MODULE-5

Modern Developments
Supercharging of IC Engines
TURBOCHARGER
 Turbocharging enhances engine performance and efficiency by using exhaust gas energy to force
more air into the engine's cylinders. This allows for more fuel to be burned, resulting in a
significant increase in power output and better fuel economy than naturally aspirated engines.
A turbocharger consists of a turbine and a compressor connected by a shaft.
1.​ Exhaust drives the turbine: As hot exhaust gas exits the engine, it flows into the turbocharger's
turbine housing, causing the turbine wheel to spin.

2.​ Compressor forces in air: The spinning turbine is connected to a compressor wheel via a shaft,
forcing the compressor to draw in and compress ambient air.

3.​ Boosted air enters the engine: This pressurized, or "boosted," air is forced into the engine's
intake manifold and cylinders. By delivering a greater mass of air, more fuel can be added, which
increases the power of each combustion cycle.

4.​ Intercooler cools the air (optional but common): Since compressing air increases its
temperature, many turbocharged engines use an intercooler to cool the air before it enters the
engine. This increases the air's density, making the combustion even more efficient and
powerful.

Advantages of turbocharging
●​ Increased power output: A turbocharged engine can produce significantly more power and torque
than a naturally aspirated engine of the same size.
●​ Improved fuel efficiency: By recovering waste energy from the exhaust and allowing for engine
"downsizing," turbochargers can help meet fuel economy and emissions standards.

●​ Better altitude performance: Turbochargers compensate for the lower air pressure at higher
altitudes, maintaining engine performance that would otherwise decrease.

●​ Reduced emissions: Increased engine efficiency leads to more complete fuel combustion and
fewer emissions.

Disadvantages and challenges

●​ Turbo lag: A delay in power delivery can occur because it takes time for the exhaust flow to
spool up the turbocharger. This is most noticeable at lower engine speeds.

●​ Increased complexity: The addition of a turbocharger and its associated plumbing, oil lines, and
intercooler adds complexity and potential points of failure to an engine.

●​ Heat management: The extreme heat from the exhaust gases requires robust cooling and
lubrication systems to prevent component damage.

Stratified charge and multi-fuel engines: An overview

Stratified charge engines (Lean-burn spark ignition engines) and multi-fuel engines represent two
approaches to improve engine efficiency, flexibility and reduce emissions in internal combustion
engines. While distinct in their primary objective, they share some overlapping features and the
potential to work synergistically.
1. Stratified charge engines (Lean-burn SI engines)
●​ Principle: These engines create a non-uniform air-fuel mixture within the combustion chamber,
with a richer mixture concentrated near the spark plug for easy ignition and a leaner mixture in
the rest of the chamber. This allows the engine to operate with an overall leaner air-fuel ratio
than traditional spark-ignition engines.

●​ Benefits of lean burn:

o​ Improved Fuel Economy: Lean mixtures reduce throttling losses and increase thermal
efficiency.

o​ Lower Emissions (NOx, CO, HC): Burning a leaner mixture reduces peak combustion
temperatures, leading to lower NOx formation, and more complete combustion minimizes HC
and CO emissions.

o​ Higher Compression Ratios: Reduced risk of pre-ignition or knocking allows for higher
compression ratios, further boosting efficiency.

●​ Challenges:

o​ Increased complexity: Stratified charge requires sophisticated fuel injection systems and careful
control of air flow within the cylinder.

o​ Potential for higher NOx at very lean conditions: While generally lowering NOx, extremely
lean regions can sometimes lead to localized high temperatures and increased NOx formation.

o​ Three-way catalysts are ineffective: Lean-burn operation makes it difficult to use standard
three-way catalysts for NOx reduction, potentially requiring alternative exhaust aftertreatment
systems like Lean NOx Traps (LNTs) or Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR).

●​ Examples:

o​ Volkswagen's TFSI (Turbo Fuel Stratified Injection) engines.

o​ Mercedes-Benz's BlueDIRECT system.

o​ Honda's early CVCC engines.

o​ Ford's PROCO and Texaco's TCCS engines.

2. Multi-fuel engines
●​ Principle: These engines are designed to operate efficiently on a wider range of fuels, either by
burning different fuels in dedicated modes (like switching between gasoline and natural gas) or
by using a mixture of fuels (such as diesel with a pilot injection of natural gas).

Types of multi-fuel engines

 Flexible-fuel engines
These engines are a common type of multi-fuel engine used in passenger vehicles. They are
designed to run on a blend of gasoline and ethanol, typically labeled as E85 (85% ethanol).
●​ How they work: The vehicle's electronic control unit (ECU) detects the ethanol-to-gasoline ratio
and automatically adjusts the fuel injection and timing for optimal performance.

