Chapter 3

Politics, Economy and Society in Ethiopia and the Horn to the end of the Thirteenth
century

3.1. Emergence of States

One important factor for the emergence of states was the beginning of sedentary agriculture.
Peoples had to descend from mountainsides to build houses near cultivated plots fencing both
farming fields and residences, and harvested crops had to be stored and protected from humidity
and rodents. Families preferred to live together forming larger communities for better security
and to help each other in hard works. Using stick or hoe for planting was gradually replaced by
ox-drawn plough and farmers acquired surplus produce to exchange with better tools and clothes
with the artisans who were able to specialize in the production of these items. Gradually,
intermediaries (traders) also began to buy the products of both to take to predetermined places or
markets for exchange. Therefore, states were formed mainly through the expansion of agriculture
that gave rise to class differentiation. Furthermore, the growth of trade facilitated the
development of states.

State refers to an autonomous political unit having population, defined territory, sovereignty and
government with the power to decree and enforce laws. State was the outcome of regular cultural
process. In this regard, it should be emphasized that, states arose independently in different
places and at different times. Favorable environmental conditions helped to hasten the rate of
transformation in some regions. Religious leaders such as shamans played prominent role in
maintaining the social and religious affairs of their people during the initial formation of the
states. As production became market oriented, religious elites were gradually replaced by chiefs,
who began collecting regular and compulsory tributes which amounted to protection payments
with which they maintained themselves, their supporters chiefly the army, the bureaucracy and
other followers.

Ethiopia and the Horn is one of the regions in Africa where early state formation took place.
Geographical proximity to and control of the international water bodies like Red Sea, Gulf of
Aden and Indian Ocean along with their ports as well as rich interior favored some of them to
become stronger than their neighbors and eventually dominated them.

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3.2. Ancient States

3.2.1. North and Northeast

A. Punt

Punt was the earliest recorded state in Ethiopia and the Horn. The evidence on Punt comes from
Egyptian hieroglyphic writings, accompanied by vivid paintings that describes series of naval
expeditions, which the Egyptian Pharaohs sent to Punt. Pharaoh Sahure (r. 2743-2731 B.C.) sent
expedition to collect myrrh, ebony and electrum (gold and silver alloy).

The best described and illustrated expedition was the one undertaken by the order of the famous
Egyptian Queen Hatshepsut (1490-1468 B.C.), whose expedition is documented at her tomb in
Dier El Bahri. She sent five ships under the leadership of Black Nubian Captain Nehasi via
Wadi-Tumilat. The expedition was warmly welcomed by the Puntites King Perehu, his wife Ati,
sons, daughters and followers. The expedition was able to return collecting frank incense,
cinnamon, sweet smelling woods (sandal), spices, ivory, rhinoceros horn, leopard and leopard
skins, ostrich feathers and egg, live monkeys, giraffes, people etc. Hatshepsut presented some
parts of the items to her god, Amun. It was because of the ritual importance of their exports that
Puntites were also known as Khebis of the Ta Netjeru (divine or ghosts land). Iron, bronze, asses,
foxes, cattle, animals fur, dying and medicinal plants were also exported from Punt to Egypt. In
return, axes, daggers, swords, knives, sickles, clothes, bracelets, necklaces, beads and other
trinkets were imported from Egypt to Punt. Scholars have not reached agreement as to the exact
location of Punt.

B. Da’amat and Other Cultural Centers in Northern Ethiopia and Eritrea

The state known as Da’amat had a center a little to the south of Aksum. Inscription of the king of
Da’amat tentatively dated to the fifth century BC shows that he used politicoreligious title known
as Mukarib. Various gods and goddesses like Almouqah (principal god), Astarr (Venus god),
Na’uran (light god), Shamsi (sun god), and Sin (moon god) were worshipped in the domain of
the Da’amat state and other northern Ethiopian pre-Aksumite cultural [Link] were similar
practices in South Arabia at the time.

There were a number of cultural centers in northern Ethiopia. The major ones are:

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  Yeha: is located 30 kms to the northeast of Aksum and was the oldest of these centers.
It probably emerged around 1, 000 BC as a small emporium where South Arabian
merchants and their agents bought and stored ivory, rhinoceros horn and other
commodities coming from the interior. It seems that the period of its prosperity (zenith)
was from about 750 to 500 B.C.
 Hawulti Melazo: is situated to southeast of Aksum, where stone tablets that are
inscribed in rectangular temple surrounded by a wall decorated with paintings
representing herds of cattle have been excavated.
 Addi-Seglemeni: is located at 10kms southwest of Aksum, from where a stone slab is
found and the oldest Ethiopian monumental inscription is discovered.

C. The Aksumite State

The nucleus of the Aksumite state was formed around 200-100 B.C. Initially, its power was
limited to a relatively small area comprising the town of Aksum and its environs. Gradually,
however, it expanded to include large territories in all directions. In its heyday, Aksumite
territories extended from the Red Sea coast in the East to the Western edge of Ethiopian plateau
overlooking the vast Nile Valley in the west and from the northern most corner of Eritrea and
possibly as far south as northern parts of Shewa.

According to Periplus of Erithrean Sea, Adulis on the western coast of the Red Sea was the
major port of Aksum. The long distance trade routes from Adulis and other posts on the Red Sea
coast passed inland through such centers as Kaskasse, Coloe, Matara and even further west
across Takaze River. The document also mentioned ports of Aden (Eudaemon) Gulf like
Avalites (Zayla) and Malao (Berbera), and Indian Ocean Benadir Coasts like Serapion
(Moqadishu), Nicon (Brava) and Merca. The major items of export of the Aksumite state
consisted mainly of the natural products such as ivory, myrrh, emerald, frankincense and some
spices (like ginger, cassia and cinnamon), gold, rhinoceros horns, hippopotamus hides, tortoise
shells and some curiosity animals like apes. In turn, a number of manufactured products like
garments and textiles from Egypt, India, the Roman Empire, and Persia; glassware and jewelry
from Egypt and other places; metallic sheets, tools or utensils of various kinds, oil and wine from
the regions of Roman Empire and Syria were imported. Zoscales (c. 76-89), the then king of

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Aksum, used to speak the Greek language, the Lingua Franca of Greco-Roman world. Aksum
also had relations with Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Laodicea (Asia Minor).

