CPE231
Electronics Devices
and Circuit
Chapter No. 1
Arjmand Fatima
Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering
COMSATS University Islamabad
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Breakdown Region
• Application of too negative a voltage with the
reverse polarity will result in a sharp change in
The reverse-bias potential that
the characteristics results in this dramatic change in
The current increases at a characteristics is called the
very rapid rate in a direction breakdown potential and is given
opposite to that of the the label VBV.
positive voltage region
As the reverse voltage increases the
velocity of minority carriers increases and Avalanche
1
the associated kinetic energy 𝑊𝑘 = 𝑚𝑣 2 Breakdown
2
also increases. Region
Should be avoided to
High velocity electrons release more avoid damage to diode
electrons through collisions – causing High
further ionization of atoms --- an avalanche
avalanche effect current
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Breakdown Region
The maximum reverse-bias
potential that can be applied
before entering the It occurs because there
breakdown region is called is a strong electric field
the peak inverse voltage (PIV) in the region of the
or the peak reverse voltage junction that can
(PRV). disrupt the bonding
forces within the atom
and “generate” carriers.
VBV can be bring
back close to
vertical line by However, at such (-5 V)
increasing the
low breakdown level
level of doping -
e.g. -5 V
contribute to sharp
Zener diodes employ change in the
this unique portion characteristics --- called
the Zener Breakdown.
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VI Curves for Ge, Si and GaAs
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Temperature Effects
In the forward-bias region
the characteristics of a silicon
diode shift to the left at a rate
of 2.5 mV per centigrade
degree increase in
The breakdown voltage temperature.
increases with increase
in temperature
In the reverse-bias region
the reverse current of a
silicon diode doubles for
every 10°C rise in
temperature.
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Ideal Semiconductor Diode
The semiconductor diode behaves
in a manner similar to a
mechanical switch in that it can
control whether current will flow
between its two terminals.
However, the semiconductor diode is
different from a mechanical switch
in the sense that when the switch is
closed it will only permit current to
flow in one direction.
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Ideal Versus Practical Diode
At any current level on
the vertical line, the
voltage across the
ideal diode is 0 V and
the resistance is 0 .
the current is 0
mA anywhere on
the horizontal
line, the resistance
is infinite ohms
(an open-circuit)
at any point on the
axis.
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Resistance Levels
Semiconductors react differently to DC and AC
currents.
• There are three types of resistance
• DC (Static) Resistance
• AC (Dynamic) Resistance
• Average AC Resistance
• DC (Static) Resistance:
• For a specific applied DC voltage (VD), the diode has a
specific current (ID), and a specific resistance (RD).
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With no applied varying signal,
the point of operation would be
Resistance Levels the Q –point --- i.e. the applied
The
dc levels
• AC (Dynamic) Resistance: Quiescent
point
• The dynamic resistance is the
resistance offered by the diode to
the AC signal. It is equal to the
slope of the VI characteristics
(dV/dI or ΔV/ ΔI ) ,
The varying input
will move the
The derivative of instantaneous
a function at a operating point
point is equal to In general, the lower the
the slope of the Q-point of operation
tangent line (smaller current or lower
drawn at that voltage), the higher is the
point. ac resistance.
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AC (Dynamic) Resistance
𝑉𝐷 Including the
ൗ𝑛𝑉
𝐼𝐷 + 𝐼𝑆 = 𝐼𝑆 𝑒 𝑇
body resistance of
the semiconductor
In the reverse bias
region 𝒓′𝒅 = ∞
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Average AC Resistance
AC resistance can be
calculated using the current
and voltage values for two
points on the diode
characteristic curve.
for sufficient large signal
As with the dc and ac resistance
levels, the lower the level of
currents used to determine the
average resistance, the higher is
the resistance level.
