problems

which would arise in the classroom as you
attempt to cater for special needs of
learners.

14.4 Summary:

In this lesson we have discussed various methods of helping learners

with special needs. These methods differ depending on the nature of
the need. It is up to the teacher to identity the nature of learners’
special needs in order to use appropriate methods of helping the
individual learners.

14.5 Definition of Key Words and Concepts

Academically Talented: Children who possess superior

intelligence.
Homogeneous: Consisting of parts which are similar .
Orthopaedically Impaired: Those with deformity of bones.
Physically Impaired: Those with physical defects such as
hearing and seeing.

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14.6 Further Reading:

1. Ayot H.O. & M.M. Patel Instructional Methods

(General Methods).
2. Callahan, J.F. and L.H. Clark (l982). Teaching in the
Middle and Secondary
Schools, MacMillan, New
York and London.
3. Mukwa C.W. (l986): General Methods.
University of Nairobi.
4. Obanya (l980): General Methods of
Teaching MacMillan
Nigeria.

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LECTURE FIFTEEN

15.0 Measurement and Evaluation

15.1 Introduction.

Measurement and Evaluation are essential components of teaching and learning. In this
lecture we shall learn the meanings of the terms “Measurement’’ and “Evaluation’’. We
shall also learn the basic purposes of measurement and evaluation as well as their
application in classroom teaching.

15.2 Objectives
By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
distinguish between “measurement’’ and “evaluation’’.
state and explain at least two purposes of measurement and evaluation.
state and explain different kinds of classroom tests.
prepare subjective and objective type of questions.

15.3 Meaning of measurement.

If you want to know the length of a rope or root, you could use a meter ruler to find out.
The distance from one end of the rope or root to the other represents its length. That
length is the measurement. The measurement may be expressed (written) in centimeters
for example. Similarly you could find out the weight of each child in your classroom. The
weight may be expressed in grammes or kilograms. Both the length and the weight are
‘quantities’ or ‘amounts’ obtained by using measuring instruments (the ruler and the
kilogram scale). The measured quantity or figure is a ‘measurement’.

Question

Is Measurement just figures or quantities?

Measurement is not just quantities or figures. With respect to classroom teaching and
learning, measurements can be seen as a process. This process includes preparation
(construction), administration and scoring of tests. It also includes the actual process of
measuring

‘Construction’ refers to the making or preparation of the test while ‘administration’ means
giving out the test to be done by the person it was constructed for. Scoring of tests, on the
other hand, refers to the marking and awarding of marks against the answers/responses
provided by the candidate.

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Question

How many types of tests are you familiar with ?

15.4 Types of tests.

Broadly speaking, there are several types of tests. Examples are:

Achievement tests (for measuring acquisition of information or skills)
Aptitude tests (for measuring innate Acquired or Potential abilities)
Intelligence tests (for measuring intellectual capacity)
Attitude tests (for measuring tendency to be in favour or against a given attribute)

In this lecture, we shall learn more about achievements

NOTE:
a. Measurement is sometimes referred to as “Assessment”
b. In teaching and learning encounters, we usually deal with
achievement testing. However, you may wish to read on your own about other types of
tests to widen your understanding on measurement. See Reading list for some
suggestions.

15.5 Purposes of Measurement

Question

Why and What should we measure in Teaching and Learning?

Teaching is an educational activity or process. It is sensible therefore, for us to take stock and
gauge how the teaching process is fairing on from time to time. In other words, we should
measure our performance as teachers and that of the learners as well. Measurement will give
us data or information, which we should use to improve the performance of both parties—
students and teachers. Thus, measurement serves several purposes. The purposes are

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Instructional, Administrative and Guidance-based. You can now read the following
purposes critically:

(a) Instructional Purposes.

Provision of feedback to teachers concerning teaching objectives, procedures, materials
etc.

Provision of feedback to learners on what they have done well and what they need to do
to improve.

Provision of feedback to parents/guardians on the progress record of their children in

order to provide the necessary emotional, social academic and material support.

