PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS

PHYSICS

CLASS XII
SANTA MARIA ENGLISH MEDIUM SCHOOL
MUNDAMVELI

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 CLASS XII
PHYSICS PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS
INDEX
Sl. No. EXPERIMENTS DATE
SECTION A
1 OHM’S LAW
2 METRE BRIDGE- unknown
resistance
3 METRE BRIDGE- resistors
in series

4 GALVANOMETER
SECTION B
5 CONCAVE MIRROR
6 CONVEX LENS
7 CONVEX MIRROR
8 PRISM
PROJECTS
POTENTIOMETER
PN JUNCTION DIODE

1
 SECTION - A
EXPERIMENT NO.- 1
OHM’S LAW
AIM: To determine resistivity of two / three wires by plotting a graph for
potential difference versus current.
APPARATUS: A wire of unknown resistance, a battery eliminator, one way
key, rheostat, ammeter, voltmeter, connecting wires etc.
PRINCIPLE: Ohm’s law states that the electric current flowing through a
conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across its ends
provided the physical state of the conductor remains unchanged.
If ‘I’ be the current flowing through the conductor and ‘V’ the potential
difference across its ends, then according to Ohm’s law
Hence V=IR, where ‘R’ is the constant called resistance of the conductor.
Resistivity ρ = R πr2 / 𝑙
A linear relationship is obtained between ‘V’ and ‘I’; the graph will be a straight
line passing through the origin.
The slope of the graph I / V = 1 / R
R=1/slope
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with the help of the sand paper in
order to remove any insulating coating on them.

2
2. Connect various components-resistance, rheostat, battery, key, voltmeter and
ammeter.
3. Note whether pointers in ammeter and voltmeter coincide with the zero mark
on the measuring scale. If it is not so, adjust the pointer to coincide with the
zero mark by adjusting the screw provided near the base of the needle using a
screw driver.
4. Note the range and least count of the given voltmeter and ammeter.
5. Insert the key ‘K’ and slide the rheostat contact to one of its extreme ends, so
that the current passing through the resistance wire is minimum.
6. Note the ammeter and voltmeter readings.
7. Remove the key ‘K’ and allow the wire to cool, if heated. Again, insert the
key. Shift the rheostat contact slightly to increase the applied voltage. Note the
ammeter and voltmeter readings.
8. Repeat step 7 for four different settings of the rheostat. Record your
observations in a tabular form.
9. Also repeat the experiment for different wire. After calculating ‘R’ from the
graph, ρ is calculated in each case.
OBSERVATIONS
Measurement of diameter of wire of unknown resistance
Zero error of the screw gauge=…...mm
Zero correction of the screw gauge=….mm
No: of divisions on head scale = 100
Distance moved on the head scale for 6 rotations = 6mm
Pitch = Distance moved / No: of rotations = 6/6 = 1mm
Least count, LC = Pitch/ No. of divisions on HS = 1/100 = 0.01 mm
Trial P.S.R OBSERVED CORRECTED (H.S.R x DIAMETER, d= P.S.R
No. (mm) H.S.R (div) H.S.R(div) L.C)(mm) + (H.S.R x L.C)(mm)

1
2

3
Mean Diameter, d = __________ mm

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Radius of the wire, r = d/2 = _________ mm
Radius of the wire, r = _________ ×10-3m
Voltmeter and ammeter readings: -
Length of the wire (𝑙 1) = _______ cm = ________ ×10-2m
Length of the wire (𝑙 2) = _______ cm = ________ ×10-3m
Least count of ammeter =____A
Least count of voltmeter =_____v

Trial Voltmeter Ammeter Resistance of

No: reading, V reading, I the wire R Mean R
(v) (A) (Ω)

2
Mean R1
Wire 3
1 =_____ Ω
4

2 Mean R2
Wire
2 3 =______Ω
4

The resistance of the wire 1, R1 = _______ Ω

The resistance of the wire 2, R2 = _______ Ω

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SUBSTITUTION AND CALCULATIONS
Wire 1 Wire 2
Resistivity ρ1 = R1 πr2 / 𝑙 1 Resistivity ρ2 = R2 πr2 / 𝑙 2

ρ1 = ρ2 =

ρ1 = ρ2 =

Resistivity ρ1 = ___________ Ωm Resistivity ρ2 = ___________ Ωm

V-I Graph for wire 1 V-I Graph for wire 2

From the graph R=BC/AB From the graph R=BC/AB

=____/____ =____/____

=………...Ω =……. Ω

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RESULT:
1. The potential difference across the given wires varies linearly with the
current.
2. The resistivity of the wire 1 = _______ Ωm
The resistivity of the wire 2 = _______ Ωm
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The voltmeter should be connected in parallel and the ammeter in series
with the circuit.
2. All the connections and plugs should be tight.
3. The key should be inserted only while taking observations, as excessive
flow of current cause’s unnecessary heating of the wire.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The wire used may not be of uniform area cross-section.
2. The length of the resistance wire measured should be between one terminal of
voltmeter and the other.