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Diode Equivalent Circuit
• Piecewise-Linear Equivalent Circuit
• approximate the characteristics of the device by
straight-line segments Average
resistance
Knee voltage
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Diode Equivalent Circuit
• Simplified Equivalent Circuit
• For most applications, the resistance rav is sufficiently
small to be ignored
Knee voltage
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Diode Equivalent Circuit
• Ideal Equivalent Circuit
• r
Now that av has been removed from the equivalent circuit, let us take
the analysis a step further and establish that a 0.7-V level can often be
ignored in comparison to the applied voltage level.
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Diode Equivalent Circuit
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Transition and Diffusion Capacitance
Every electronic or electrical device is frequency sensitive
• For the diode it is the stray capacitance levels that have the greatest effect
• At low frequency, the reactance is so high that
it can be ignored --- i.e. open circuit
• At high frequency, Xc drops and introduces a low-reactance “shorting”
path.
• Two capacitive effects to be considered:
• Transition and Both are present in
• Diffusion forward and reverse bias
In forward In reverse bias
bias CD CT outweighs CD
outweighs CT
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Transition and Diffusion Capacitance
Transition capacitance is the predominant capacitive effect in
the reverse-bias region whereas the diffusion capacitance is
the predominant capacitive effect in the forward-bias region.
Depletion region acts as dielectric insulator --- a capacitance effect directly dependent
so d increases with increase in reverse bias on the rate at which charge is injected
into the regions just outside the
Capacitance depends on depletion region
permittivity of the dielectric
insulator, surface area and distance
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Reverse Recovery Time
As the forward biased diode is reverse biased the diode Does
NOT Instantaneously change from conduction state to
nonconduction ---- there is a reverse recover time (trr)
𝑡𝑟𝑟 = 𝑡𝑠 + 𝑡𝑡
storage time, required for the
minority carriers to return to their
majority-carrier state in the
opposite material
the diode will remain in the short-circuit
state with a current Ireverse , determined by
the network parameters and eventually,
when this storage phase has passed, the
current will be reduced in level to that
associated with the nonconduction state.
This is transition interval
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Diode Specification Sheet
Data about a diode is presented uniformly for many different
diodes.
1. Forward Voltage (VF) at a specified current and temperature
2. Maximum forward current (IF) at a specified temperature
3. Reverse saturation current (IR) at a specified voltage and
temperature
4. Reverse voltage rating, PIV or PRV or V(BR), at a specified
temperature
5. Maximum power dissipation at a specified temperature
6. Capacitance levels
7. Reverse recovery time, trr (is the time required for a diode to stop
conducting once it is switched from forward bias to reverse bias)
8. Operating temperature range
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Diode Specification Sheet
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Diode Symbols and Packaging
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Diode Symbols and Packaging
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Diode Testing - Ohmmeter
An ohmmeter set on a low Ohms scale can be used to test a
diode. The diode should be tested out of circuit.
Curve trace can
also be used
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We also referred it as
Zener Diodes Zener Region
At the diode breakdown voltage the current increases sharply,
but in the direction opposite to forward biased region.
Vz is controlled by As This region of unique
The slight slope varying the doping characteristics is
indicates a resistive level --- employed in the design
element • 1.8 V - 200 V of Zener diodes
• ¼ W – 50 W
Zener diode is used as
voltage regulator
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Zener Diode –
Equivalent Model
Power rating
of the device
Temperature
coefficient
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Light Emitting Diodes
In Si and Ge diodes the greater percentage of Diodes constructed of GaAs
the energy converted during recombination emit light in the infrared
at the junction is dissipated in the form of (invisible) zone during the
heat within the structure, and the emitted recombination process at the
light is insignificant. p–n junction.
An LED emits photons when it is forward biased.
•These can be in the infrared or visible spectrum.
•The forward bias voltage is usually in the range of 2 V to 5 V.
The frequency spectrum for
infrared light extends from
about 100 to 400 THz, with
the visible light spectrum
extending from about 400
to 750 THz.
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Diode Arrays
Multiple diodes can be packaged together in an integrated
circuit (IC).
• A variety of combinations exist.
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Conclusion and Concepts
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Conclusion and Concepts
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Conclusion and Concepts
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Equations
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