The Adulis inscription written in Greek about an unknown king, which eventually was published
in Cosmas Indicopleustes’ book, the Christian Topography, describes commercial activities of
the Red Sea areas. It also mentions the internal long distance trade between Aksum and a distant
region called Sasu, most probably in Beni Shangul and the adjoining lands beyond the Blue Nile.
A big caravan made up of close to five hundred merchants some of them special agents of the
kings of Aksum would take to Sasu cattle, lumps of salt (probably salt blocks) and iron to
exchange for gold. Yet, as they did not speak each other’s language, and did not even trust to be
near to each other to bargain through signs and gestures, the whole exchange was done without
one side seeing the other. This was a good example of silent trade.

Aksumite kings had extensive contacts with the outside world notably with the South Arabian
region, leading to exchange of ideas, material and spiritual culture. Sometimes such contacts
involved conflicts between the two regions. One of such known recorded conflict between areas
on both sides of the sea took place around 200 A.D. Accordingly, peoples in Southern Arabian
Peninsula, in present day Yemen, had difficulties in defending themselves against the army of
the Aksumite king, Gadarat.

From the third to the seventh centuries, Aksumite kings like Aphilas, Endybis, Wazeba, Ezana,
Ousanas II, etc. minted and issued different kinds of coins in gold, silver and bronze for both
overseas and local transactions.

Aksum was one of the four great powers of the world (i. e. Roman Empire, Persia, China and
Aksum) at the time. It was a major naval and trading power from the first to the seventh
centuries. Aksumite ships were the main means of transporting goods. Aksum was the only one
with sufficient sources of timber for ship building and in those days, the technology for it existed
in Adulis. Aksum had a large fleet of ships, which was used not only for trade but also for its
wars across the Red Sea.

Kaleb (r. 500-35) expanded overseas territories of Aksum beyond Himyar and Saba, but the local
prince Dhu-Nuwas was converted to Judaism, marched to Zafar and Nagran, and killed many
Christians. Byzantine Vasaliev Justinian (r. 527-65) with sanctification of Patriarch Timit III

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(518-538) provided Kaleb with a number of ships to transport armies led by Julianos and
Nonossus against Dhu Nuwas. Dhu Nuwas was defeated and Kaleb appointed Abraha as
governor of Arabia that continued until 570 A. D. Kaleb was succeeded by his son Gabra Masqal
(535-48) who built a church at Zur Amba in Gayint. It was during Gabra Maskal that Yared
developed Ethiopian Orthodox Church liturgical songs and hymns.

The Aksumite state begun to decline since the late seventh century because of internal and
external challenges. Environmental degradation, decline in agricultural productivity and possibly
plague infestation started to weaken it. With the destruction of the port of Adulis by the Arabs
around 702, the international lifeline of the state was cut. The whole network of Aksumite
international trade came under the control of the rising and expanding Arab Muslims, isolating
the Aksum state from its old commercial and diplomatic partners. Consequently, the Aksumite
state declined economically. This naturally led to the decline of its political and military power
not only on the Red Sea coast but also in its interior provinces, where Aksumite hegemony was
challenged by local rebellions. The recurring rebellions of the Beja, the Agaw and Queen Bani al
Hamwiyah (Yodit) finally sealed the collapse of the Aksumite state.

However, as a civilization, Aksum had a profound impact upon the peoples of the Horn of Africa
and beyond, and on its successors i.e. the Zagwe, ‘Solomonic Dynasty’, the Gondarine period
etc. Some of its achievements include Sub-Saharan Africa’s only surviving indigenous script and
calendar as well as EOC hymns and chants, paintings etc; diversified ceramic and lithic tools,
ivory curving, and urbanization and sophisticated building traditions (palaces, stele, rock-hewn
churches…). It also developed complex administrative and governance system, and agricultural
system including irrigation etc.

D. Zagwe Dynasty

After its decline, the center of Aksumite state shifted southwards to Kubar rural highland in the
territory of the Agaw, one of the ancient inhabitants of the land between the Eritrean Plateau and
Jema River, and to the west up to the Blue Nile valleys. This apparently gave Agaw elites the
opportunity to take part in Aksumite state structure serving as soldiers and functionaries for at
least four centuries. After integrating so well with Aksumite ruling class, they successfully
tookover the state administration. Accordingly, the Agaw prince Merra Teklehaimanot married

5
Masobe Worq, the daughter of the last Aksumite king Dil Na'od. Later he overthrew his father-
in-law and took control of power. Merra-Teklehaimanot's successors include Yimirahana
Kirstos, Harbe, Lalibela (1160-1211), Ne'akuto La'ab, Yetbarek etc. Notwithstanding the
debates, the Zagwe Dynasty is believed to have ruled from c. 1150 to 1270.

The Zagwe Dynasty made its center in Bugna District within Wag and Lasta, more exactly at
Adafa near Roha (Lalibela). The territory of the Zagwe kingdom extended from most of the
highland provinces of the ancient Aksumite kingdom in the north down to northern Shewa in the
south, the Lake Tana region and the northern part of what is today Gojjam in the west.

The Agaw maintained the ancient Aksumite traditions almost intact. Zagwe rulers renewed
cultural and trade contact with eastern Mediterranean region. The most important export items
included slaves, ivory and rare spices while cotton, linen, silver and copper vessels, various types
of drags and newly minted coins were imported.

Furthermore, the Zagwe period was a golden age in Ethiopia's paintings and the translation of
some religious works from Arabic into Ge'ez. That said, Zagwe rulers are best known for the
construction of cave, semi-hewn and monolithic churches:

1. Cave: with some decoration inside, almost similar with natural cave, eg. Bete-Mesqel.

2. Semi-hewn: this and the monolithic churches that have become UNESCO world heritage are
unique in constructions. Semi-hewan are with detailed interior decoration and partial decoration
outside. They are not totally separated from the surrounding rock. Their roofs or walls are still
attached to the rock, eg. Bete Denagil, Bete Debresina/Mikael, Bete Golgota, Bete Merqoriwos,
Bete Gabri’el-Rufa’el and Bete Abba Libanos.

3. Monolithic: with detailed decoration in the interior and exterior parts. They are completely
separated (carved out) from surrounding rock, eg. Bete Amanuel, Bete Giyorgis, Bete Mariyam
and Bete Medhanialem.

Among the eleven churches of Lalibela, Bete Medhanelem is the largest of all and Bete Giyorgis
is said to be the most finely built in the shape of the Cross.