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 EXPERIMENT NO.- 2
METER BRIDGE- UNKNOWN RESISTANCE
AIM: To determine the resistance of a given wire using a meter bridge
APPARATUS: Meter Bridge, a unknown resistance wire, a resistance box, a
rheostat, a galvanometer, a jockey, a one-way key, a cell or battery eliminator,
thick connecting wires, sand paper, screw gauge.
PRINCIPLE: A meter bridge works on the principle of Wheatstone bridge. It
consists of four resistors P, Q, R and S connected in the form of a network
ABCD. If there is no deflection in the galvanometer, then balance condition for
Wheatstone’s bridge is
𝑃 𝑅
=
𝑄 𝑆
If ‘P’,’Q’ and ‘R’ are known ’S’ can be calculated.
𝑃 𝑅 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐴𝐵
= =
𝑄 𝑆 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐵𝐶
Unknown resistance ‘X’ of the wire, having uniform cross-sectional area is
given by
𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝒍
𝑿=𝑹×
𝒍
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

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PROCEDURE:
1. Clean the insulation at the ends of the connecting wires with a piece of sand
paper. Tighten all plugs of the resistance box by pressing each plug.
2. Set up the circuit as shown with unknown resistance wire of known length in
the left gap.
3. Next, introduce some resistance ‘R’ in the circuit from the resistance box.
Bring the jockey ‘J’ in contact with terminal ‘A’ first and then with terminal
‘C’. Note the direction in which pointer of the galvanometer gets deflected in
each case. Make sure that jockey remains in contact with the wire for a fraction
of second. If the galvanometer shows deflection on both sides of its zero mark
for these two points of contact of the jockey, null point will be somewhere on
the wire AC. If it is not so, adjust resistance ‘R’ so that the null point is
somewhere in the middle of the wire AC, Say between 30cm and 70 cm.
4. Repeat step 4 for different values of resistance ’R’
OBSERVATIONS

Trial no. Balancing Balancing length 𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝒍

Resistance (R) 𝑿=𝑹×
length AB (𝑙 ) BC =(100- 𝑙 ) 𝒍
 ()
(cm) (cm)

1
2
3
4
5

Mean ‘X’=……………..Ω
RESULT:
The unknown resistance of the given wire: =……. Ω
PRECAUTIONS:
1. All the connections and plugs should be tight.
2. Jockey should be moved gently over the meter bridge wire.
3. Plug keys of the resistance box should be made tight by rotating it in
clockwise direction.

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SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The meter bridge wire may not be of uniform area cross-section.
2. Effect of end resistances due to copper strips, connecting screws may affect
the measurement.
3. The length ‘l’ of the wire should not include the lengths below the terminals
when placed in gaps.
[Link] has to be ensured that galvanometer is at zero when no current flows
through it.

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 EXPERIMENT NO.- 3
METER BRIDGE- COMBINATION OF RESISTANCES
(SERIES)
AIM: To verify the laws of combination of resistance (series) using meter
bridge.
APPARATUS: Meter bridge, a sensitive galvanometer, a high resistance box,
cell, key, thick connecting wires, sand paper, battery eliminator, two different
resistances, jockey, rheostat
PRINCIPLE:
By Wheatstone’s bridge principle, Unknown resistance ‘X’ of the wire, having
uniform cross-sectional area is given by
𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝒍
𝑿=𝑹×
𝒍
When two resistances X1 and X2 are in series, the resistance of the combination
XS is given by
XS = X1 + X2

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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PROCEDURE:
1. Set up the circuit as shown in the figure.
2. Tighten all the plugs in the resistance box. Clean the ends of the connecting
wires using sand paper before making the connections.
3. Remove some plugs from the resistance box to get suitable value of
resistance ‘R’. Obtain the null point on the meter bridge wire by sliding the
jockey between ends ‘A’ and ‘C’.
4. Note resistance ‘R’ and lengths AD and DC in the observation table.
5. Calculate the experimental value of the equivalent series resistance (Xs) of
combination of resistances as shown in the table.
6. Repeat the experiment for more values of resistance ‘R’. Obtain the mean
value of unknown resistance.
OBSERVATIONS
Sl Resistance Balancing Balancing Unknown
Length Length resistance
No ‘R’
AD= 𝑙 DC 𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝒍
(Ω) 𝑿=𝑹×
𝒍
(cm) 𝑙’=(100- 𝑙)
(Ω)
(cm)

1.
X1 only 2. Mean X1 =

3.