●​ Adaptations: Special, more robust fuel system components like pumps, seals, and hoses are used
to withstand ethanol's corrosive properties.

Dual-fuel engines
Unlike flexible-fuel engines that use fuel blends, dual-fuel engines typically operate using two
separate fuel sources, either by switching between them or using them simultaneously.
o​ How they work:Diesel-gas systems: In a common type of dual-fuel diesel engine, a small amount
of diesel fuel is injected first as a "pilot" fuel. The heat from its compression-ignition then ignites
a primary gaseous fuel, such as natural gas or propane, which was introduced into the intake
manifold.

●​ Benefits:

o​ Increased Fuel Flexibility & Security: Multi-fuel engines offer adaptability in situations where
a specific fuel might be scarce or unavailable, particularly in military applications.

o​ Reduced Fuel Costs: Utilizing cheaper alternative fuels like natural gas or bio-diesel can lead to
significant cost savings.

o​ Lower Emissions: Some alternative fuels, like natural gas, offer a cleaner combustion profile
than traditional diesel or gasoline, contributing to lower emissions.

●​ Challenges:

o​ Design Complexity: Adapting engines to multiple fuels requires adjustments to fuel injection
systems, combustion chamber design, and potentially compression ratios, which increases the
engine's complexity and manufacturing cost.

o​ Performance Compromises: Optimizing performance across different fuels can be challenging

and might involve trade-offs in areas like power output or efficiency compared to a dedicated
single-fuel engine.

o​ Fuel Infrastructure: Wider adoption requires developing robust infrastructure for the
production and distribution of alternative fuels.
Rotary piston engines
A rotary piston engine is a type of internal combustion engine that uses a rotating component
(rotor) instead of reciprocating pistons to convert the pressure from burning fuel into rotational
motion. This design offers several unique advantages and disadvantages compared to
conventional piston engines.
 The most well-known type of rotary piston engine is the Wankel engine, invented by Felix
Wankel. It operates using a triangular rotor within an oval-shaped housing. As the rotor spins, it
creates three separate combustion chambers.
The engine cycles through the four phases of internal combustion – intake, compression,
combustion (power), and exhaust – in these chambers as the rotor rotates:
1.​ Intake: As the rotor moves past the intake port, the chamber expands, drawing in the air-fuel
mixture.

2.​ Compression: The rotor's continued movement reduces the chamber volume, compressing the
air-fuel mixture.

3.​ Combustion: Spark plugs ignite the compressed mixture, causing an explosion that pushes the
rotor, generating power.
4.​ Exhaust: The rotor continues to rotate, exposing the exhaust port and forcing out the burned
gases.

Each face of the rotor goes through these four phases, meaning a single rotor completes three
combustion strokes for every full rotation. Since the output shaft rotates three times for each
rotor revolution, this translates to one power stroke per output shaft revolution.

Advantages
●​ Smooth operation: Rotary engines are inherently balanced and produce significantly less
vibration compared to conventional engines because all parts rotate in one direction.

●​ Compact size and lightweight: They are smaller and lighter than piston engines of comparable
power output due to fewer moving parts and a simpler design.

●​ High power-to-weight ratio: This is particularly beneficial for applications where power
density is crucial, such as aircraft or sports cars.

●​ Potentially lower emissions and higher fuel efficiency: While historically a challenge, research
suggests that with improvements like hydrogen blending, rotary engines can potentially achieve
better fuel economy and reduced emissions.

Disadvantages
●​ Fuel inefficiency: They tend to consume more fuel than piston engines due to the shape of the
combustion chambers and lower compression ratios.

●​ Emissions: Achieving low emissions levels can be more difficult due to the engine's design,
which can lead to incomplete combustion and higher levels of unburned hydrocarbons and
carbon dioxide.

●​ Apex seal wear: The seals at the rotor's apexes are crucial for maintaining compression and are
prone to wear, requiring specialized lubricants and maintenance.

●​ Higher heat transfer: The design can lead to high heat transfer to the walls of the combustion
chamber, affecting efficiency.

Applications
Despite the challenges, rotary engines have found applications in various fields due to their
unique advantages:
●​ Aviation: Historically used in early aircraft due to their light weight and smooth operation.

●​ Automobiles: Featured prominently in sports cars like the Mazda RX-series.

●​ Motorcycles and other recreational vehicles: Seen in some motorcycles, snowmobiles, jet skis,
and go-karts.

●​ UAVs and Auxiliary Power Units: Their compact size, light weight, and high power-to-weight
ratio make them suitable for drones and power generators.