Provision of feedback to the local community on what it could do to supplement school

effort in improving the academic and social life of the learners.

(b) Administrative Functions.

Determine the quality of education being given to the learners’ vis-à-vis the national goals
of education as well as the International Convention on the Rights of the Child. This way,
appropriate measures can be taken to address the issue.

Facilitate research on the extant curriculum and suggest necessary amendments.

Provide a basis for performance assessment and certification.

(c) Guidance and Counseling Purposes

Obtain information for use in providing guidance and counseling services to
individual children on social and academic matters

Question
Should each measurement exercise take into account all three types of functions?

Measurement is never done in a vacuum. There is always a purpose for it. In educational
measurement, the classroom teacher primarily concerns herself/himself with instructional
purposes. These purposes in turn provide a basis for administrative decision-making processes
within the school and the local community. Further, the outcome of classroom tests facilitates the
compilation of data banks, which could prove useful in assisting students to choose their careers.

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Note:

Decisions based on achievement scores should be made cautiously since the

scores are not absolute indicators of one’s performance; for example, a score of 0% in a
given subject does not mean that the candidate knows nothing in that subject.

Activity

(a) State and explain an example of an instructional procedure that could be modified by
the results of an achievement test
(b) Describe a research activity which could be carried out to improve teaching and
learning
(c) Explain how test scores could be used to provide guidance and counseling to weak
learners

15.6 Classroom tests

Question
What are classroom tests?

You have often heard about “classroom teachers”. This phrase is used to distinguish
formal teachers found in institutions of learning from teachers found elsewhere e.g. at
home, in churches or mosques, in leisure parks and so on. In both cases the teacher
seeks to make others “know” something. In the former case however, knowledge is
imparted in formal institutions and hence the term “classroom tests” associated with
schools, colleges or universities.

A number of types of classroom tests are available for the teacher, to use when preparing
questions to test the learners’ understanding of some content (subject matter). In this
lecture we shall consider the following types of tests:

Essay
Structured
Short answer
Objective
Practicals
Project work

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Question
What are the basic characteristics of each type of class room test?

Let us take one test type at a time and try to answer the above question.

a. Essay tests.
Essay questions require the learners/candidates to provide answers through continuous
prose. They test the learners’ ability to organise their ideas and
communicate them through verbal expression. Examples of an essay question are:

Discuss the consequences of scramble for Africa to the inhabitants of the continent.
Explain the process of transpiration in plants.
Evaluate the significance of science and technology of education in the welfare of
humankind.

b. Structured tests.
This is a form of “short answer ”variety that requires the learner or candidate to provide
answers to a question based on a common theme. The question is usually in several parts
and may be based on a graph, table or a diagram or text.
Let us look at an example:

The diagram below shows the external structure of a leaf.

(a) Name the parts labeled A, B, C.

A________________________
B________________________
C________________________

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(b) State one function of the part labeled D.

(c) What kind of venation is shown?

Activity

Write an essay question based on a named topic from the secondary school
curriculum.
Prepare a structured question based on
i. Tabular data.
ii. A brief description of a named process

c. Short answer Tests

The short answer question variety expects the candidate to give a brief answer to a
question. The answer may have to be provided on a limited space. Study these examples:

Distinguish between a module and a model.

State two functions of the liver.
Define a “paddle” as used in geography.

d. Objective tests
Objective type questions are so called because it is relatively easy to obtain the same
score on a candidate’s score if the script is marked by more than one examiner. Objectivity
is not linked to the setting of the questions, as there could be subjective bias. A marking
scheme for objective tests allows for only one correct answer per question. That is why the
marking is said to be objective –hence the name given to this type of test.

Question
What are the various forms of objective questions?

Multiple choice, true/ false, matching and completion are examples of objective type formats.
Multiple choice consists of a stem and a number of options. One of the options is the key or

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the correct answer. All incorrect options are called distracters for they draw away some
candidates from choosing the key. The entire question from stem to options is called an item.
It is possible to test various cognitive levels such as knowledge, understanding
(comprehension), application of knowledge, analysis and evaluation of information (see
Bloom’s taxonomy for details)

. Examples of multiple choice items are:

Which one of the following is not an arachnid?