1.
X2 only 2. Mean X2 =

3.
1.
X1 and 2. Mean Xs
X2 in =
series 3.

CALCULATIONS:
The theoretical expected value of the series combination of resistances is

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Xs = X1 + X2
Xs =……. + ……..
Xs =……… Ω
Experimentally obtained resistance= Xs =………Ω
RESULT:
1) Theoretically expected resistance: Xs = X1 + X2=……...Ω
2) Experimentally obtained resistance = Xs =………Ω
PRECAUTIONS:
4. All the connections and plugs should be tight.
5. Jockey should be moved gently over the meter bridge wire.
6. Plug keys of the resistance box should be made tight by rotating it in
clockwise direction.

SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The jockey should not be pressed too hard on the meter bridge. Otherwise,
the wire may become non uniform during the course of time.
2. The length measurement l and l’ may have error if the meter bridge wire is
not taut and along the scale in the meter bridge.
4. Galvanometer pointer has to be at zero.
5. Resistance offered by the resistance box is not the same as indicated on it.

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 EXPERIMENT NO.- 4
GALVANOMETER
AIM: To determine the resistance of the given galvanometer by half
deflection method and to find its figure of merit.
APPARATUS: Resistance box, lead accumulator, keys, galvanometer and
connecting wire.
PRINCIPLE: Current through the galvanometer is proportional to the
deflection produced in the galvanometer.
The resistance of the galvanometer G by half deflection method
𝑹𝑺
𝑮=
𝑹−𝑺
Where R is the resistance connected in series with the galvanometer and S is the
shunt resistance.
Figure of merit: - It is defined as the current required per division of deflection.
It is denoted by K
𝑬
𝑲=
(𝑹 + 𝑮)𝜽

Where E is the emf of the cell and  is the deflection produced with resistance
R.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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 PROCEDURE:
Connections are made as in the circuit diagram. Key K1 is closed; suitable
resistance is introduced in R to get appreciable deflection in the galvanometer.
This is noted.
Now the key K2 is closed. A suitable resistance is taken from the resistance box
‘S’, so that the galvanometer deflection is decreased to half. This value S and 2
is noted. The experiment is repeated by changing ‘’ values.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:
EMF of the cell, E = ________ volt

Sl Resistance Deflection Shunt 𝜽 𝑹𝑺 𝑬

𝑮= 𝑲=
, resistance 𝟐 𝑹−𝑺 (𝑹 + 𝑮)𝜽
NO. R ()
(divisions)
S () (divisions) () (Amp/division)

1. 30 15
2. 28 14
3. 24 12
4. 22 11
5. 20 10
Mean G = ___________ 
Mean K = ___________ Amp/division

RESULTS:
(i) Resistance of the galvanometer G = _______ 
(ii) Figure of merit of the galvanometer K= _________ Amp/ division.

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 SECTION -B
EXPERIMENT NO. 5
CONCAVE MIRROR
AIM: To find the value of ‘v’ for the different values of ‘u’ in the case of
concave mirror and to find its focal length.
APPARATUS: concave mirror, mirror stand, screen, illuminated wire gauze,
metre scale.
RAY DIAGRAM:

PRINCIPLE:
By u-v method, the focal length of a mirror is given by:
1 1 1
= +
𝑓 𝑢 𝑣
𝑢𝑣
𝑓=
𝑢+𝑣
Where, u is the distance of the object from the mirror and v is the distance of the
image from the mirror. In concave mirror, for real image, u and v are positive.
PROCEDURE:
1. Obtain the approximate value of the focal length of concave mirror by
focusing the image of a distant object. Obtain bright and clear image of a
distant building or tree on a plane wall or a sheet of paper and measure the
distance between the mirror and the image which gives approximate focal
length of the concave mirror.
2. The concave mirror is mounted on a stand and is placed in front of illuminated
wire gauze. The screen is placed on the same side of the mirror. The screen
alone is adjusted to obtain a well-defined image of the wire gauze on it. The
distance of the object and the image from the mirror are measured as u and v.
the focal length is then calculated using the formula,
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 f=uv/(u+v)
The experiment is repeated for different values of u and the mean value of
the focal length is found.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:
Approximate focal length of the concave mirror =__________cm

Object distance u Image distance 𝒖𝒗

Sl No. 𝒇= (cm)
(cm) 𝒖+𝒗
v (cm)
1.
2.
3.

4.
5.

