Module 1: Measuring

Instruments
EE-203: Electrical and Electronics Measurements

1
 Error Analysis

Guaranteed Accuracy Errors and Limiting Errors

❖ When accuracy is measured in terms of error, then it is called as guaranteed accuracy
error (GAE) or limiting error (LE).

❖ GAE is always specified by the manufacturer with respect to the full-scale deflection
and it is always constant in value.

❖ LE is calculated from GAE by the customer based on the true value of the
measurement and it varies as the true value of the measurement varies.

% GAE  full-scale reading

% LE =
true value

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 Error Analysis (contd.)

Guaranteed Accuracy Errors and Limiting Errors

❖ If the nominal value of a quantity is Ao and has a maximum error or limiting error of
± A then the magnitude of the quantity must be Aa between the limits (Aa - A) and
(Aa + A) or

❖ For example, if the nominal magnitude of a resistor is 100  with a limiting error of
±10  , the magnitude of the resistor will be between limits,

Aa = A0   A
A = 100  10  or 90   A  110 

3
 Numerical
Error Analysis (contd.)

Q1: A 0-150V voltmeter has a guaranteed accuracy of 1% of full scale reading. The
voltage measured by this instrument is 75 V. Calculate the limiting error in percent.

4
 Error Analysis (contd.) Numerical

Q2: To measure 10 V, if one selects (0-100) V range voltmeter whose error

is within ±10%. The accuracy of this instrument is ___________.

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 Error Analysis (contd.) Numerical
Q3: A wattmeter having a range of 1000W has an error of ±1% of full scale deflection.
If the true power is 100W,
(a) what would be the range of the readings, if error is specified as
percentage of full-scale value?
(b) If the error is specified as percentage of true value, what would be the
range of the readings.

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Error Analysis (contd.) Numerical

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 Error Analysis (contd.) solutions
Sol. 1: %GAE = 1%; TV = 75 V
% LE = 1 150 = 2%
75

Sol. 2: accuracy means GAE

% LE = %GAE  FSR
TV
%GAE = 10  10 = 1%
100
Sol 3: (a) Magnituge of error = 1  1000 = 10 W
100
Range of readings =100  10 W = 90 W to 110 W

(b) Magnituge of error = 1  100 = 1 W

100
Range of readings =100  1W = 99 to 101 W 8
 .Error Analysis

Absolute Error
Difference between measured value and true value

 A = Am − AT

Relative Error
Error expressed as fraction of true value
Am − AT
A =
AT
% error =  A  100 %

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 .Error Analysis
Combination of Quantities with Limiting Errors In addition &
subtraction,
1) Sum of Quantities: X = X1 + X 2
absolute errors
( X   x ) = ( X1   x ) + ( X 2   x
1 2
) are added

(
X   x = X 1 + X 2   x1 +  x2 )
x = x + x
1 2
Limiting error in X is the sum of limiting error in X1 and X2.

2) Difference of Quantities: X = X1 − X 2
( X   x ) = ( X1   x ) − ( X 2   x
1 2
)
X   x = ( X1 − X 2 )   x  x 1 2

x = x + x1 2

Consider cases where we get maximum error since limiting error is the maximum error.
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 .Error Analysis
Combination of Quantities with Limiting Errors

3) Multiplication of Quantities: X = X1 . X 2
ln X = ln X 1 + ln X 2
1 = 1 X 1 + 1 X 2
X X 1  X X 2 X
X = X 1 + X 2
X X1 X2
X = X + X
1 2

Relative error in X is the summation of relative errors in X1 and X2.