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Lalibela wanted to establish the second Jerusalem, and mitigate or even avoid difficulties, which
Ethiopian Christians encountered in their journey to the Holy Lands. This was done by
constructing churches based on the model of Holy Lands in Israel.

The Zagwe Dynasty came to end due to internal problems of royal succession and oppositions
from groups claiming descent from the ancient rulers of Aksum. The latter considered Zagwe
kings “illegitimate rulers” based on the legend of the Queen of Sheba. The legend was in turn
based on a book known as Kebra-Negest (Glory of Kings) that was translated from Coptic to
Arabic and then into Ge’ez. Based on the legend, the power claimants contend that “Solomonic”
Dynasty ruled the Aksumite state until its power was “usurped” by the [Link]-Amlak
(r. 1270-1285), who claimed decent from the last Aksumite king Dilna’od, organized his forces
with the assistance of the ecclesiastical hierarchy and engaged the last king of Zagwe, Yetbarek
in battle. Yetbarek was killed in Gaynt and Yekuno-Amlak took the state power proclaiming the
“restoration” of “Solomonic” Dynasty.

3.2.2. East, Central, Southern, and Western States

[Link]. Bizamo, Damot, Enarya and Gafat

A. Bizamo: was a kingdom located on the southern bend of Abay River just opposite to the
present districts of Gojjam and around the current Wambara area. It was founded in the eighth B.
Damot: was a strong kingdom that expanded its territories into most of the lands the south of
Abay and north of Lake Turkana as well as west of Awash and east of Didessa. Motalami was a
C. Enarya: was a kingdom in the Gibe region in southwestern Ethiopia. The royal clan was
Hinnare Bushasho (Hinnario Busaso). Enarya's kingship was a divine one: the king
(HinnareTato) was secluded and considered as sacred. He communicated with visitors through
an intermediary, [Link] real power rested with Mikretcho (council) including Awa-rasha
(king's spokesperson) and Atche-rasha (royal treasurer). The kings had residences in Yadare and
Gowi. In the nineth century, Aksumite king Digna-Jan is said to have led a campaign into
Enarya, accompanied by Orthodox Christian priests carrying arks of covenant (tabots).prominent
king of Damot in the thirteenth [Link] and had early connections with Damot.

D. Gafat: historically, the territory of Gafat lies south of Abay (Blue Nile) River adjoining
Damot on the south western periphery of the Christian Kingdom. It was inhabited by Semitic

7
speaking population related to Harari and the Gurage. It is not clear from available records
whether the Gafat formed a “state” or not, but Gafat mountains provided a rich source of gold.
Despite efforts by Christian evangelists, the Gafat largely remained practitioners of their own
indigenous religion. As of early medieval period, Gafat was paying tribute to the Christian
Kingdom mainly in cattle, which came from six districts, among which Gambo and Shat are
Gafat clan names. The state was governed by rulers bearing the title of Awalamo.

[Link]. Muslim Sultanates

After the spread of Islam since the beginning of the eighth century, viable Muslim communities
and states had been established at many locations especially along the main trade routes from
Zeila and its many branches penetrating the interior. These states include:

A. Shewa: Makhzumi Khalid ibn al-Walid, who claimed decent from Meca, set up the
Makhzumite Sultanate in 896 A. D (283 A.H.) on northeastern foothill of Shewa.

B. Fatagar: was founded around Minjar, Shenkora and Ada’a in the eleventh century. It was a
hilly lowland area with thoroughly cultivated fields of wheat and barley, fruits, and extensive
grazing grounds full of numerous herds of cattle, sheep and goats.

C. Dawaro: located south of Fatagar between upper waters of Awash and WabiShebelle
extending to Charchar in Northeast and Gindhir in Southeast. We have valuable information on
Dawaro by an Egyptian courtier Ibn Fad Allah el-umari. It was much smaller than Ifat, but
resembled it in many aspects. Dawaro had a currency called hakuna for transaction .

D. Bali: was an extensive kingdom occupying high plateau, separating basins of Shebelle and
Rift valley Lakes. It was separated from Dawaro by the Wabi-Shebelle River and extended
southwards to the Gannale Dirre River. Bali was one of the largest of Ethiopia’s Muslim
provinces. Its economic activity resembles those of other nearby Muslim lands. Trade was
mainly based on barter exchanging cattle, sheep, cloth etc. It had strong army composed of
cavalry and infantry.

E. Ifat: was a state located adjacent to Shewan Sultanate. Its territory ran from northeast-
southwesterly in the Afar plain eastward to the Awash. It was established by Umar Walasma,
who claimed descent t from Hashamite clan and said to have come from Arabia between 1271

8
and 1285. He intervened between quarrelsome Makzumite princes Dil-Marrah and Dil-Gamis,
weakened and annexed the sultanate of Shewa. The sultanate was fertile and well watered. Its
inhabitants earned their living from cultivation of wheat, sorghum, millet and teff, and animal
husbandry. Sugar cane, bananas, variety of fruits, beans, squashes, cucumbers, and cabbage
completed the diet. Chat was described for the first time as being consumed as a stimulant.

3.3. External Contacts

Ethiopia and the Horn had contacts with Egypt since at least 3,000 B. C. These relations may be
the region’s earliest contacts with the Mediterranean world or the Greco-Roman World. It had
very close relations with all commercially active South Arabian Kingdoms starting sometimes
before 1,000 B.C. The introduction of Christianity to Aksum established a new pattern of
relation between the region and Egypt. Until the introduction of Islam into Egypt and the general
reduction of the Christians into minority, relations between the two were fairly smooth and
friendly. Following the introduction of Christianity, Aksum established close relationship with
the East Roman or Byzantine Empire with which it shared common commercial interest in the
Red Sea area against their rival Persians. Yet, in the seven century, this relation became
complicated and began to deteriorate. The rapid expansion of the Muslim Arabs through the
Near and Middle East, North Africa and the Nile valley led to the decline of Aksumite land
routes and shipping lines. Successive Egyptian Muslim rulers began to use the consecration and
sending of a bishop as an instrument to further their own foreign policy objectives and to squeeze
concessions from Ethiopian Christian rulers, who reacted by threatening to divert the Nile. The
coming to power of the Mamluk was followed by the reciprocal persecution of religious
minorities. Moreover, the Mamluk presented a barrier to the contacts between Christian Ethiopia
and European states.

