PHARMACEUTICAL ENGINEERING

PT 317
UNIT- IV

SIZE REDUCTION

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Mr. SOUMYADIP GHOSH

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
BENGAL SCHOOL OF TECHNOLOGY
(A orCollege
Sharing Of
publishing the contents Pharmacy)
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 SIZE REDUCTION

A. Objectives.
B. Mechanisms & Laws governing size reduction.
C. Factors affecting size reduction.
D. Principles, construction, working, uses, merits, and
demerits of
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1) Hammer Mill.
2) Ball Mill.
3) Fluid Energy Mill.
4) Edge Runner Mill.
5) End Runner Mill.
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 SIZE REDUCTION

Definition:
 Size reduction is the operation carried out to reduce the
size of bigger particles into smaller ones of desired
shapes and sizes with the help of external forces.
 Size reduction also termed communication, diminution,
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or pulverization.
 The row material is generally present in large sizes which
cannot be used by the industries so, the material needs to
be converted into smaller particles or powder.
 Conversion of large material into smaller sized particles
is called "size reduction"
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 SIZE REDUCTION
OBJECTIVES OF SIZE REDUCTION:
1. Increases the surface area because in most reactions involving solid
particles the rate of reaction is directional to the ratio area with the
second phase.
2. A material into very small particles in order to separate the
valuable substance among the two constituents.
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3. Pharmaceutical capsules, insufflation and suppositories, and
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ointments require smaller particle sizes.

4. To allow the rapid penetration of solvent in crude drugs to
extract phytochemicals
5. In the case of suspensions, fine particle size is important because
it reduces the rate of sedimentation.
6. To improve the handling characteristics, to mix solid
particles more ultimately
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 SIZE REDUCTION
Advantages of Size Reduction

1) Content uniformity:
 Mixing of different ingredients can be effective if the
particle size is uniform and small.
 Size reduction ensures this objective.
 Particles of optimum size are desirable for effective
mixing.
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 As the size of particles is small, the number of particles
per unit weight (dose) is large.
 The larger the number of particles, the better the
mixing. Thus, better content uniformity can be obtained
for a given dose.
 This is particularly important in formulations
containing potent and low-dose drugs.

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 SIZE REDUCTION
Uniform flow:
 Smaller particle size and controlled size distribution promote
the flow of the powder into dies during the compression of tablets.
 The same principles are used in the production of capsules.
Effective extraction of drugs:
 Smaller particles allow rapid penetration of menstruum or
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solvent into the tissue or cells of vegetable and animal origin (liver
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and pancreas).
 As a result, extraction or leaching of active constituents becomes
effective and complete in the preparation of galenicals.
 The time required for extraction can be shortened.
 For example, the pancreas is subjected to grinding action for the
extraction of insulin.
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 SIZE REDUCTION
Effective drying:
 Drying of a granular mass can be rapid and effective if the size of
the granules is small and uniform.
 Such techniques are used in the production of tablets. Similarly
drying of medicinal plant parts can be quick and fast
after size reduction.
Improved physical stability:
 In the case of suspensions and emulsions, the rate of
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sedimentation decreases to a large extent if the particle size is
small.
Improved dissolution rate:
 Size reduction increases surface area, which facilitates intimate
contact of solid particles and gastric or intestinal juices. Thus,
the rate of dissolution is enhanced.
Improved rate of absorption:
 The smaller the particle size, the faster is the absorption,
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because of enhanced dissolution
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 SIZE REDUCTION
Disadvantages of Size Reduction
(1) Drug degradation:
 Drug decomposition is possible due to the heat produced
during milling.
 Thermo-labile substances are the most affected.
 The increased surface area also facilitates drug decomposition
owing to enhanced dissolution.
 Cooling support systems are provided to decrease the heat in
milling equipment. Drugs containing waxy materials become soft
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due to heat generated during milling. Therefore the feed is chilled
before milling.
(2) Poor mixing:
 Normally, very small particles possess strong cohesive forces,
hence, aggregation of particles is possible.
 Aggregation inhibits the effective blending of different
additives.
 An increase in surface area may promote the adsorption of air
which may inhibit the wettability of the drug during production.
 Therefore, optimum particle size is desirable to improve
blending and avoid poor mixing.
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 SIZE REDUCTION
(3) Contamination:
 During milling and grinding, the grinding surfaces
wear off (examples are ceramic or iron equipment),
the particles of which are present as impurities in
the powder.
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 Such types of mills should be avoided when drugs of
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high purity are required.