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 .Error Analysis In
Combination of Quantities with Limiting Errors multiplication
& division,
X1 relative errors
4) Division of Quantities: X=
X2 are added
ln X = ln X 1 − ln X 2
1 = 1 X 1 − 1 X 2
X X 1  X X 2 X
X = X 1 − X 2 * Exception:
X X1 X2 If numerator and
X =    X2
denominator
X X1 have errors of same sign or
they depend on same
 X =  X1 +  X 2
Relative errors are added. variable then, their relative
error must be subtracted.
Thus, Percentage errors are added. 12
 .Error Analysis
Combination of Quantities with Limiting Errors

5) X 1a X 2b
X=
X 3c
 X = a X + b X + c X
1 2 3

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Error Analysis (contd.) Numerical

Q1: Four ammeters, A1, A2, A3 & A4 with the following specifications are available (Full scale
accuracy value as percent of full-scale). A1=20 ± 0.1; A2=10 ± 0.2; A3=1 ± 1.0; A4=5 ± 0.5;
A current of 1A is to be measured, to obtain minimum error in the following, one should select
meter __________. (a) A1 (b)A2 (c)A3 (d)A4

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Error Analysis (contd.) Numerical

Q2: Two resistances with limiting values are, R1=10 ± 5% and R2=15 ± 3% . x  ± y% is the
limiting value of equivalent resistance if connected in parallel then x + y is _______.

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Error Analysis (contd.) Numerical

Q3: Calculate maximum percentage error in the difference of two measured voltages when
V1=120V ± 0.5% and V2=100V ± 2.5%.

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Error Analysis (contd.) Numerical

Q4. Three resistors have the following ratings, R1=37  ±5%, R2=75  ± 5% & R3=50  ± 5%.
Determine the magnitude and limiting error in Ohm and in percent of the resistance of these
resistances connected in series

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Error Analysis (contd.) Numerical

Q5: The resistance of a circuit is found by measuring current flowing and the power fed into the
circuit. Find the limiting error in the measurement of resistance when the limiting errors in the
measurement of power and current are respectively, ± 1.5% and ± 1.0 % .

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Error Analysis (contd.)
Numerical
R 2 R3
Q6: The solution for the unknown resistance is, Rx =
R1

where, R1=100 ± 0.5% , R2=1000  ± 0.5%  & R3=842  ± 0.5% .

Determine the magnitude of the unknown resistance and the limiting error in percent and in Ohm
for the unknown resistance Rx.

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 Error Analysis (contd.)
solutions

Sol. 1: A1 = 20  0.1;  A1 = 0.1 20 = 2%

1
A2 = 10  0.2;  A2 = 0.2  10 = 2%
1
A3 = 1  1.0;  A3 = 1.0  1 = 1%
1
A4 = 5  0.5;  A4 = 0.5  5 = 2.5%
1
Since A3 has least limiting error therefore, A3 will be preferred.

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 Error Analysis (contd.) solutions
Sol. 2: R1 R2
R eq =
R1 + R2
R1 R2 , %errors will be added
R1 R2 = (10  15)  (5% + 3%) = 150  8%
R1 + R2 , absolute errors will be added

( ) (
R1 + R2 = 10  5  10 + 15  3  15
100 100 )
= (10  0.5) + (15  0.45) = (10 + 15)  (0.5 + 0.45) = 25  0.95
%error = 0.95  100 = 3.8%
25

R1 R2
R eq = = 150  8% = 150  (8% − 3.8%) = 6  4.2%
R1 + R2 25  3.8% 25
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 Error Analysis (contd.) solutions

Sol. 3: For difference, we require absolute error

V1 = 120  0.5  120 = 120  0.6
100
V2 = 100  2.5  100 = 100  2.5
100
V1 − V2 = (120 − 100)  (0.6 + 2.5) = 20  3.1
%error = 3.1  100 = 15.5%
20

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 Error Analysis (contd.) solutions

Sol. 4: Req = R1 + R2 + R3

R1 = 37  5  37 = 37  1.85 
100
R2 = 75  5  75 = 75  3.75 
100
R3 = 50  5  50 = 50  2.5 
100
Req = (37 + 75 + 50)  (1.85 + 3.75 + 2.5) 
= 162  8.1 

Mag = 162 ; Error in Ohm = 8.1 

% Error = 8.1  100 = 5%
162 23
 Error Analysis (contd.) solutions

Sol. 5: P = I 2R
R = P2 = 1.  P + 2.  I
I
= 1(1.5%) + 2 (1.0%) = 3.5%

Sol 6: R2 R3 = (1000  842)  (0.5% + 0.5%) = 842000  1%

R1 = 100  0.5%
Rx = 842000  1% = 842000  (1% + 0.5%) = 8420  1.5%
100  0.5% 100
Error in Ohm = 1.5  8420 = 126.3 
100