Mean focal length f = _______ cm

RESULT:
The focal length of the given convex lens: f =…….cm
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The image should be sharp
2. Mirror must be clean
3. The aperture of mirror should be small otherwise the image formed will not
be distinct.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The principal axis of the mirror may not be parallel to the plane of the
table.
2. Parallax error.
3. The concave mirror should be front coated. Otherwise, multiple
reflections will come from the reflecting surface of the mirror.

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 EXPERIMENT NO.- 6
CONVEX LENS
AIM: To find the value of ‘v’ for the different values of ‘u’ in the case of
convex lens and to find its focal length by plotting graphs between ‘u’ and ‘v”
or between I /u and I/v
APPARATUS: convex lens, lens stand, screen, illuminated wire gauze, metre
scale.
PRINCIPLE:
By u-v method, the focal length of a lens is given by:
1 1 1
= −
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢
‘u’ is negative and ‘v’ is positive
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝒖𝒗
= + ; 𝒇=
𝒇 𝒗 𝒖 𝒖+𝒗

In this result, the positive values of ‘u’ and ‘v’ are substituted
Where, u is the distance of the object from the lens and v is the distance of the
image from the lens. In convex lens, for real image, u is negative and v is
positive.
RAY DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE:
1. Obtain approximate value of the focal length of the thin convex lens by
focusing the image of the distant object. It can be found by obtaining a sharp
image of a distant tree on a screen. The distance between the lens and the
image is the rough focal length.

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2. The convex lens is mounted on a stand and is placed in front of illuminated
wire gauze. The screen is placed on the other side of the lens. The screen
alone is adjusted to obtain a well-defined image of the wire gauze on it. The
distance of the object and the image from the lens are measured as u and v.
the focal length is then calculated using the formula, f=uv/(u+v)
3. The experiment is repeated for different values of u and the mean value of
the focal length is found. A graph is drawn with u along the X axis and V
along the Y-axis, taking a common origin and same scale for both u and v.
The bisector of the angle XOY is drawn, meeting the curve at C. Draw BC
parallel to X axis and AC parallel to Y-axis. OA and OB are measured. Now
OA=OB=2f
∴𝑓= (𝑂𝐴 + 𝑂𝐵)/4
OBSERVATIONS:
Approximate focal length of the convex lens =__________cm

Object Image 𝒖𝒗
1/u 𝒇=
Sl No. distance distance 1/v (m-1) 𝒖+𝒗
-1
u(cm) (m ) (cm)
v (cm)

1.
2.

3.
4.
5.

Mean focal length f = __________ cm

U-V Graph
Distance OA(=2f) on Y-axis =…….cm
Distance OB(=2f) on X-axis=……...cm
Mean focal length of the convex lens=……cm

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RESULTS:
The focal length of the given convex lens:
i) from calculations f =…….cm
ii) from u-v graph=……….cm
iii) from 1/u-1/v graph=…….cm

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The image should be sharp
2. Lens must be clean
SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The principal axis of the lens may not be parallel to the plane of the
table.
2. Parallax error.

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 7
CONVEX MIRROR USING A CONVEX LENS

AIM: To find the focal length of a convex mirror using a convex lens.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
A convex mirror, a convex lens, a lens holder, Mirror holder, a illuminated wire
gauze and a metre scale.
THEORY
A convex lens produces a real image of an object 'O' located at C. A convex
mirror is placed in the path of the rays between the lens and the image such that
the rays after refraction through the lens fall normally on the surface of the
mirror. The rays are then reflected back retracing their path and produce an
image on the object. The distance PC gives the radius of curvature of the mirror,
i.e.,
PC = R
and focal length, f = R/2 = PC/2.
RAY DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE
The convex lens is mounted on a stand in front of illuminated wire gauze. The
screen is placed on the other side of the lens. The position of the screen is
adjusted to obtain a well-defined sharp image of the wire gauze on the screen.
Now the convex mirror is placed between the lens and the screen with its
reflecting surface facing towards the lens. The position of the mirror is adjusted

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so as to get the image of the object side by side with it. The distance between
the mirror and the screen is measured. This gives the radius of curvature (R) of
the mirror. The experiment is repeated by changing the distance between the
object and the lens. Each time focal length of the mirror is calculated using the
formula, f = R/2.
OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS
Radius of curvature R Focal length f = R/2
(cm)
Trail No. (cm)

Mean focal length f = ………... cm

RESULT
focal length of the given convex mirror = ………. cm.
PRECAUTIONS
1. The distance between the lens and the mirror should be small.
2. The image formed should be sharp
3. The lens and the mirror should be clean
SOURCES OF ERRORS
1. The lens and mirror may not be placed co-axially
2. Parallax error.