Two-injector engines Pilot ignition engine

 Pilot ignition in engines with two injectors
In engines, especially those operating on alternative fuels like natural gas, pilot injection is used
to initiate combustion. In such systems, a small amount of diesel fuel (pilot fuel) is injected into
the combustion chamber just before the main injection of the primary fuel (e.g., natural gas).
Engines using this principle often feature two types of injectors:
●​ Pilot Fuel Injector: Delivers a small quantity of high-cetane fuel (e.g., diesel) which readily
ignites due to compression ignition.

●​ Main Fuel Injector (or Fuel Gas Valve): Injects the primary fuel (e.g., natural gas), which then
gets ignited by the burning pilot fuel.

Benefits of pilot ignition with two injectors

●​ Enhanced Ignition: The pilot injection shortens the ignition delay and improves the combustion
of the main fuel, particularly for fuels with lower reactivity or when operating under challenging
conditions like low loads.

●​ Reduced Emissions: The pilot injection strategy can help reduce harmful emissions like NOx
and particulate matter (PM), according to [Link].

●​ Increased Thermal Efficiency: Optimized pilot injection parameters, including timing and
quantity, can lead to improved thermal efficiency and fuel economy.

●​ Combustion Noise Reduction: Pilot injection can contribute to smoother combustion and
reduction in engine noise (diesel knock).

Example of application
Pilot ignition systems are particularly relevant in dual-fuel engines that use diesel as the pilot
fuel and natural gas as the main fuel. In these systems, the diesel pilot injection creates a hot
flame that ignites the main gaseous fuel jet, facilitating the combustion process.
In essence, the two injectors work in tandem: one providing the initial ignition source, and the
other delivering the bulk of the fuel for power generation, resulting in cleaner and more efficient
combustion.

Emission regulation and Control systems: Mechanism of pollutant formation.

Understanding emission regulations and control systems: mechanism of pollutant formation
Emissions from vehicles and industrial processes pose significant risks to air quality and human
health, leading to regulations and control technologies to minimize their impact.
 Mechanism of pollutant formation in internal combustion engines
●​ Carbon Monoxide (CO): Formed due to incomplete combustion of fuels, particularly in rich
air-fuel mixtures (excess fuel, insufficient oxygen) or during cold starts when combustion
efficiency is low.

●​ Hydrocarbons (HC): Result from incomplete fuel combustion or fuel evaporation, particularly
during startup, cold starts, and refueling, according to Centurion University of Technology and
Management.

●​ Nitrogen Oxides (NOx): Produced during high-temperature combustion in the engine cylinder,
where atmospheric nitrogen reacts with oxygen, per ResearchGate. Higher temperatures
generally lead to greater NOx formation.

●​ Particulate Matter (PM): Tiny solid or liquid particles, primarily soot, formed during the
combustion process, especially in diesel engines.

●​ Sulfur Oxides (SOx): Primarily sulfur dioxide (SO2), produced when burning sulfur-containing
fuels like coal and oil.

Emission control systems

These systems work by either preventing the formation of pollutants or removing them from the
exhaust stream before they are released into the atmosphere. Key components include:
●​ Catalytic Converters: Convert harmful pollutants like CO, HC, and NOx into less harmful
gases like CO2, water vapor, and nitrogen through oxidation and reduction reactions, according
to Centurion University of Technology and Management.

●​ Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) Systems: Recirculate a portion of exhaust gas back into the
engine cylinders, lowering combustion temperatures and reducing NOx emissions, says
[Link].

●​ Diesel Particulate Filters (DPF): Trap and eliminate soot particles from diesel engines,
requiring periodic regeneration (burning off accumulated soot).

●​ Evaporative Emission Control Systems (EVAP): Prevent fuel vapors from escaping the fuel
tank and other components into the atmosphere, often using activated charcoal canisters to
adsorb vapors.

●​ Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) Systems: Inject a urea-based solution (Diesel Exhaust
Fluid or AdBlue) into the exhaust stream, converting NOx into nitrogen and water vapor.

Emission regulations
Governments and regulatory bodies worldwide have implemented progressively stricter emission
standards to limit the release of pollutants from vehicles and industries. Examples include:
●​ Euro Emission Standards: Implemented in Europe for light and heavy-duty vehicles, setting
limits on pollutants like CO, NOx, PM, and HC.

●​ Bharat Stage Emission Standards: Instituted in India, comparable to the European standards,
regulating pollutants from internal combustion engines.

●​ United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Regulations: Including Tier 1, Tier 2, and
Tier 3 emission standards, aimed at controlling various pollutants from vehicles and fuels.

These regulations have driven the development and adoption of advanced emission control
technologies and cleaner fuels, contributing to improvements in air quality and public health
globally.