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 .Error Analysis
Types of Errors
1) Gross Errors
2) Systematic Errors
3) Random Error
1) Gross Error: Gross error arises due to human negligence or mistakes in reading
instruments and recording and calculating measurement results. The responsibility
of the mistake normally lies with the experimenter.
2) Systematic Error: Systematic errors are common for all observers and are of three
types: (a) Instrumental Error (b) Environmental Error (c) Observational Error
(a) Instrumental Error: due to shortcomings in the instrument, due to loading effects of
the instrument
(b) Environmental Error: due to the conditions external to the measuring device
including conditions in the area surrounding the instrument.
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 .Error Analysis (contd.)

(c) Observational Error: Generally occurs due to the parallax errors on account of
pointer and scale not being on the same plane.

3) Random Error: Error due to unidentified causes and may be positive or negative.
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 Electromechanical Instruments

❖ Electromechanical instruments are the instruments that converts the electrical signal to be
measured into a mechanical output that can be rotation of a disc or position of a pointer.
❖ Electromechanical instruments are also termed as analog instruments.
❖ These instruments are used to measure some of the electrical parameters like voltage, current,
power, energy, etc.

❖ For the satisfactory operation of any indicating instrument, three types of torque are required:
1) Deflecting Torque
2) Controlling Torque
3) Damping Torque

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Electromechanical Instruments (contd.)

1) Deflecting Torque : The torque which is required to move the pointer from its zero position in
response to the quantity being measured is known as deflecting torque.
• The purpose of deflecting torque is to cause the pointer to move from zero to the
appropriate reading proportional to the magnitude of the measured signal.
2) Controlling Torque : The torque that opposes the deflecting torque so that the pointer settles at
a definite steady position proportional to the measured quantity is called controlling torque.
• The purpose of controlling torque is to produce a torque equal and opposite to deflecting
torque at the steady final position of pointer and to bring the pointer back to zero when
measurement is removed.
• If controlling torque is not present, there is no opposition to the deflecting torque and the
pointer always shows the full-scale deflection.
• Controlling torque can be obtained by: Spring control and Gravity control. 28
Electromechanical Instruments (contd.)
3) Damping Torque: Due to inertia of moving system, the pointer will oscillate around its final
deflecting position before coming to rest. This makes difficult to obtain quick and accurate
readings.
• The torque that acts to damp out the oscillation of the pointer about steady-state position so
that the pointer final settles down is called damping torque.
• The purpose of damping torque is to avoid oscillations around the final position.
• Under steady-state (pointer has settled and is at rest), damping torque becomes zero.
Td = 0  Td = Tc
• Damping torque is provided by: Air friction damping
Fluid friction damping
Eddy current damping
Electromechanical damping 29
Electromechanical Instruments (contd.)

• The damping torque should be of such a magnitude that the pointer quickly comes to its final
steady-state position, without overshooting.

• If the instrument is underdamped, the moving system will oscillate about the final steady
position with a decreasing amplitude and will take some time before it comes to rest.

• If the moving system moves rapidly but smoothly to its final steady position, the instrument is
said to be critically damped.

• If the damping torque is more than what is required for

critical damping, the instrument is said to be overdamped.
In overdamped instrument, the moving system moves
slowly to its final steady position in a lethargic fashion.
Also, the readings are very tedious to take.

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Types of Methods to Obtain Controlling Torque
(a) Spring control: In spring control, a hair spring attached to the moving system exerts a
controlling-torque i.e. with the deflection of the pointer, the spring is twisted in opposite
direction and provides the required controlling torque.
• One form of control spring is shown in Fig. 1. The inner end of the spring is attached to the
spindle and the outer end engages in a circular disc. This disc end is slotted and splayed out
at the end. The purpose of slotted extension arm is to allow the spring to be coiled or
uncoiled slightly, so that the pointer may be set at zero.