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 EXPERIMENT NO.-8
REFRACTION THROUGH A PRISM
AIM: To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting
a graph between angle of incidence and angle of deviation.
APPARATUS: Drawing board, white paper, prism, pencil, brass pins,
protractor, instrument box, graph paper.
THEORY: When a ray of light is incident on one of the reflecting faces of the
prism, the ray gets refracted through the prism and then emerges out through the
other face. The angle between the incident ray and the normal to the reflecting
face is called the angle of incidence (i). The angle between the emergent ray and
the incident ray is called angle of deviation D.
The angle of deviation D decreases with the increase in the value of i initially,
till a particular value (i0) of the angle of incidence is reached. For this value of
angle of incidence, the corresponding value of the angle of deviation is
minimum and it is denoted by the letter Dm. This angle of deviation is called the
angle of minimum deviation. In this position, the following relation holds
between the angles.
i.e.i = e and r1 = r2
PROCEDURE:
Fix the sheet of the white paper on the drawing board with cello tape or drawing
pins. Draw a straight line XY nearly at the centre of the sheet parallel to its
length. Mark points marked as O at suitable spacing’s on this line XY and draw
normal’s to the line XY at points O. Draw straight line PQ corresponding to the
incident rays that are drawn at angles of incidence ranging from 30o to 60o, i.e.
for angles of 30o, 40o, 50o and 60o using a protractor. Place the prism with one
of its refracting surfaces on the lines XY and trace its boundary ABC. Fix two
pins P and Q about 8 cm apart on the incident ray line and view its image with
your one eye closed from the face BC of the prism. Fix two pins R and S on the
paper such that the tips of these pins and the tips of the images of the incident
ray pins P and Q, all lie on the same straight line. Remove the pins R and S and
encircle their pin pricks on the paper. Remove the pins P and Q and also
encircle their pin pricks.
Join the points (i.e. pin pricks) S and R and produce it backwards to meet the
incident ray PQ produced (shown by dotted lines). Thus RS is the emergent
ray corresponding to the incident ray PQ. Draw arrow heads to show the
direction of the rays. Measure the angle of deviation D with a protractor. Repeat
the steps for different values of angle of incidence and measure the

22
corresponding angles of deviation D. Take atleast seven values of angle i
ranging from 30o – 60o.
RAYDIAGRAM

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OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:
Sl No. Angle of incidence (i) Angle of deviation (D)
degree degree
1.

2.
3.

4.

5.

6.

RESULTS:
a) The variation of ‘D’ with ‘i’ is shown graphically. As angle of incidence ‘i’ is
increased gradually, the angle of deviation decreases, becomes minimum and
then increases.
b) The angle of minimum deviation Dm= _____0.
PRECAUTIONS:
a. The angles of incidence should be in between 300 and 600.
b. The pins should be fixed at least 10 cm apart.
c. The pins must be vertical.
d. The angles of deviation should be accurately measured with the protractor.
e. The smooth i-D curve should be drawn, so that points lie on the curve.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
a. Pin pricks may be thick.
b. Measurement of angles may be wrong.
c. The pins may not be fixed vertically.

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ACTIVITIES

25
 SECTION- A
ACTIVITY 1
ASSEMBLING THE COMPONENTS OF AN ELECTRICAL
CIRCUIT
AIM: To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit.

APPARATUS: A voltmeter and an ammeter of appropriate range, a

battery, a rheostat, one way key, An unknown resistance or resistance
coil, connecting wires, a piece of sand paper.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE

1. Connect the components as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. After closing the key, check that the voltmeter and ammeter
show deflections on the right hand side.
3. Check the continuity of the assembled circuit using a multimeter.
RESULT

The components of the electrical circuit were assembled.

26
 ACTIVITY 2
VARIATION IN POTENTIAL DROP WITH LENGTH OF A
WIRE

Aim
To study the variation in potential drop with length of a wire for a
steady current.

Apparatus and material

Apparatus: Potentiometer:
Material: A fully charged 4.5 V battery or battery eliminator, a low
resistance rheostat, a voltmeter of range (0-3.0 V), an ammeter (0-3)
A, a one way key, a jockey, a DC supply, connecting wires and a
piece of sand paper.

Theory
For a potentiometer with wire of uniform material density and
thickness (cross-sectional area) carrying a steady current, potential
drop is proportional to the length of the wire.
Vαl
𝑉
V = K l or =K
𝑙

where K is the drop of potential per unit length. It is called the

potential gradient.