However, the tradition to visit Jerusalem and other holy places in the Middle East had begun at
the end of the first millennium AD. In order to reach the places, Ethiopian Christian pilgrims
used the land route to Egypt. From Cairo, again they used the land route to the Holy land.
Consequently, there were considerable numbers of Ethiopian Christian communities found in
different regions, in Egyptian monasteries, in the holy places of Palestine and Armenia, and in
Italian city-states in subsequent centuries. The communities living in different parts of the world
served as an important link or bridge between Ethiopian Christian Kingdom and [Link]

9
pilgrims met their fellow Christians of Europe in the holy places, they transmitted information
about the EOC and its exceptional liturgical practices. They also explained about the territorial
extent of the Christian Kingdom.

From the information, the Europeans began to consider Ethiopian Christian Kingdom as a very
powerful and wealthy state existing in the Horn of Africa. Consequently, they wanted to use this
imaginary strong Christian power in their struggle against the Muslim powers in the Holy land.
Around the middle of the 12th century, a myth about a very rich and powerful Christian ruler
known as Prester John began to circulate in Europe. The legend was developed when the balance
of the crusade war fought over Jerusalem between the Christians of Europe and the Muslims of
the Middle East was in favor of the latter. In 1165, a letter addressed to European kings, thought
to be sent by the Prester John appeared in Europe mentioning about the enormous power of the
Prester John. The geographical location of the country of Prester John was not known to Europe
for over a century. However, the Europeans began to regard Ethiopian Christian Kingdom as the
land of Prester John since the only Christian kingdom between the Red Sea and the Indian sub-
continent was the Ethiopian Christian Kingdom. Then, they began to search for the location of
the Kingdom and to make an alliance with it.

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3.4. Economic Formations

A. Agriculture and Land Tenure System

Land has always been one of the most precious possessions of human society throughout history.
The rules according to which members of the society hold, share and use land constitute what is
known as the land tenure system. The most ancient system of land holding which survived in
many parts of Ethiopia and the Horn is the communal land tenure system. Communal right to
land is a group right. Here group refers to the family, the clan and the other lineage groups to
which the individual belonged. Each of these groups had communal right to the land they lived
in and freely exploited the resources of the land.

Peasants in the north had rist rights in their respective areas. Rist is a kind of communal
birthright to land by members of the families and clans whose ancestors had settled and lived in
the area over long periods. It is inherited from generation to generation in accordance to
customary law. Most of the subjects of the state had rist rights. The rist owners were known as
bale-rist. Yet, they paid tributes to the state and all land belonged to the state theoretically.
Tribute was collected through a complex hierarchy of state functionaries or officials who were
given gult right over the areas and populations they administered on behalf of the central
government. Gult is a right to levy tribute on rist owners’ produce. The tribute collected by bale-
gults, partly allotted for their own up keep and the rest were sent to the imperial center. Gult right
that became hereditary was called Riste-Gult as prominent wellplaced officials used to transfer
their position to their offspring.

B. Trade

Trade was another important economic activity of ancient states that obtained considerable
income from both internal and international trade. The major socio-economic and political
centers of earliest states seem to have also been major trade centers with wide ranging contacts in
various directions within the region itself and with merchants coming to the area across the
international water bodies. A network of roads connected the centers with the coast and various
dependencies in the interior. Local and international merchants frequented these roads. The
region was crisscrossed by various trade routes connecting various market places in all
directions. The regular flow of trade was so vital to the states in that one of their major concerns
was to protect the trade routes and make them safe from robbers.

3.5. Socio-cultural Achievements

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A. Architecture

As the states expanded, architecture also began to flourish and one of the unique architectural
technologies was the engraving of stele around the third century AD. There were totally fifty
eight steles in and around Aksum that can be grouped into well made and decorated, half
completed and megaliths (not hewn). As local tradition says, the steles were engraved
specifically at Gobodara from which they were transported and planted in Aksum. The longest
one of these stele measures 33meters heights (the first in the world). It is highly decorated in all
of its four sides. It represents a-14 storied building with many windows and a false door at the
bottom. It also bears pre-Christian symbols, which are a disc and a crescent (half moon) at the
top. Some scholars suggest that this giant stele was broken while the people were trying to erect
it. The second longest obelisk measures 24 meters height that was successfully erected and
represents a ten-storied building with many windows and a false door at the bottom. The third
longest stele measures 21 meters and represents a nine-storied building with many windows and
a false door at the bottom. It is smooth at the back of its side with no decoration.

The Zagwe churches are regarded as some of the finest architecture of artistic achievements of
the Christian world and that is why they were registered by UNESCO as part of world cultural
heritage in 1978, two years before that of the Aksumite stele. Further refinement can be observed
in the construction and decoration of the rockhewn churches in the Zagwe period. Zagwe
architecture used a softer material like sandstone, which was cut and shaped all round, except the
floor, into a variety of delicately decorated churches.

B. Writing System

The Sabean language had an alphabet with boustrophedon writing type that is paleographical
writing from left to right and right to left alternatively. The earliest Sabean inscriptions in Eritrea
and Ethiopia date to the ninth century BC. One peculiar feature of Sabean inscriptions is absence
of vowels as most of the words are written in consonants. For instance, Da’amat was inscribed as
D’mt, while its successive kings are written as RDM, RBH and LMN using title, mlkn.

After the seventh and sixth centuries BC, however, variants of script arose, evolving in the
direction of the Geʽez script (an alpha syllabary). This evolution can be seen most clearly in
evidence from inscriptions mainly graffiti on rocks and caves. By the first century AD, "Geʽez
alphabet" arose, an abjad (26 consonant letters only) written left-to-right with letters identical to
the first-order forms of modern vocalized alphabet.

Though the first completely vocalized texts known are inscriptions by Ezana (who left trilingual
inscriptions in Greek, Sabean and Ge'ez) c. 330 AD, vocalized letters predate him by some years,
as vocalized letter exists in Wazeba’s coin some 30 or so years before. The process was
developed under the influence of Christian scripture by adding vocalic diacritics for vowels, u, i,
a, e, ə, o, to the consonantal letters in a recognizable but slightly irregular way, so that the system

12
is laid out as a syllabary. Ethiopia's ancient indigenous writing system has immense contribution
to the development of literature, art and the writing of history.

C. Calendar

People needed to know and remember the times when the rains would begin and end as well as
the rise and fall of the water level. The responsibility of understanding these vital climatic cycles
fell on expertise. In due course, calendars were invented. In most cases, the length of the month
was based on the movement of the moon or the apparent movement of the sun. Otherwise, the
number of days in the week or in the year varied from region to region.