A. Mite.
B. Caterpillar.
C. Tick.
D. Spider.

Activity
_____________________________________________________________
Identify the stem, options and the key in the preceding question.
_____________________________________________________________

The graph above shows rainfall distribution of an area during one calendar year.

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1. During which three months was the rainfall highest?

A. January, March, November.

B. December, August, January
C. December, November, January
D. January, December, February

2. What was the average rainfall from the beginning of august to end of October?

A. 40mm
B. 90mm
C. 52mm
D. 20mm

Activity

With reference to lecture four, indicate the cognitive levels represented by the two questions
above?
Construct a multiple-choice item that tests application of knowledge.

e. Matching
In matching, each question consists of two unequal columns in which the candidate is
required “match” an item in one column with another item in the other column for example:

“Column A contains names of body parts of a mammal. Match each part with the
corresponding function in column B by drawing a line from column A to B. An example has
been illustrated for you using an arrow.

COLUMN A COLUMN B
Liver Site for red blood cell manufacture.
Tibia Regulates blood sugar.
Sebaceous glands Removes amino groups from food substances.
Insulin Site for enzyme activity.
Found on top of the skin.
One of the supporting vertebrae

Note:

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Making the columns of unequal length checks against guesswork or getting the item correct
through an elimination process.

f. Completion:

This is where an incomplete statement is provided for the candidates to supply the missing
part e.g.

Tall is to short as weak is to ________________________

g. True/False:

Here the candidate has to indicate whether the statement provided is true or false e.g.

The boiling point of water is 100 C every where in the world.

TRUE_______FALSE_________

h. Practical:
Questions for practical tests and examinations will provide opportunities for the learners to
exercise what they have learned in theory lessons. This is an opportunity for manipulation
of apparatus and other materials as well as the application of scientific thinking and
investigative skills. IN short, it is a means of testing how well learners can work
systematically as practising scientists do.

You have no doubt been involved in practical work examinations. Two examples of such
examinations may be:

1. Examine the two specimens P and Q provided and

a. dentify the specimens

b. state two functions of each specimen
c. draw and label the main external features of specimen Q

2. Using the reagents provided, determine the food substance present in the samples
provided. Outline the procedure you have followed and comment on your results.

Question.
What criteria should one use when assessing practical work?

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Different criteria may be used to assess practical work. However, in general you could
consider the following:

Ability to follow instructions correctly

Description of procedure
Suitability of data recording technique
Accuracy of and consistency of results
Appropriateness of inferences made
Neatness of presentation
Discussion of results

Activity.

Write a practical question based on a given secondary school level in one of your teaching
subjects. Indicate how you would award marks.

i. Project work
Projects are extended, independent academic tasks that are usually practical in
nature. This work involves identification of a study problem, collection, analysis,
interpretation and presentation of data. Usually, the student chooses the project topic
though the teacher may at times suggest some areas of study. Once the area of study has
been chosen, the responsibility of designing (planning) and executing (carrying out) the
project rests upon the student. The teacher serves as a facilitator or adviser.

Question.

What is the nature or structure of a project?

Types of Projects

Projects may be structured, unstructured or semi-structured. Structured formats are

selected topics from which students make choices. Definite operational procedures are
prescribed the student’s role being that of an implementor. Examples may include:

Hardness of water in Kahawa river, Nairobi.

Identification and description of AIDS’s orphans Homes.
Insect collection and classification.

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Unstructured projects on the other hand necessitate project assigning, investigating,

analysis and reporting of findings by the student. The teacher provides guidance as
necessary. An Example of an unstructured project could be:

‘Investigate the extent of environmental pollution in your local community’

The Semi-structured variety lies in between the structured and unstructured [Link]
student is given some guidance and direction to follow, using some broad guidelines which
he/she has to interpret in the light of given course objectives, for example:

‘Given the attached interview schedule, find out the attitude of your local
community towards civic education’.