Circuit diagram:

27
Procedure

1. Draw a circuit diagram showing the scheme of connections as in

figure.
2. Remove the insulation from the ends of the connecting copper
wires with a sand paper.
3. Connect the positive pole of the battery (eliminator) (a battery of
constant e.m.f.) to the zero end (P) of the potentiometer and the
negative pole through a one-way key, an ammeter and a low
resistance rheostat to the other end (Q) of the potentiometer.
4. Connect the positive terminal of the voltmeter to the end P of the
potentiometer and the negative terminal to the jockey.
5. Touch the end of the jockey to the end Q of the potentiometer.
6. Close the key and set the rheostat such that the voltmeter gives
full scale deflection (3 V).
7. Touch the jockey at end P at 0 (zero) cm. The voltmeter will give
zero deflection.
8. Touch the jockey at marks separated by 50 cm length of wire.
Note the voltmeter reading in each case.
9. Record your observations in tabular form as given ahead.
10. Plot a graph of V versus I, with V on Y- axis and I on X- axis.
Slope of the line gives K.

Result:

The ratio V/ l = K is found to be constant within the limits of

experimental error. Its mean value is ______________Vcm-1.

The graph shows a linear relationship between V and l. The value of

V/l = K from the graph is ______________ Vcm-1.

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 ACTIVITY 3
CORRECTING THE GIVEN OPEN CIRCUIT
AIM: To draw the circuit diagram for a open circuit comprising of a
battery eliminator, resistance wire, rheostat, key, ammeter and
voltmeter. Mark the errors in the given circuit and draw the corrected
diagram and arrange the components correctly.
APPARATUS: battery eliminator, resistance wire, rheostat, key,
ammeter and voltmeter and connecting wires.
THEORY:
An electrical circuit is functioned only if the components of the circuit
are connected in proper order, assuming that all circuit components
are in working condition and key is closed. An open circuit means a
break in some part of the circuit which could be deliberate such as a
key in open position or a fault such as a broken wire or burnt out
component or loose connection.
PROCEDURE
The given open circuit is observed and the circuit is drawn. The
components connected wrongly are marked in the diagram. The
correct circuit diagram is drawn and the components are arranged
correctly in the circuit.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Incorrect Open circuit

29
Corrected circuit diagram

OBSERVATIONS
The following corrections are to be made in the circuit :
[Link] positive and negative terminals are marked wrongly in the
diagram.
2. Ammeter must always be connected in series to the resistor.
3. Voltmeter must always be connected in parallel to the resistor.

RESULT
The circuit diagram of the given open circuit is corrected and the
components are arranged properly.

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 SECTION - B
ACTIVITY 4
IDENTIFICATION OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
AIM:
To identify a diode, LED,a resistor and a capacitor from a mixed
collection of such items.

APPARATUS:

Multimeter, a diode, LED, resistor and a capacitor

DIAGRAMS

THEORY
For identification, appearance and working of each item will have to
be considered.

1. A diode is a two terminal device. It conducts when forward

biased and does not conduct when reverse biased. It does not
emit light while conducting. Hence, it does not glow.

31
 2. A LED (light emitting diode) is also a two terminal device. It
also conducts when forward biased and does not conduct when
reverse biased. It emits light while conducting. Hence, it glow.
3. A resistor is a two terminal device. It conducts when either
forward biased or reverse biased. (Infact there is no forward or
reverse bias for a resistor). It conducts even when operated with
A.C. voltage.
4. A capacitor is also a two terminal device. It does not conduct
when either forward biased or reverse biased. When a capacitor
is connected to a D.C. source, then multimeter shows full scale
current initially but it decay to zero quickly. It is because that
initially a capacitor draw a charge.
The components to be identified are shown in figure.

PROCEDURE

Take a multimeter. Put the selector on resistance R of multimeter for

checking the continuity. The probe metal ends are inserted in terminal
marked on the multimeter as common and positive, such that the
black one is in common and red probe is in positive. On touching the
two ends of the device to the two other metal ends of probes,

1. If pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and does not
move when reversed and there is no light emission, the item is a
diode.
2. If pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and does not
move when re-versed and there is light emission, the item is a
LED.
3. If pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and also
when reversed, the item is a resistor.
4. If pointer does not move when voltage is applied in one way and
also when reversed, the item is a capacitor.

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 ACTIVITY 5
GLASS SLAB: LATERAL DISPLACEMENT

AIM: To observe refraction in glass slab and measure lateral

displacement of the incident ray.
APPARATUS: Drawing board, A4 size sheets, pins, glass slab,
protractor, drawing pins etc
THEORY:
When a ray of light incident on a side of glass slab, it emerges from
the other side in a direction parallel to incident ray. It suffers only a
lateral displacement.

The incident ray is parallel to the emergent ray i.e. i = e.

Lateral displacement is proportional to thickness of the slab.