 The importance of size reduction is so profound that
it is used in the production of all dosage forms such
as tablets, capsules, suspensions, emulsions,
injections, and galenicals.
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 SIZE REDUCTION
MECHANISM OF SIZE REDUCTION

Size reduction involves the following mechanisms:

1) Cutting.

2) Compression.
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3) Impact.

4) Attrition.

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 SIZE REDUCTION
The mechanisms have demonstrated that stresses of
varied nature are required to achieve size reduction.
The common modes of size reduction are explained as
follows.
1. Cutting:
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 The material is cut by means of a sharp blade(s). It is
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useful for comminution of fibrous or waxy solids. An

example is the cutter mill.
2. Compression:
 In this mode, the material is crushed between rollers
by the application of pressure. An example is the
roller [Link]
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 SIZE REDUCTION
3. Impact:
 This involves the operation of hammers or bars at high
speeds. When a lump of material strikes the rotating
hammers, the material splits apart.
 This action continues until particles of the required size
are obtained. An example is a hammer mill. Impact
also occurs when moving particles strike against a
stationary surface.
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 In the same way, particles moving at high speeds

collide with each other and produce smaller particles.
An example is a fluid energy mill.
4. Attrition:
 This process involves breaking down the material by
rubbing action between two surfaces, i.e., surface
phenomena. It is generally necessary for fine
grinding. An example
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use by fluid energy only. mill.
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 SIZE REDUCTION
LAWS GOVERNING SIZE REDUCTION:
They are used to predict energy requirements for size
reduction.
1. Rittinger's law.
ankur2003bag@[Link] 2. Kick's law.
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3. Bond's law.
4. Holmes law.
5. Harris law

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 SIZE REDUCTION
RITTINGER’S THEORY
According to Rittinger's hypothesis, energy, Energy (E)
required for size reduction of unit mass is directly
proportional to the new surface area produced.
It is expressed as:
E= KR (Sn-Si)
where
Si = Initial specific surface area, um²/um³
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Sn= New specific surface area, um²/um³

KR = Rittinger's constant, energy per unit area, kW-
h./um³
E = Amount of energy (work done), kW.h
It is mainly applicable to brittle materials undergoing
fine milling. Rittinger's theory ignores particle
deformation before fracture.
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 SIZE REDUCTION
BOND’S THEORY
According to Bond's theory, the energy used in crack propagation is
proportional to the new crack length produced.
It states that the energy used for deforming or fracturing a set of
particles of equivalent shape is proportional to the change in particle
dimensions.
According to Bond's theory, the equation can be written as
𝟏 𝟏
𝑬 = 𝟐𝑲𝑩 ( − )
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VWIQ9XJP07 𝒅𝒏 𝒅𝒊
Where
𝑲𝑩 = Bond's work index, energy per unit mass, kW-h-√μm
di = initial diameter of particles, μm
dn= new diameter of particles, μm
Bond's work index is the work required to reduce a unit weight from a
theoretically infinite size to 80% passing 100 µm.
According to this theory, the energy used in crack propagation is
proportional to the new crack length produced.
This law is useful for rough mill sizing.
The work index is useful for comparing the efficiency of milling
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 SIZE REDUCTION
KICK’S THEORY
According to Kick's theory, the energy used in deforming or fracturing a
set of particles of equivalent shape is proportional to the ratio of the
size changes.
It may be expressed as:
𝐝𝐢
𝐄 = 𝐊 𝐊 𝐈𝐧
𝐝𝐧
where
𝑲𝑲 = Kick's constant, energy per unit mass, kW.h
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𝒅𝒊 = diameter of the particle in the initial stage, μm
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𝒅𝒏 = diameter of the new particle, μm

Kick's proposal was developed on a stress-strain diagram for cubes under
compression.
It assumes that the material has flaws distributed throughout its
internal structure. For crushing (compression) of large particles, Kick's
equation is more useful.
Size reduction of a material is alone not sufficient to obtain a powder of
the desired size. It is followed by separation.
Several pieces of equipment described earlier also include sieves or
screens as integral parts. However, size separation is discussed
separately in the following chapter.
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 CLASSIFICATION OF SIZE REDUCTION
EQUIPMENT
1. CRUSHERS
Examples: Edge Runner mill, End Runner Mill.
2. GRINDERS
1. Impact Mill: Hammer Mill
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2. Rolling Compression: Roller Mill.
3. Attrition Mill: Attrition Mill.
4. Tumbling Mill: Ball Mill.
3. ULTRAFINE GRINDERS
Examples: Fluid Energy Mill.
4. CUTTING MACHINE
Example: Cutter Mill
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 HAMMER MILL

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Fig: Hammers Mill

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 HAMMER MILL
PRINCIPLE:
 The hammer mill operates on the principle of impact
between rapidly moving hammers mounted on a rotor and
the powder materials.
CONSTRUCTION:
 The hammer mill can be either the horizontal or the
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vertical shaft type.