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Fig. 1
32
Electromechanical Instruments (contd.)
Types of Methods to Obtain Controlling Torque

• For a flat spring, the controlling torque developed by deflection is given by,
E bt 3
Tc =
12 l
 ( N − m)

E = Young’s modulus of spring material (N/m^2)

b = width of spring (m)
t = thickness of spring (m)
l = length of spring (m)
θ = angular deflection (radian)

Since, E, b, t, l are constant for a particular spring therefore, Tc = K

E bt 3
where, K = N / rad
12 l

= spring constant / control constant / torsion constant / restoring constant

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Electromechanical Instruments (contd.)

• In order to eliminate the effect of temperature variations upon the length of the spring, two
springs coiled in the opposite directions are used. When the moving system deflects, one
spring faces tension, other spring faces compression.

As, Temp. ↑, length of spring wire ↑

K ↓, Td=Tc will come at higher angle of θ
Thus, deflection will be higher which leads to wrong
reading

Tc = ( K 1− K 2 ) 

As, Temp. ↑, both k1 & k2 reduces by same amount

(k1 - k2) = constant

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Electromechanical Instruments (contd.)

Function of Spring:
• Produces controlling torque
• Brings pointer back to zero position when the input is removed
• Two springs are used in opposite direction to compensate the temperature variations.

Properties of Spring material:

• Should not be a magnetic material
• Should have almost zero temperature coefficient
• More mechanical strength

• Generally for most applications, Phosphor-Bronze material is used.

❖ Since controlling torque is proportional to the deflection of the pointer ‘θ’, thus the
instrument has linear scale.

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Electromechanical Instruments (contd.)
(b) Gravity control:
• In gravity control, a small weight is placed on an arm attached to the moving system. This
weight produces a controlling torque due to gravity. The position of this weight is adjustable.
• Fig. 2 (a) shows the pointer at zero position. In this case the controlling torque is zero.
• Fig.2 (b) shows that the pointer deflects through an
angle ‘θ’. The weight acts at a distance ‘l’ from the centre,
The component of weight trying to restore the pointer back
is Wsin θ.
• Thus, controlling torque is expressed as, Tc = W sin   l
= W l sin 
= K g sin 
where, K g = W l = a constant
• Thus, the controlling torque is proportional to the sine
of angle of deflection of moving system.
• The controlling torque can be varied by simply adjusting
the position of control weight upon the arm which carries it. Fig. 2
36
Electromechanical Instruments (contd.)

Advantages of gravity control:

• It is economical
• The control is independent of temperature variations
• It does not deteriorate with time

Drawback:
• The instrument employing gravity control must be used in vertical position in order to
operate the control.
• The instrument must be mounted in level position otherwise there will be a very serious zero
error.
For these reasons, gravity control is not suited for indicating instruments.

❖ Since controlling torque is proportional to sin θ, thus the instrument have non-linear
scale.
❖ Therefore, the instrument has cramped (compressed or crowded) scale at the lower end.
This is a disadvantage because when the pointer lies at the lower scale values, the reading
could not be accurately read. 37
 Numerical
Electromechanical Instruments (contd.)

Q1: The control spring of an instrument has the following dimensions: length=400 mm,
thickness=0.08 mm, width=0.5mm, E=112.8 GN/m^2. Estimate the torque exerted by the spring
when it is turned through 90 degree.

Q2: The deflecting torque of an ammeter varies as the square of the current passing through it.
If a current of 5A produces a deflection of 90˚ , what deflection will occur for a current of 3A
when the instrument is: (i) spring controlled (ii) gravity controlled

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 Numerical
Electromechanical Instruments (contd.)

Q1: The control spring of an instrument has the following dimensions: length=400 mm,
thickness=0.08 mm, width=0.5mm, E=112.8 GN/m^2. Estimate the torque exerted by the spring
when it is turned through 90 degree.