RAY DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE
Fix a white paper sheet by drawing pins on a drawing board.
Take a glass slab and put it symmetrically in the middle of the paper
and the outline of the glass slab is drawn. A normal is drawn at a
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chosen point on the one side of the glass slab and an incident ray is
drawn at the angle of incidence, say i=30. Two pins are fixed on the
line. The pins are now observed through the opposite side of the glass
slab and two more pins are fixed such that all pins seems to be lie on a
straight line.
The line joining the third and fourth pins gives the emergent ray. The
angle of emergence is measured. Extend the incident ray forward
using dotted lines and measure the perpendicular distance between
incident and emergent rays. It gives the lateral displacement.
Repeat the activity by rotating the glass slab such that its thickness is
different.

OBSERVATION

Angle of Angle of Thickness of Lateral

incidence, i emergence, e the slab, t displacement,
(cm) d (cm)

30

45

RESULT

1. Angle of incidence (i) = Angle of emergence (e).

2. The lateral displacement increases with the increase in the
thickness of the slab.

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 ACTIVITY 6
LENS COMBINATION
AIM:
To obtain a lens combination with the specified focal length by using two lenses
from the given set of lenses.

APPARATUS. A set of thin convex lenses, one of these is of given focal length
(say 15 cm), (we have to select a second lens such that the combination gives a
single lens of focal length fc = 10 cm), lens holder with stand, a white painted
vertical wooden board with broad stand, half metre scale.
THEORY

The reciprocal of focal length in metre is called power of lens in dioptre (D).
1
P=
𝑓

If f1 and f2 are the focal length of two lenses and F be the focal length of
combination, then
1 1 1 f1f2
= + or F =
𝐹 f1 f2 f1+ f2

For lenses of power P1 and P2, the combination power P is given by

P = P1 + P2

DIAGRAM

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Procedure

1. Keep the white painted vertical wooden board to serve as a screen.

2. The convex lens (known focal length f1 = 15 cm), fixed into a holder stand
is put on the left of the screen. There are sunlight illuminated green trees at
large distance on the left of the lens.
3. The lens is moved towards and away from the screen till a sharp, inverted
image of
trees is formed on the screen.
4. Distance between central lines of the screen and holder stand is measured
by a half
metre scale.
5. The distance gives the focal length of the convex lens about 15 cm.
6. Replace first lens by second convex lens of required power and repeat the
steps from 2 to 5. This gives the focal length of second convex lens.
7. Now bring both lenses in contact and repeat the steps from 2 to 5. This
gives the
combined focal length.
8. Determine the focal length with other given lens. Determine the focal
length of about six of the convex lenses.

Observations:

Focal length

Focal length of first convex lens (f1) =

Focal length of second convex lens (f2) =

f1f2
Focal length of combination of convex lens, F = =
f1+ f2

Focal length of the combination experimentally, F =

36
Power

Power of first convex lens (P1) =

Power of second convex lens (P2) =

Power of combination of convex lens, P = P1 + P2 =

Power of the combination experimentally, P =

Result:

The above combination is tried and result verified.

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PROJECT

38
 PROJECT 1
POTENTIOMETER- COMPARISON OF EMF
AIM:
To compare the emf of two given primary cells (Daniel and Lechlanche cells)
using a potentiometer.
APPARATUS:
Potentiometer, a lechlanche cell, a Daniel cell, two-way key, a resistance box
plugtype (0 to 1000Ω), a galvanometer, a voltmeter(0-3V), a battery eliminator,
a low resistance rheostat (about 20Ω)two one way keys, connecting wires and
sand paper.
PRINCIPLE:
According to the principle of potentiometer, when a steady current flows
through a wire of uniform thickness and material, potential difference between
any two points on it is directly proportional to the length of the wire between
the points.
𝑉∝𝑙
𝑉
= 𝑘, Where k is a constant called potential gradient.
𝑙
The length of potentiometer wire is increased to decrease k which makes the
potentiometer more sensitive and accurate.
In the case of two cells
Let l1 and l2 be the balancing lengths of the potentiometer, wire using cells of
emfs E1 and E2 respectively.
Then according to the principle of potentiometer, E1=k 𝑙 1and E2=k 𝑙 2
𝐸1 𝑙1
=
𝐸2 𝑙2
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