 Hammers are usually made of hardened steel, stainless
steel with impact surface made of an extremely abrasive
resistant material such as haystellite and carbaloy.
 Stainless steel hammers are sufficient for
pharmaceutical
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 HAMMER MILL
CONSTRUCTION:
 Hammers may take several shapes.
 Two basic shapes are the stirrup and the bar.
 Bar-shaped hammers are used extensively in tablet
granulation.
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 Hammer blades can be with flat edges or sharp edges or
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both on each side.

 Hammers may be either rigid or swing-type.
 Free swinging type has an advantage that there will be
increasing clearance between hammers and screen, if
excessive build occurs in the mill.
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 HAMMER MILL

CONSTRUCTION:
 This unit is enclosed with a chamber containing a grid
or removable screen through which the material must
pass.
 These screens are not of woven type. Screens are prepared
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using metal sheet of varying thickness with perforated holes

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or slots.

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 Working: HAMMER MILL
 The hammers are allowed to be in continuous motion
(8000 to 15000 revolutions per minute).
 The feed material is placed into the hopper, which flows
vertically down and then horizontally, while hammers
are in continuous motion.
 These rotating hammers beat the material to yield
smaller particles. Then, these particles pass through the
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screen. Due to the tangential exit, the size of the
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particles is considerably smaller than the aperture of the

screen.
 The screens are interchangeable, so that any grade of
fineness can be achieved.
 The hammers act as a centrifugal fan, so that large
amount of air is drawn through the mill.
 In most cases,Thisthis is sufficient to counteract the heat
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generated during milling.
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 HAMMER MILL

The Fineness Of The Product Can Be Regulated By

Altering:
 Rotor Speed,
 Feed Rate,
 Clearance between hammers and grinding plates.
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 Number and type of hammers.

 Size of the discharge opening (screen).

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 HAMMER MILL
USES:
 Fine to moderate grinding of powders may be obtained,
depending on the speed of the hammer. The expected
particle size may vary from 10 to 400 mm. Non
abrasive to moderately abrasive, brittle materials can be
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used as feed stock.
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 It is used to mill dry materials, wet filter press cakes,

ointments, slurries etc. Brittle material is best
fractured by impact from blunt hammers; fibrous
material is best reduced in size by cutting edges.

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 HAMMER MILL
ADVANTAGES:
(1) Hammer mill is easy to setup (install), dismantle and
clean up.
(2) Scale-up problems are minimum provided same type of
mill issued.
(3) Various types of feed stock can be handled using screen
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of different sizes.
(4) Hammer mill occupies small space.
(5) It is versatile, i.e., speed and screen can be changed
rapidly.
(6) As it is operated in a closed environment, dust can be
reduced and explosion hazards
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 HAMMER MILL
DISADVANTAGES:
(1)The screens may get clogged.
(2)Heat build-up during milling is more, therefore, product
degradation is possible.
(3)Wearing of mill and screen is more with abrasive
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materials.
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(4)Hammer mills cannot be employed to mill sticky, fibrous

and hard materials.