Calendars were developed and adopted among various peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn. Oromo
calendar has been based on astronomical observations of moon in conjunction with seven or
eight particular stars or group of stars called Urjii Dhahaa (guiding stars) and Bakkalcha
(morning star). There are 29.5 dates in a month and 354 days in 12 months of a year. Pillars
(dated 300 B.C.), which were discovered in northwestern Kenya from 1978-86 by
Archaeologists Lynch, Robbins and Doyl have suggested to represent site used to develop
Oromo calendar. In connection with this, c. 900 A. D. Oromo person Waqlim is said to have
taken art of shaping phallic bowls to Zimbabwe.

The Sidama calendar rotates following movements of stars with 13 months a year, 12 of which
are divided equally into 28 days while the thirteenth month has 29 days. The Sidama week has
only 4 days (Dikko, Dela, Qawado and Qawalanka) and hence each month has 7 weeks.
Nominated Mote (King) is presented to Fiche Chambalala, New Year ritual, for Qetela or
popular demonstration.

Ethiopic solar calendar has 12 months of 30 days plus 5 or 6 (is added every 4 years)
Epagomenal days, which comprise a thirteenth month. A gap of 7–8 years between Ethiopic and
Gregorian calendars results from alternative calculation in determining date of Annunciation.
Thus, the first day of the year, 1 Meskerem/Enkutatash is usually September 11 (Gregorian).
However, it falls on September 12 in years before the Gregorian leap year. The Ethiopic solar
calendar has evolved to become the official calendar of the country.

The Muslim (Islamic) calendar is a lunar calendar consisting of 12 months in a year of 354 or
355 days. It employs the Hijra year of 622 AD, in which Mohammed and his followers made
flight from Mecca to Medina and established the first Muslim community (ummah). Dates in this
era are usually denoted AH (After Hijra, "in the year of the Hijra"). Years prior to the Hijra are
reckoned as BH ("Before the Hijra").

Other peoples like the Agaw, Halaba, Hadiya, Wolayta, Gedeo, the Nilotes, etc have their own dating
system.

D. Numerals

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Numerals appeared in Ethiopia and the Horn at the beginning of fourth century AD. Geʽez uses
numeral system comparable to the Hebrew, Arabic and Greek numerals, but it lacks individual
characters for multiples of 100. Numbers are over- and underlined in proper typesetting,
combined to make a single bar, but some less sophisticated fonts cannot render this and show
separate bars above and below each character.

Chapter Four
Politics, Economy and Society from the Late Thirteenth to the Beginning of the Sixteenth
centuries
4.1. The “Restoration” of the “Solomonic’’ Dynasty
The rulers of the “Solomonic” Dynasty claimed that they were descendants of the last king of
Aksum and hence, they were legitimate to take over state power from the “illegitimate” rulers of
the Zagwe dynasty. As the claim has no historical evidence, the name “Restoration” is put in
quotation mark. Similarly, the name “Solomonic” is placed in quotation marks because the claim
of descent from King Solomon of Israel is legendary. The claim has been elaborated in the Kibre
Negest (“Glory of Kings”) that associated Ethiopia with the Judeo-Christian tradition. The Kibre
Negest claims that Ethiopian ruling class descended from the line of Menilek I, son of the Queen
of Sheba and King Solomon of Israel. As a result, Ethiopian monarchs from YikunoAmlak to
Emperor Haile-Silassie I claimed descent from Menilek I.

4.2. Power Struggle, Consolidation, Territorial Expansion and Religious Processes

4.2.1. Succession Problem and the Establishment of a ‘Royal Prison’ of Amba Gishen

Following the end of the reign of Yikuno-Amlak in 1285, a political instability caused by
constant power struggles among his sons and grandsons for succession occurred. A letter written
by Yegba-Tsion (r.1285-94) to the Sultan of Egypt and the Patriarch of Alexandria in 1290
reflected the existence of those struggles. The power struggle intensified during the reigns of
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Yegba-Tsion’s five sons who reigned from 1294 to 1299. The succession problem seems to have
been partly resolved in 1300 during the reign of Widim-Ra’ad (r. 1299-1314) following the
establishment of a 'royal prison' at Amba-Gishen located in present day southern Wollo where all
male members of the royal family were confined until one among them was installed in power.
Loyal soldiers to the reigning monarch guarded the royal prison. When the monarch died, court
dignitaries would send an army to the royal prison to escort the designated successor and put him
on the throne. This practice continued until Amba-Gishen was destroyed by Imam Ahmad
Ibrahim Al-Ghazi's force in 1540

4.2.2. Consolidation and Territorial Expansion of the Christian Kingdom

From 1270 until the establishment of Gondar in 1636, the medieval monarchs had no permanent
capital. Initially, the center of the “restored” dynasty was in medieval Amhara (today’s South
Wollo) around Lake Haiq. However, it gradually shifted southward to the districts of Menz,
Tegulet, Bulga, and finally to the regions dominated by the great height of the Yerer, Entoto,
Menagesha, Wachacha, Furi and Zequalla mountains. After coming to power, Yikuno-Amlak
embarked on consolidating his authority throughout the empire. In this regard, he quickly
subdued Ifat, the Muslim center adjacent to Shewa. Yet, until the coming of Amde-Tsion
(r.1314-44), the center and the territorial limit of the Christian Kingdom was mainly in present
day Tigray, Lasta, medieval Amhara and Shewa.

Amde-Tsion was the first "Solomonic" King, who embarked on a policy of a wider and rapid
territorial expansion. His main motives of expansion were economic and political i.e. to control
the trade routes and seize territories. The Christian Kingdom controlled extensive territories
during the reign of Emperor Amde-Tsion. The period also witnessed the expansion of trade
leading to the flow of commodities to the coast following the major routes. In the process of
consolidating his power, Amde-Tsion subdued rebellions in an attempt to end centrifugal
tendencies, which threatened the unity of the Christian Kingdom. In the process, he expanded his
territory into Agaw (Awi) of Gojjam around 1323/4; Bizamo and Damot in 1316/7; Bete-Israel
(located between Dambiya and Tekeze River) around 1332; and the Red Sea Coast. To
consolidate the control of the Christian state over the provinces of the north extending to the
coastal areas of Massawa, Amde-Tsion gave Enderta (in today’s northeastern Tigray) to his wife
Bilen-Saba. Amde-Tsion's army faced stiff resistance from among Ifat and Shewa, which might
have cooperated with the rebellious army at Enderta, led by Yibeka-Igzi in 1320s. However,
Bahr-Sagad, the son of Amde-Tsion, became the governor of Tigray. In 1325, Amde-Tsion
campaigned to today’s Eritrean region. After controlling the whole region, he appointed a
governor with a title of Ma'ekale-Bahir, which later on changed to Bahire-Negash.