39
PROCEDURE:
1. Make the circuit connections. Connect positive terminals of the battery ’E’
and the two cells E1 and E2 to the zero at end ‘A’ of the potentiometer wire.
2. Connect negative terminal of ‘E’ to the end ‘B’ of the potentiometer wire
through a one-way key K1 and a rheostat.
3. Connect negative terminals of the cell E1 and E2 to the terminals ‘a’ and ‘b’
of the two-way key.
4. Shunt a resistance box through a key K2. Connect common terminal of the
two keys to one end of resistance box.
5. Connect other end of the resistance box to a galvanometer whose other end is
joined to a jockey.
6. Bring the cell E1 in the circuit by inserting the plug between the gaps ‘a’ and
‘c’ of the two-way key.
7. Leave the key K2open. Make rheostat resistance minimum. Take out high
resistance (of the order of 1000Ω) from the resistance box. Make contact of the
jockey at the zero end of the potentiometer wire. Note the direction of deflection
in the galvanometer.
8. Next, move the jockey to bring in contact with the other end of the wire. Note
whether the direction of deflection of galvanometer needle is opposite to that
observed in step 7.
9. If the deflection of galvanometer is not in opposite directions, then the
connections may be loose or emf of the battery ‘E’ might be less than that of
the cells E1 and E2.

40
 10. Slide the jockey over the potentiometer till null deflection is obtained. Plug
the key K2 to get accurate position of the null point. The resistance in the
resistance box limits the current flowing through the galvanometer. Near the
balance point, the current flowing through the galvanometer is small. Insertion
of key K2 short circuits the resistances and hence increases the current. This
improves the sensitivity of balance point detection.
11. Next bring E2 in the circuit by inserting plug between the gaps ‘b’ and ‘c’ of
the two way key. Obtain the balance point and note the balancing length.
12. Repeat steps 6 to 11 three times by shifting the contact point of rheostat and
calculate 𝑙 1/ 𝑙 2 for each set of readings for E1 and E2.
13. Record the observation in the tabular form.

OBSERVATIONS
Sl Lechlanche cell in the Daniel cell in the
No. circuit(E1) circuit(E2)
E1/E2 = 𝑙 1/ 𝑙 2
𝑙 1 (cm) 𝑙 2(cm)
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Mean E1/E2= _________

RESULT:
The ratio of emf’s E1/E2 for lechlanche cell to Daniel cell= __________

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Keys plugged into the resistance box must ensure good electrical contact.

41
2. Jockey should be pressed gently on the potentiometer wire to prevent formation
of kinks in it.
3. Position of rheostat contact should not be disturbed before finishing the task of
finding the balancing length with both cells.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The area of cross section of the potentiometer wire may not be uniform
throughout its length.
2. Avoid continuous discharge of two cells whose emf is to be compared by
keeping the keys open when E1 and E2 are not in use.
3. The length measurement may have error if the potentiometer wire is not taut
and along the scale on the board.
4. Multiple key jockeys may not have correct alignment with the scale.

PROJECT 2
DIODE CHARACTERISTICS
AIM: To draw the characteristic curve of a p-n junction in forward bias.
APPARATUS: A p-n junction semiconductor diode, a three-volt battery, a high
resistance, a rheostat, one 0–3-volt voltmeter and 1-100mA ammeter, one way
key, connecting wires, dc voltage.
THEORY:
Behaviour or nature of a diode when connected in an electric circuit is depicted
by studying the variation of current when potential across it is varied. Graph
plotted with current as ordinate and potential applied across its ends as abscissa
shows the characteristics of a diode.
FORWARD BIASING:
A p-n junction diode gets forward biased when its p-side is connected to the
positive terminal of the supply voltage and n-side to the negative terminal
KNEE VOLTAGE: The forward voltage when current starts rising are termed
as knee voltage. It is represented as Vk. It is about 0.7V for silicon and 0.3V for
germanium. The resistance offered by a p-n diode in forward is much less than
that in case of reverse biasing.

42
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE:
Make the circuit diagram. Make all connections neat, clean and light. Note the
least count and zero error of voltmeter (V) and milliammeter (mA). Bring
moving contact of potential divider (rheostat) near negative end and insert the
key K. Voltmeter (V) and milliammeter (mA) will give zero reading. Move the
contact a little towards positive end to apply a forward bias voltage (V f) of
0.1V. Current remains zero. Increase Vfin steps of 0.2V and note the
corresponding current. It increases first slowly and then rapidly Record the
observations.
Plot a graph between voltage and current for the forward bias by taking
appropriate scale.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Least count of voltmeter - ________ V

Zero error of voltmeter - ________ V
Least count of milli ammeter - ________ mA
Zero error of milli ammeter - ________ mA
Table For Forward Bias Voltage And Forward Current
Sl No. Forward bias voltage Vf(V) Forward current If
(mA)
1.
2.
3.
4.

43
PRECAUTIONS:
1. All connections should be neat and clean.
2. Key should be used in circuit and opened when the circuit is not being
used.
3. Forward bias voltage beyond break down voltage should not be applied.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
a) The junction diode supplied may be faulty.
b) The connections may not be tight.
RESULTS:
The V-I characteristic curve of p-n junction in forward is plotted.

44