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 BALL MILL

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Fig: Ball mil

industrial view Fig: Ball mil
diagrammatic view

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 BALL MILL
Principle:
 The ball mill works on the principle of impact between the rapidly
moving balls and the powder material, both enclosed in a hollow
cylinder.
 At low speeds, the balls roll over each other, and attrition (rubbing
action) will be the predominant mode of action. Thus, impact,
attrition, or both are responsible for the size reduction in the ball
mill.
Construction:
 The ball mill consists of a hollow cylinder, which is mounted on a
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metallic frame to be rotated on its longitudinal axis.
 The length of the cylinder is slightly greater than its diameter.
 The cylinder is made of metal and is usually lined with chrome.
 In the pharmaceutical industry, sometimes the cylinder is lined with
rubber or porcelain.
 The cylinder contains balls that occupy 30 to 50 % of the mill
volume.
 The weight of the balls is kept constant.
 The ball size depends on the feed size and the mill’s diameter.
Balls are made of steel, iron, or stoneware. These act as the
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 BALL MILL
Working:
 The drug to be ground is put into the cylinder of the mill in such a
quantity that it is filled to about 60% of the volume (material-to-void
ratio).
 A fixed number of balls are introduced and the cylinder is closed. The mill
is allowed to rotate on its longitudinal axis.
 The speed of rotation is very important.
 At low speeds, the balls roll over each other and attrition will be a
predominant mode of stress.
 The use of small balls (or glass pebbles) is recommended so that the
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surface is the greatest.
 This mode of attrition is used for wet grinding. It may be useful to add
surface-active agents to prevent agglomeration at the correct speed
(critical speed), the centrifugal force just occurs, as a result, the balls
are picked up by the mill wall and carried nearly to the top, where they
break contact with the wall and fall to the bottom.
 In this manner, impact stress is also induced and the size reduction is
made effective.
 At still higher speeds, the balls are thrown out to the wall by
centrifugal force. Hence, grinding will not occur. The compression by
the balls against the wall is not sufficient for effective comminution of
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 BALL MILL
Uses:
 Fine grinding with a particle size of 100 to 5 mm or less can be
obtained, particularly for hard and abrasive materials.
 Stainless steel balls are preferred in the production of ophthalmic and
parenteral products, as there is less chance of contamination due to
wear.
 Ball mill at low speeds is used for milling dyes, pigments,
and insecticides.
Advantages:
(1) It can produce very fine powder.
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(2) It is used for batch operation. It can be made continuous operation by
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including a chamber next to the cylinder. These are separated using a

sieve.
(3) Ball mill is suitable for both wet and dry grinding processes.
(4) Toxic substances can be ground, as the cylinder is a closed system.
(5) Since the mill is a closed system, sterility can be achieved.
(6) Milling operation can be accomplished in an inert atmosphere if
sensitive substances are to be milled.
(7) Balls can be of various shapes and sizes. Rods or bars may be used
instead of balls. Rod mill is particularly useful for milling
sticky materials.
(8) In ball mills, installation,
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 BALL MILL
Disadvantages:
1) The ball mill is a very noisy machine.
2) Wear occurs from the balls as well as from the casing,
which may result in contamination of the product.
3) Ball milling is a slow process. The rate at which energy
can be applied is limited because it depends on the
acceleration of the balls, which is influenced by the
gravitational force.
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4) Soft, tacky, fibrous material cannot be milled by a
ball mill.

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 FLUID ENERGY MILL OR JET MILL OR MICRONIZERS OR
ULTRAFINE GRINDERS

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Fig: Fluid energy mill Fig: Fluid energy mill

industrial view Diagrammatic
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 FLUID ENERGY MILL OR JET MILL OR MICRONIZERS OR
ULTRAFINE GRINDERS
Principle:
 Fluid energy mill operates on the principle of impact and attrition.
 In this equipment, the feedstock is suspended within a high-velocity
air stream. Milling takes place because of high-velocity collisions
between the suspended particles.
Construction:
 The fluid energy mill consists of an elliptical pipe, which has a height of
about 2 meters and a diameter ranging from 20 to 200 millimeters.
 The mill surface may be made of either soft stainless steel or tough
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ceramics.
 Usually, mills are constructed such that the contact surfaces are
merely linings, which can be removed or replaced if excessively
eroded after use.
 Grinding nozzles (usually two to six) may be placed tangential and/or
opposed to the initial flow path of a powder.
 Normally, compressed air of 600 kilopascals to 1.0 megapascals is used.
Inert gases can be used to minimize or eliminate the oxidation of
susceptible compounds.
 A Venturi feeder is provided in the path of the airflow. An outlet with a
classifier (cyclone This
separator or bag filter) is fitted to allow the escape
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 FLUID ENERGY MILL OR JET MILL OR MICRONIZERS OR
ULTRAFINE GRINDERS
Working:
 The powder is introduced through the inlet of the venturi. The
air entering through the grinding nozzles transports the
powder in the elliptical or circular track of the mill.
 In the turbulent stream of air, the suspended particles collide
with each other and break. Thus, impact and attrition forces
operate in size reduction. The resultant small particles (entrapped
by air) are carried to the outlet and removed by cyclone separator or
bag filters.
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 The coarser particles undergo re-circulation in the chamber on
a count of their own weight. These re-circulated particles
collide again with new incoming feedstock particles. The
powder remains in the mill until its size is reduced sufficiently.
Later it leaves via the sieve. Hence, the fluid energy mill produces
particles with a narrow size distribution.
 Sometimes the particles, which are entrapped by the drag of gas,
leave the mill and are carried out to a cyclone separator or bag
collector for size separation.
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 FLUID ENERGY MILL OR JET MILL OR MICRONIZERS OR
Uses: ULTRAFINE GRINDERS