In the southeast, Muslim sultanates paid tributes to the Christian Kingdom. In the south, Gurage
speaking areas and a few of the Omotic kingdoms like Wolayta and Gamo werebrought under
the influence of the Christian state. Amde-Tsion was in full control of all the trade routes and

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sources of trade of the Ethiopian region in the early 1330s. The consolidation and territorial
expansion of the Christian Kingdom continued during the successors of Amde-Tsion.

4.2.3. Evangelization, Religious Movements, and Religious Reforms of Zara-Yaqob

I. Evangelization

Christianity had a long history of expansion. Churches and their believers had been in existence
long before expansion of the Christian Kingdom in various parts of the Horn of Africa. For
instance, in Shewa there were early Christians who maintained contacts with their distant
relatives in Northern part of Ethiopia. Those early Christians played an important role in the
spread of Christianity in several areas. In the thirteenth century, Eyesus-Mo'a opened new
opportunities of learning for Christians who lived in the central part of Ethiopia and later
evangelized the newly incorporated areas where the influence of Christianity had either been
non−existent or minimal. The territorial expansion carried out by Amde−Tsion during the
medieval period set an addition momentum for the spread of Christianity. Abune Tekle-
Haymanot (thirteenth century) played a key role in reviving Christianity in Shewa, which was
followed by the evangelization of areas in southern Ethiopia including medieval Damot. He
baptized and converted Motalami to Christianity. The clergy, under the direction of the bishop in
Ethiopia, Yaqob, spread Christianity to different areas of Shewa such as Kil'at, Tsilalish,
Merhabite, Wereb, Moret and Wegda, and Fatagar, Damot, Waj and Enarya.

II. Religious Movements

A. The Ewostatewos Movement

Monasticism became a dominant practice in Ethiopian Orthodox Church in the midthirteenth

century. The period witnessed development of monasticism and religious movements of which
the major one was the Ewostatewos movement, named after the founder. Ewostatewos
established his own monastic community in Sara'e (in present day Eritrea). There, he was joined
by many students and taught until about 1337. Among his teachings was the strict observance of
Sabbath. When he was opposed by an organized religious rival group of the clergy in Sera'e, he
fled the country to Egypt. He faced the same opposition in Cairo by Ethiopian pilgrims. After
Ewostatewos left Ethiopia, the movement was weakned although his followers led by Abba
Absad tried their best to maintain its momentum. The movement revived when some ofhis
followers such as Bekimos, Merkoryewos and Gebre–Iyasus returned home from Armenia. The
followers of Ewostatewos soon became active and dispersed to different monasteries in northern
Ethiopia. The movement spread to areas like Enfraz, northern Tigray, and Hamessen. The King
and the Abun opposed the movement. Hence, the antiEwostatewos group led by the Abbot of the
Hayq Monastery called Aqabe-Se’at SereqeBirhan was supported by the Abun and the monarch.
The monarch imprisoned some of the Ewostatians owing to the fact that he feared that dispute in
the church could divide his kingdom. The clergy expelled Ewostatians from their church

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services; some of the Ewostatians were forced to withdraw and settle in peripheral areas while
some of them sustained their movement in monasteries like Debre- Bizen, Debre-San, etc

B. Deqiqe Estifanos/ the Estifanosites

The Estifanosites were a movement within Ethiopian monasticism, called so after their founder
and spiritual leader Abba Estifanos. The movement rose to prominence in the fifteenth century
and continued until the sixteenth century, when it was formally reconciled with the main body of
the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. The head of the movement, Abba Estifanos, was born in Agame
at the end of the fourteenth century. He established a rigid monastic organization, which
emphasized poverty, absolute self-subsistence, equality and autonomy from secular authorities.
His adversaries in the monastic circles attempted to discredit him, but the movement gained
followers in various monastic communities. When summoned to the royal court, Estifanos was
initially able to convince the emperor (probably Atse Takla Maryam, r. 1430-33) that he posed
no threat to royal power or the unity of the Church. Later, however, he collided with Zara-
Yaqob. Estifanos appears to have disapproved of the Emperor’s religion initiatives, rejected
royal supremacy and authority in spiritual matters and refused to participate in court judiciary
procedures. Zara-Yacob took very harsh measures against the Estifanosites allegedly for their
opposition of the veneration of St. Mary.

Naod appears to have been more favorably inclined towards the Estifanosites and to have been
instrumental in their reintegration into the EOC during the period of Metropolitan Abune
Yeshaq. For their part, Estifanosites appear to have softened their position; theexcommunication
was lifted by the Metropolitan. Despite the importance of the Estifanosites movement for the
history of Ethiopia, as yet we have neither a comprehensive critical history of its background and
development, nor a clear idea of its real geographical scale, historical significance and influence.

III. The Religious Reforms of Emperor Zara-Yaqob

Emperor Zara-Yaqob (r.1434-68) took several measures to stabilize and consolidate the
Orthodox Church. First, he settled the conflict among the Ethiopian clergy in order to create an
amicable church-state relationship. In this regard, he made peace with the House of Ewostatewos
by reviving Sabbath in the Ethiopian church and the Ewostatian agreed to receive Holy orders
from the Ethiopian prelates. Further, he urged the clergy to preach Christianity in remote areas.
Besides, he ordered the people to observe fasting on Wednesdays and Fridays and get Father
Confessors.

Lack of sufficient religious books was another problem. Thus, the king encouraged the
establishment of a library in every church. This was followed by revival of religious literature.
He himself wrote some books like Metsafe-Birhan, Metsafe-Me’lad, MetsafeSillasie, Metsafe-
te'aqebo Mister,etc. In addition, during his reign, some parts of Te’amreMaryam were translated
from Arabic to Geez.

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4.3. Political and Socio-Economic Dynamics in Muslim Sultanates

A number of strong sultanates had emerged since the fourteenth century. Trade was one of the
major factors that resulted in the rise and development of those sates. Trade served not only as a
major source of livelihood but also acted as a major agent that resulted in the formation of
Muslm Sultanes and remained a major source of conflict between the Christian Kingdom and
Muslim sultanates. One of the strong Muslim sultanates that emerged along trade routes and
became a center of resistance against the Christian Kingdom until the second half of the
sixteenth century was the Sultanate of Adal.