Activity.

How can one assess project work?

Assessment of projects: A general format or guideline for assessing project work iprovided
hereunder:

Consider whether the project topic has been originated by the student or the teacher.
Consider the suitability of the work for instructional purposes.
Determine how relevant the work is to the learner’s daily life experience.
Gauge the general assembly of the work.
Consider the durability of the final product.
Consider ease of storage of the product.
Consider accuracy of information/assembly presented.
Consider potential for student learning from the project.
Consider link of the project to the local community and the world of work

Activity:

a. Add other considerations you deem necessary in project assessment.

b. Provide score points for each of the considerations listed.

We have learnt about different types of classroom tests. Let us now learn how to construct these
tests.

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Question.

How are classroom tests constructed?

14.7 Construction of Classroom Tests

Construction of tests means preparation of test items and papers for purposes of determining
specified objectives. In constructing achievement tests it is important that:
the objectives of the syllabus, scheme of work and lesson plans be kept in mind
the academic level of the candidates be known
the specific topics taught be outlined
A table of specifications or specifications grid be prepared to guide in deciding the number and
type of questions (test items) to be written against each topic. The grid could look like this:

Kn & Skills Questions. OBS. REC. ANALY. INTERP INFER. DRAWING

.
Content(Topics) Totals
HIV AIDS 1 1 1 - - - 3
NUTRITION 1 - - 1 2 1 5
POLLUTION 1 1 2 2 3 1 10
CIVIC EDUCATION - - 2 3 - - 5
Totals 3 2 5 6 5 2

Note:

The number of questions per knowledge/skill will depend on:

Amount of subject matter covered.
Nature of the instructional objectives.
Duration of the test.
Types of tests to be administered as required by the instructional programme.
Types of resources and facilities available.
Necessary adjustments have to be made to end up with a balanced test paper

Once a Table of Specifications has been prepared it is necessary to decide the format of questions
to be followed (essay, objective, practical, project) in order to test the achievement of instructional
objectives in a variety of ways. The variety is especially necessary since learners are not endowed
with the same kind of abilities (e.g. following instructions, drawing, controlling variables during an
investigation and so on.) So a balanced test which uses various test formats will be fairer for the
learners than one that uses only one format. Further, each test format has specific merits and

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demerits (advantages/disadvantages) hence the need to expose the candidates to a variety of test
formats.

Question.

What are the merits and demerits of the various kinds of classroom tests?

There are various advantages and disadvantages of classroom tests. Table 14.A summarizes the
main features (merits/demerits) of Essay, Objective and Practical Tests.

Table showing some merits and demerits of classroom tests

Test Type Merits Demerits

Essay promotes thought scoring can be

organisation subjective

provides for self expression time consuming to mark

encourages meaningful few topics covered.
study
Objective marking is objective difficult to prepare a sound
test.
wide coverage of syllabus encourages scanty revision

marking takes short time

Practicals provides for relatively expensive.
discovery/
manipulative skills

theory is put into practice pre-trial necessary which is

an added expenditure.

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Activity:

Add more merits and demerits against each test types presented above.
State and explain advantages and disadvantages of true /false, completion, matching
&project work.

Question.

Classroom tests are part of measurement. How is this different from Evaluation?

14.8 Evaluation of educational programmes.

You have learned that one can measure the achievement of instructional objectives through
classroom tests. This exercise is called measurement or assessment. In assessment you
determine your learners competencies or abilities. The information you put together can be used to
determine the worth, effectiveness or value of your subject with respect to overall educational
goals. The making of a value judgement on the worth or significance of an educational programme
is referred to as Evaluation.
Thus, classroom tests can contribute valuable information about the quality and relevance of the
curriculum with regard to wholesome development of the learner. They can also be used as a
means of detecting syllabus strengths and weaknesses.

Question.

Are classroom tests the only means of evaluating an educational programme?