 A fluid energy mill is used to reduce the particle size of most of

the drugs such as antibiotics and vitamins. When strict quality
control is desirable for the purpose of better absorption
(bioavailability), this mill is the preferred one. Ultrafine grinding
can be achieved. Moderately hard materials can be processed for
size reduction.
Advantages:
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(1) It has no moving parts, hence, heat is not produced during
milling. Therefore, heat-labile substances can be milled.
(2) It is a rapid and efficient method for reducing powders to 30
mm or less.
(3) Since there is no wear of the mill, contamination is not
possible.

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 FLUID ENERGY MILL OR JET MILL OR MICRONIZERS OR
ULTRAFINE GRINDERS

Disadvantages:
1) Fluid energy mill is not suitable for milling soft,
tacky, and fibrous materials.
2) The equipment is expensive because it needs
additional accessories particularly fluid energy
source and dust collection equipment
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 EDGE RUNNER MILL

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Fig: Edge runner mill

industrial view Fig: Edge runner mill
diagrammatic view
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 EDGE RUNNER MILL

Principle:
 The size reduction is done by crushing (compression)
due to the heavy weight of the stones.
 Shearing force is also involved during the movement of
the stones.
Construction:
 It consists of two heavy rollers and may weigh several
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tons.
 The rollers move on a bed, which is made of stone or
granite.
 Each roller has a central shaft and revolves on its axis.
 Further, the rollers are mounted on a horizontal shaft
and move around the bed.

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 EDGE RUNNER MILL
Working:
 The material to be ground is placed on the bed.
 With the help of a scrapper, it is kept in the path of the
stone wheel.
 The stones revolve on their axes, and at the same time
travel around the shallow stone bed.
 The outer part of the wheel has to travel a greater distance
than the inner so that size reduction is achieved by
shearing as well as crushing.
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 The material is ground for a definite period.

 The powder is collected and passed through a sieve to get
powder of the required size. It is a batch process.
Uses:
 Edge runner mill is used for grinding tough materials to
fine powder.
 It is still used for plant-based products, while more
sophisticated mills are used for chemicals and drugs.
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 EDGE RUNNER MILL

Disadvantages:
(1)Edge runner mill occupies more space than other
commonly used mills.
(2)Contamination of the product with roller material is
possible.
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(3)The milling process is time-consuming.

(4)It is not used for sticky materials.
(5)Energy consumption is quite high.

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 END RUNNER MILL

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Fig: End runner mill Fig: End runner mill

industrial view diagrammatic view
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 END RUNNER MILL
Principle:
 Size reduction is done by crushing (compression) due to the heavy
weight of the steel pestle.
 Shearing stress is also involved during the movement of
mortar and pestle.
Construction:
 It is considered a mechanical mortar and pestle.
 It consists of a steel mortar, which is fixed to a flanged plate.
Underneath the flanged plate, a beveled cog fitting is attached to
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a horizontal shaft bearing a pulley.
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 Hence, the plate with mortar can be rotated at a high speed.

 The pestle is dumbbell-shaped so that balancing and efficient
grinding by its weight can be achieved.
 The bottom of the pestle is flat rather than round.
 The pestle carries an arm, which is hinged. By this arrangement,
the pestle can be raised from the mortar to facilitate emptying
and cleaning. The narrow central portion of the pestle is longer
than the band of the arm around it.
 Hence, the pestle can rise and fall over the material in the mortar.
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 END RUNNER MILL
Working:
 The material to be ground is placed in the mortar.
 The scraper puts the material in the path of the
pestle.
 The mortar revolves at a high speed.
 The pestle is placed in the mortar.
 The rotating mortar causes the pestle to revolve.
 During this process, size reduction is achieved by
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shearing as well as crushing.

 The material is collected and passed through a sieve
to get the powder of desired size.
Uses:
 The end runner mill is suitable for fine grinding.
Disadvantage:
 End runner mill is not suitable for drugs, which are
in unbroken or slightly
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use by ankur2003bag@[Link] only.
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