E bt3 112.8  10  0.5  10  ( 0.08  10

9 −3
)
−3 3
Sol: Tc = = *
12 l 12  400  10−3 2
= 9.45  10−6 Nm

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Electromechanical Instruments (contd.) Numerical
Q2: The deflecting torque of an ammeter varies as the square of the current passing through it.
If a current of 5A produces a deflection of 90˚ , what deflection will occur for a current of 3A
when the instrument is: (i) spring controlled (ii) gravity controlled

Sol: The deflection torque varies as square of current, ⸫ Td = K d I

2

(i ) Spring Control: Tc = K
For equillibrium position, Tc = Td
Kd 2
K = K d I 2 or = I
K

( ) = 32.4
2
1 I12 I  2
= or  2 = 1  2  = 90  3
2 I 22  I1  5
(ii ) Gravity Control: Tc = K g sin 
For equillibrium position, Tc = Td
Kd 2
K g sin  = K d I 2 or sin  = I
Kg

( ) = 0.36  = sin
2
sin 1 I12 I  2
=
sin  2 I 2 2
or sin  2 = sin 1  2  = sin 90  3 2
−1
( 0.36 ) = 21.1
 I1  5 40
Electromechanical Instruments (contd.)

Types of methods to produce damping torque:

1) Air Friction Damping: The arrangement of the moving system consist of a light aluminium
piston which is attached to the moving system. The piston moves in a fixed air chamber which
is closed at one end.
• When there are oscillations, the piston and chamber moves into and out of an air chamber.
• When the piston moves into the chamber, the air inside is compressed and the pressure of air,
thus built up, opposes the motion of piston and hence of
whole of the moving system.
• When the piston moves out of
air chamber, pressure in the
closed space falls, and the pressure
on the open side of piston
is greater than on the other side.
Thus there is again an opposition
to motion.
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Electromechanical Instruments (contd.)

Types of methods to produce damping torque:

2) Fluid Friction Damping: This form of damping is similar to air friction damping. Oil is used in
place of air and as the viscosity of oil is greater, the damping force is also correspondingly greater.
• A disc is attached to the moving system, which is dipped into an oil pot and is completely
submerged in oil.
• When the moving system moves, the disc moves in oil and
a frictional drag is produced. This frictional drag always
opposes the motion.
• Used in Electrostatic voltmeter.

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Electromechanical Instruments (contd.)
Types of methods to produce damping torque:

3) Eddy Current Damping: The essential components in this type of damping are: Permanent
magnet and a light weight conducting Aluminium disc or Aluminium frame.
• When a conductor moves in a magnetic field, an emf is induced in it and if a closed path is
provided, a current (known as eddy current) flows.
• This current interacts with the magnetic field to produce an electromagnetic torque which
opposes the motion.
• This torque is proportional to the strength of the magnetic
field and the current produced. The current is proportional to
emf which in turns is proportional to velocity of the conductor.
• Thus if the strength of the magnetic field is constant (if it is
produced by a permanent magnet), the torque is proportional to
velocity of the conductor. TD  B
 IEv
 TD  v (If the magnetic field is constant)
• Used in PMMC instruments. 43
Electromechanical Instruments (contd.)

Types of methods to produce damping torque:

4) Electromagnetic Damping: The movement of a coil in a magnetic field produces a current in

the coil which interacts with the magnetic field to produce a torque. This torque opposes the
movement of the coil and slows the response.
• The magnitude of the current and hence the damping torque is dependent upon the resistance of
the circuit to which the instrument is connected.
• The electromagnetic damping is used in galvanometers.

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 Comparison of Methods of Damping:

Aspect Air Friction Fluid Friction Eddy Current Damping

Conducting material in presence of

Medium Air (gas) Liquid (oil, water, viscous fluids)
magnetic field

Resistance due to viscous shear Motion of conductor in magnetic

Resistance due to motion
Principle between moving object and fluid field induces eddy currents →
through air molecules
layers oppose motion (Lenz’s law)

Simple, economical and

Provides smooth & controlled
Advantages always present in real No mechanical contact, wear-free
damping
systems
Weak damping unless Can be used only for instruments Needs conducting material & strong
Disadvantages
velocity is high which are in vertical position magnets

Hot wire and moving iron PMMC, Hot wire, moving coil and
Used in Electrostatic Instruments
instruments induction type instruments

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