1)​ Name different types of pollutants from automotive and explain about photo chemical
smog and its causes.
Automobiles produce pollutants like carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and volatile
organic compounds (VOCs). Photochemical smog forms when these pollutants react with
sunlight, creating ground-level ozone and other harmful chemicals. This smog is characterized
by a brownish haze, reduced visibility, and can cause respiratory and eye irritation, as well as
damage to plants and materials.
Pollutants from automobiles

●​ Carbon Monoxide (CO): A colorless, odorless gas produced from the incomplete
combustion of fuel.
●​ Nitrogen Oxides (NOx): Primarily nitrogen oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide are formed
during high-temperature combustion in engines.
●​ Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs): These include hydrocarbons from gasoline and
other solvents that evaporate from vehicles.
●​ Particulate Matter (PM): Tiny solid or liquid particles suspended in the air, including
soot and dust from the engine.
●​ Sulfur Dioxide : Released in smaller quantities from the combustion of sulfur in fuel.

Photochemical smog

●​ Formation: Photochemical smog is a "secondary pollutant" that forms when primary

pollutants (NOx and VOCs) react with each other in the presence of sunlight.
●​ Process:
1.​ Vehicles and industrial sources release nitrogen oxides and volatile organic
compounds into the atmosphere.
2.​ Sunlight provides the energy for a complex series of chemical reactions.
 3.​ These reactions create harmful new compounds, most notably ground-level ozone
4.​ Other components of this smog include nitrogen dioxide peroxyacyl nitrates
(PAN), and aldehydes.

Effects:

o​ Health: Causes eye, nose, and throat irritation, headaches, chest pain, coughing,
and difficulty breathing.
o​ Environment: Reduces visibility, damages plants and crops, and can crack rubber
and corrode materials.
o​ Ozone: While beneficial in the stratosphere, ground-level ozone is harmful to
health and contributes to global warming.

2)​ Describe the methods adopted to control automotive pollution.

Controlling automotive pollution involves a combination of technological advancements,
government regulations, and individual behavioral changes. These methods address different
sources of pollution, including exhaust, evaporative, and crankcase emissions.
Technological and Engineering Methods
●​ Catalytic Converters: This is a key emissions control device installed in the exhaust system that
converts toxic pollutants (hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen oxides) into less
harmful substances (water vapor, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen gas) using catalysts like platinum,
palladium, and rhodium.

●​ Positive Crankcase Ventilation (PCV) Systems: These systems manage "blow-by" gases that
escape from the combustion chamber into the crankcase, routing them back into the engine's
intake manifold to be burned, rather than vented to the atmosphere.

●​ Evaporative Emission Control Systems (EECS): These systems prevent gasoline vapors from
escaping the fuel tank and system into the atmosphere. Vapors are collected in a canister
containing activated charcoal and then purged into the engine to be burned during operation.

●​ Improved Engine Design: Modern engines feature more efficient combustion processes through
technologies like precise fuel injection, computerized engine management, and four-stroke
designs, which inherently produce fewer pollutants than older designs.

●​ Particulate Filters: Especially for diesel engines, particulate traps (soot filters) are used to
physically filter particulate matter from the exhaust stream before it is released.
●​ Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR): This system reroutes a portion of exhaust gas back into the
engine cylinders to lower combustion temperatures, which effectively reduces the formation of
nitrogen oxides (NOx).

Emission standards
Emission standards are legal limits on the amount of pollutants that can be released from sources
like vehicles and industrial facilities to control air pollution and protect environmental quality.
Examples include the Bharat Stage (BS) norms in India, which have become progressively
stricter, with BS6 reducing pollutants like nitrogen oxides and particulate matter, and Euro
emission standards, which are similar to India's BS6 for light-duty vehicles.
●​ Regulation: Emission standards are regulatory requirements that set quantitative limits on the
permissible amount of specific air pollutants released from specific sources over specific
timeframes.
●​ Enforcement: They are enforced by government bodies and are designed to improve air quality
and protect public health.
●​ Testing: Emissions are tested using various cycles like the ECE R49, ESC, ETC, WHSC, and
WHTC, depending on the engine type and standard.
●​ Evolution: Standards evolve over time to become stricter, often based on international norms
like the Euro standards.

Examples of emission standards

●​ Bharat Stage (BS) norms: These are India's vehicle emission standards, with BS6 being a major
recent upgrade that significantly reduced pollutants compared to previous standards. India is
planning to implement BS7, which will be more stringent and align with the upcoming Euro 7
standards.
●​ Euro emission standards: The Euro standards, particularly Euro 6, are the basis for India's BS6
standards for light-duty vehicles.
●​ Generator sets: Regulations also exist for non-road engines, such as generator sets, setting
limits on pollutants for different engine types and sizes.
​