4.3.1. The Rise of Adal

After its establishment, Ifat conducted a series of campaigns against its neighbouring sultanates
thereby extending its hegemony over these areas. It also resisted the expansion of the Christian
Kingdom. However, one branch of the Walasma family, which realized that Ifat was becoming
an easy target to the Christian Kingdom due to its location, moved further to the southeastern
lowlands and established new and vigorous Muslim Sultanate of Adal in the highland districts
around Harar in 1367. The first center of this extended Walasma Dynasty was at a place called
Dakar, a place located to the southeast of Harar. The Walasma family consolidated its power in
the new center, and began another phase of military campaigns against the frontiers of the
Christian Kingdom. The center of Adal in 1520 changed to the city of Harar and after the defeat
of Imam Ahmed; a growing threat from a new force-the Oromo forced the sultanate to change its
capital to Awsa in 1576/7, to the present Afar region.

4.3.2. Trade and the Expansion of Islam

Islam spread into the central and southwestern parts of the Ethiopian region through Muslim
merchants and preachers. Trade served as channel for the expansion of Islam in the Muslim
Sultanates while at the same time it formed the base of the economy of those states. The most
known Muslim Sultanates during this period were Ifat (1285-1415) and Adal (1415-1577).

The main trade outlet shifted to Zeila and the old city-states of Mogadishu, Brava, and Merca
were used as ports for their hinterland. In the meantime, for the trade in the northeast, Massawa
served as an outlet.

With the revival of trade, different towns and trade centers emerged along the route from Zeila
to the interior. Travelers' accounts and chronicles referred to these towns and ruins of mosques
and residences mark the existence of market centers, which followed and served the trade coasts.
The ruins that mark the landscape around Jigjiga and the highlands of Harar and Charchar attest
to the market towns that served the Zeila route. These include Weez-Gebeya in western
Shewa/famous market on the Fatagar-Dawaro-Harar route, Suq-Wayzaro in old Damot, Suq-
Amaja and the very famous market center Gandabalo on the Ifat-Awsa route. Gandabalo was
largely inhabited by Muslim and Christian merchants serving the kings and sultans as agents.

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Other big market towns include the ones that linked medieval Amhara with Awsa, called Wasel
near what is today Ware-Illu, Qorqora/Qoreta (north of Waldiya) and Mandalay in southern
Tigray. The towns of Dabarwa, the seat of the Bahre-Negash (“Lord of the Sea”), and Asmara
were the two important entrepots of caravans in the hinterland of Massawa.

Muslim states had significant control over trade routes that passed through Zeila due to their
geographical proximity, although contested by “Solomonic” Kingdom especially after its revival
and consolidation.

4.4. Rivalry between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim Sultanates

Zeila was the main outlet to the sea during the medieval period. The ambition to control this
trade route and commodities that passed through Zeila led to rivalry between the “Solomonic”
rulers and the Sultanate of Ifat. The first recorded conflict between the Christian Kingdom and
Ifat took place in 1328 when the Muslim Sultanates organized their armies to take military action
against the Christian Kingdom. The Sultan of Ifat, Haqaddin I stopped merchants belonging to
the Christian King, Amde-Tsion, confiscating the goods, capturing, and imprisoning the king's
agent, Ti’iyintay returning from Cairo. These actions forced Amde-Tsion to wage a campaign
against Haqaddin I; defeated and took him prisoner and eventually replaced him by his brother
Sabradin. Both Ifat and Fatagar came under Sabradin.

Ifat was defeated and Sabradin was captured during his retreat. As a result, Ifat, Fatagar and
Dawaro were incorporated. Amde-Tsion required from them annual tributes and freedom of
movement for all caravans through Zeila. Following the decline of Ifat, other Muslim Sultanates
like Sharkha, Bali, Dara, and Arbabani were also seriously weakened.

It was owing to these developments that some members of the Walasma moved their seat of
power further east to Adal, from where they continued their struggle. To check their attacks on
the highlands, the successors of Emperor Amde-Tsion conducted repeated campaigns into the
lowlands. In 1376, Haqadin II came to power and refused to pay tribute and rebelled against
Neway-Maryam (r. 1371-80), the son of Amde-Tsion. However, he died fighting in 1386.
Similarly, the successor of Haqadin II, Sa’d ad-Din II (c. 1386-1402) gained initial success until
king Dawit I (r. 1380-1412) in 1402/3 extended his expansion and defeated him. Sa’d ad-Din II
became refuge in Zeila until King Yishaq (r.1413-30) killed him in 1415. Since then the area was
called "the land of Sad ad-Din." Following the death of Sa’d ad-Din and loss of Zeila to
Christian Kings, the Muslim sultanates declined in power. Sa’d ad-Din’s sons who took refuge in
Yemen came back to succeed their father. Yet, Adal continued to challenge the Christian state
and were successful in killing Tewodros (1412-13) and Yeshaq. This led to intense struggle for
predominance.

During the mid-fifteenth century, Emperor Zara Yaqob gained some access to the Red Sea. In
1445, Zara Yaqob defeated Sultan Ahmed Badlay at the battle of Yeguba. As a result, the son
and successor of Ahmed Badlay, Mohammed Ahmed (r.1445-71) sent a message of submission

19
to Ba’ede Mariam (r. 1468-78) to remain vassal of the Christian Kings. On the death of
Mohammed, however, Adal was still strong and continued its struggle. Hence, the reigning
monarch, Ba’ede-Mariam campaigned against Adal. Despite initial successes, the army of
Ba'ede-Mariam lost the battle in 1474.

The successors of Ba'ede-Mariam proved weak in their dealings with the rulers of Muslim
Sultanates. At the same time, leaders of the Muslim Sultanate sought to resolve the problem
peacefully. As a result, Mohammad ibn Azhar ad-Din (1488-1518) attempted to smoothen
relations with the Christian Kingdom. However, among the various Sultans of the Muslim
sultanates, Emir Mahfuz carried out some effective military campaigns into the highlands. In
1517 Emir Mahfuz died fighting against Emperor Lebne-Dengel's (r. 1508-40) force and his son-
in-law, Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, popularly known as Ahmed Gragn or the "left-
handed" took over the leadership.