In order to pass a comprehensive judgement on the quality and relevance of an educational

programme, it is necessary to obtain information from a variety of stakeholders such as learners,
teachers, school administrators, parents / guardians, and local leaders among others. Further, it is
prudent to use a variety of data collecting procedures and instruments in order to obtain a rich
assortment of information. Among the instruments and their attendant procedures are the following:

Classroom observation schedules –class visits are meant to see teachers in action.

Questionnaires - administered to individual learners, teachers, school administrators

and other relevant parties to seek their opinions on specific aspects of the educational
programme.

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Interview schedules –used with samples of relevant people (e.g. learners, teachers,
curriculum developers, school inspectors) to obtain an in-depth view on specific
educational matters.

Focus group discussion (F.G.D)-specific groups of interest (e.g.. teachers, parents),

numbering about 8-12 are for an open discussion on specific issues about education
or specific curriculum.

Document analysis – This is a scheme that seeks to obtain information from

institutional records (class test scores, availability and use of resources, staff turnover,
learner enrollment e.t.c.)

The above techniques can be supplemented by others as the programme evaluator may deem
necessary (e.g. use of a standardized test for learners, comparative study for curricula in
various neighboring countries vis-a-vis the one being evaluated). All in all , the main focus
should be to produce a document that objectively examines the given curriculum in its entirety
to facilitate the making of informed decisions concerning the programme in question .

Activity.

Prepare a questionnaire for obtaining information about the drug abuse

problem in your community.

15.9 Summary

In this lecture, we have learned about measurement and evaluation in education. We have learned
about the instructional, administrative and guidance purposes of assessment.
We have also learned about different types of classroom tests (e.g. practicals, essays and
objective tests), whose information can form part of an evaluation process. Other techniques of
evaluating educational programmes include questionnaires, interviews, documents analysis and
classroom observation.

15.10 key words, concepts and acronyms.

Measurement – The preparation, administration and scoring of tests; a quantity or figure

obtained through use of a measuring instrument or tool.

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Evaluation - The determination of the value, worth, effectiveness or significance of an

educational system or programme
.
Test - A tool or means of measuring an attribute or potential of a person or people.

Achievement - Attainment of a desired end or objective.

Intelligence - An individual’s mental capacity or ability to apply knowledge in dealing with

an
Environment.
Aptitude - A natural capacity inclination for learning.

Attitude - A feeling, emotion towards or position taken for a specific purpose.

Instruction - The process through which a teacher facilitates knowledge and skill
acquisition.

Administration – The management and supervision of the affairs of an

institution.

Guidance and Counseling – Provision of direction towards the satisfaction of

an individual’s needs in a professional manner.

An Essay test – A test requiring a candidate to provide an answer to a

question through verbal expression in a continuous prose form.

Structured test - A test requiring a candidate to respond to a series of

questions based on common themes; the responses are generally quite
brief.
Objective test- A test whose scoring has virtually no subjectivity; same
answer can be arrived at by
Different markers using same marking scheme.
Practical -Extensive piece of work, usually in a laboratory, that enables
learners to manipulate
Materials and apply theoretical knowledge in a real situation.
Project work - Piece of extended study of the environment, in which the learner plans an
investigation,
Gathers data and reports his/her findings through oral/written presentation
or displays/
Exhibitions.
Matching Test – Test which consists of two columns of information in which the
candidates match
Information in one column with corresponding information in the other.
Classroom Test – Test prepared, administered and marked by a teacher in a formal
institution.

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Completion items – Filling in the blank format in which the candidate completes
statements by supplying an appropriate missing words or phrases.

True/ False items - Test format whereby candidates indicate whether given statements
are True or False.
Table of specifications – A tabular grid showing the number and kind of test questions to
be prepared.

Merit - Value or advantage.

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15.11 Further Reading.

- Patel M. & Ayot, H. Instructional Methods.

- Maundu, Sambili & Muthwii (1998). Biology Education: A Methodological Approach.
- Stanley, Kenneth & Hopkins. Educational and Psychological Measurement and
Evaluation.
- Garret – Testing for Teachers.
- Macintosh et al. Techniques and Problems of Assessment.

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