Apart from the hostile relations, there were wider socio-economic and cultural interactions
between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim principalities. As in earlier periods, trade continued
to be the major channel of social integration. Also, it had long been the source of friendship,
interaction, interdependence, and conflict among the states of the region. The long distance trade
and local markets served as core areas of social ties. Relatively, the difference in ecology of the
Muslim sultanates and the Christian Kingdom created economic interdependence, which in due
course strengthened socio-economic bondage. Merchants of the two regions often moved from
the highlands to the coast and vice versa. It was through such caravan merchants that the social
links were strengthened and religions spread. These interactions and interdependence in
economic, social, cultural and political spheres lay the foundation for modern Ethiopia.

Beside the above dusscused socio-cultural and economic interactionas, the period witnessed the
flourishing of Geez literature as is evident from the works of Abba Giorgis Ze-Gasicha and
others and philosophies epitomzed by Zara-Ya'iqob (not to be confused with the king). On the
Muslim side, literature had developed including the works of Arab writers such as Ibn Fadil al
Umari, Ibn Khaldun and others.

4.5. External Relations

4.5.1. Relations with Egypt

From the late thirteenth century onwards, the Christian Kingdom continued to maintain relations
with Egypt, which was mainly religious in character. In 1272, Yekuno-Amlak sent an emissary
to Egypt’s Sultan, Baybars, requesting an Abun from the Coptic Church. Furthermore, both
Egypt and Ethiopia continued to act as protectors of religious minorities in their respective
domain. Egypt also wanted to ensure secure flow of the Nile (the Abay River) that originated
from Ethiopia.

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In the early fourteenth century, Mohammed ibn Qala’un persecuted the Copts and destroyed their
churches in Cairo. In response, Amde-Tsion demanded the restoration of the churches and
warned that failure to do so would result in the diversion of the Nile waters. Patriarch Marqos
(1348- 63) sent a message to Sayfa-Arad (r.1344-71), revealing his imprisonment by the then
Egyptian Sultan. Sayfa-Arad is said to have mobilized a huge army against Egypt after which the
Sultan released the patriarch and sent a delegation to the King. Besides, Patriarch Matewos
(1328-1408) delegated by the Sultan, established harmonious relations between King Dawit and
Egypt. The Sultan is said to have sent a piece of the "True Cross" and in return, Dawitis said to
have given a number of religious paintings to the Sultan.

In 1437/8, Zara-Yaqob wrote a friendly letter to Sultan Barsbay requesting the protection of
Christians in Egypt. Three years later, however, Patriarch Yohannes XI wrote Zara-Yaqob a
letter stating the demolition of the famous church of Mitmaq (Debre-Mitmaq). Then ZaraYaqob
sent an envoy to Sultan Jaqmaq (1438-53) with a strongly worded letter. In reply to this message,
Jaqmaq sent an envoy to Ethiopia, with complimentary gifts to the King but rejected the
reconstruction of the church.

4.5.2. Relations with Christian Europe

As with the Muslim Arab world, the Christian Kingdom maintained relations with Christian
Europe. During the medieval period, contacts between the two regions were strongly influenced
by the legend of “Prester John”.This was followed by sustained relations in subsequent decades.
For example, it is stated that Ethiopian delegation was in attendance of Gian Galeazzo Visconti’s
coronation in Milan in 1395. In 1418, three Ethiopians attended the Council of Constance. In
another report, message from an Ethiopian monarch, Amde-Tsion was presented to King Phillip
of France in 1332.

The earliest known message to Ethiopia from a European monarch is the letter of King Henry IV
of England dated 1400 A.D. and addressed to “Prester John”,the purported king of the Christian
Kingdom. The identification of the King with “Prester John” was firmly established in the
fourteenth century. They even thought that it was possible to liberate Jerusalem with the help of
this King. Hence, during the reign of King Dawit, the leaders of Rome, Constantinople, Syria,
Armenia and Egypt sent letters to the king in which they asked for support. King Dawit received
some Italian craftsmen consisting mainly of Florentines. In 1402, King Dawit sent his first
delegation to Europe led by a Florentine man called Antonio Bartoli.

Alphonso de Paiva V of Aragon received a delegation from Yishaq in the city of Valentia, in
1427. Yishaq’s delegation to Europe was to ask for more artisans and military experts. The

21
embassy of the Duke of Berry consisting craftsmen, Neapolitan Pietro, a Spaniard and a
Frenchman reached Ethiopia during the reign of Yishaq.

In 1450 a Sicilian Pietro Rombulo, who had been in Ethiopia since the last years of Dawit's reign
and who had previously carried out a successful trade mission to India on behalf of the King, was
now sent to Europe as Zara-Yaqob’s ambassador. An Ethiopian priest, FikreMariam and two
other individuals accompanied him. The mission was to Alphonso of Aragon (also ruled as king
of Naples and Sicily). King Zara-Yaqob sent delegates to Alphonso to get political, military, and
technical assistance. Alphonso wrote a letter to ZaraYaqob and informed him that he has sent
him artisans and masons he requested.

The most authentic pieces of evidence on Ethio-Europe links are the maps of Egyptus Novelo (c.
1454) and Fra Mauro's Mappomondo (1460) which clearly depicted many places and peoples.
Venetian Gregorio or Hieronion Bicini visited Ethiopia in 1482. Pedros da Covilhao/Peter de
Covilham arrived at the court of Eskindir (1478-1494) in 1493.

The beginning and continued rivalry between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim Sultanates in
the fifteenth century strengthened the relation between the Christian Kingdom and Christian
Europe. Queen Elleni (the daughter of Hadiya Garad and married to King Zara Yaeqob) played
an important role in the strengthening of these relations. She had foreseen the threat that came
from the Ottoman Turkish who showed a clear interest to support the Muslim Sultanates. She
also had foreseen the possibility of consolidating relations with and getting support from
Portugal that was against the Turks. In 1508, Portugal sent an envoy to act as an ambassador to
Christian Ethiopia. Around 1512, Queen Elleni, the mother and regent of Lebne-Dengel sent an
Armenian called Mathew to Portugal. The Portuguese court doubted his authenticity and was
received coldly. The Portuguese Embassy led by Rodrigo di Lima, Duwarto Galliba and
Francisco Alvarez reached Ethiopia in 1520 and remained for six years. The objective was to
establish a naval port against the expanding Turkish power in Red Sea Area. The mission was
not successful.

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