CorrectionKey=NL-A C

SECTION 8.2

. Plan and Prepare

8.2 Structure of DNA
KEY CONCEPT DNA structure is the same in all organisms.
Activate Prior Knowledge Tell
MAIN IDEAS
students that scientists found it hard to
VOCABULARY DNA is composed of four types of nucleotides.
accept DNA as the genetic material
nucleotide Watson and Crick developed an accurate model of DNA’s three-dimensional structure.
because of its structural simplicity. Ask
double helix Nucleotides always pair in the same way.
• What are some examples of simple base pairing rules
units that can be used to produce
great complexity? letters of an Connect to Your World
alphabet, 0s and 1s of computer The experiments of Hershey and Chase confirmed that DNA carries the genetic
code, building blocks information, but they left other big questions unanswered: What exactly is this
• Which of these examples offer the genetic information? How does DNA store this information? Scientists in the early
best analogy to DNA? alphabet and 1950s still had a limited knowledge of the structure of DNA, but that was about to
computer code, because both are change dramatically.
informational units

MAIN IDEA
. Teach DNA is composed of four types of nucleotides.
Since the 1920s, scientists have known that the DNA molecule is a very long
TEACH FROM VISUALS polymer, or chain of repeating units. The small units, or monomers, that make
up DNA are called nucleotides (NOO-klee-uh-tydz). Each nucleotide has
Have students compare the structure of three parts.
the nucleotide monomer in VISUAL
• A phosphate group (one VISUAL VOCAB
VOCAB to the DNA polymer shown in CONNECT TO phosphorus with four oxygens) The small units, or monomers, that
CONNECT TO. Ask • A ring-shaped sugar called make up a strand of DNA are called
BIOCHEMISTRY
• What part of the monomer serves deoxyribose nucleotides. Nucleotides have
The nucleotides in a strand of three parts.
to connect the two DNA strands? DNA all line up in the same • A nitrogen-containing base (a
connection between bases direction. As a result, DNA has single or double ring built around phosphate group nitrogen-
chemical polarity, which means containing base
• What is the pattern of that that the two ends of the DNA nitrogen and carbon atoms)
connection? single ring bonding to strand are different. The 5’
One molecule of human DNA
carbon is located at one end of
double ring the DNA strand, and the 3’ contains billions of nucleotides, but
carbon is located at the other there are only four types of nucleotides deoxyribose (sugar)
end. When the two strands of in DNA. These nucleotides differ only
DNA pair together, the 5’ end of
one strand aligns with the 3’ end in their nitrogen-containing bases.
of the other strand. The four bases in DNA are shown in FIGURE 2.1. Notice that the bases
5‘ 3‘ cytosine (C) and thymine (T) have a single-ring structure. Adenine (A) and
A T guanine (G) have a larger, double-ring structure. The letter abbreviations refer
G both to the bases and to the nucleotides that contain the bases.
C

T
For a long time, scientists hypothesized that DNA was made up of equal
A
amounts of the four nucleotides, and so the DNA in all organisms was exactly
3‘ 5‘
the same. That hypothesis was a key reason that it was so hard to convince
scientists that DNA was the genetic material. They reasoned that identical
molecules could not carry different instructions across all organisms.

Differentiated
220 Unit 3: Genetics Instruction
Below Level PRE-AP
Prepare a series of short-answer questions or
BI_CNLESE817982_C08S2.indd 220
Have students prepare a timeline of the 11/02/16 10:43 P

true/false statements to check students’ discoveries detailed in Sections 2 and 3. Have

knowledge of DNA structure. This will help them identify each critical discovery about
students focus on the critical information in the genetic makeup of a cell, the point in
the section. Students should answer the time when each was revealed, and the
questions before reading and then check and scientist(s) responsible for each discovery.
correct their responses as they read.
Teacher Toolkit, Section C, Timeline
Teacher Toolkit, Section C, Anticipation
Guide

220 Unit 3: Genetics

 CorrectionKey=NL-A
CorrectionKey=NL-A
N
HC N O
HC N C C OO
HC
HN NC
HC C O
HN C C C NH G
HN C C CNH G
HN CN
CN C NH
NH
G
G
N C NH2
N C
CNH2
FIGURE 2.1 The Four Nitrogen-Containing
NH Bases of DNA
NH22 N
NCHC NH2 ONLINE Biology
PYRIMIDINES = SINGLE RING HCRING
PURINES = DOUBLE NH2
HN C C [Link]
HN C
C
N A
Name of Base StructuralO Formula Model Name of Base StructuralCN Formula
N Model A
O
OC N CH
CH Have students evaluate the genomes
OC NH NN
CH3 C C NH HC
HC NH2 2
NH of four different species in terms of
CH3 C C NHC
NH CO T CC
thymine
CH
CH33 C
CHC
C CO TT adenine HN
HN
CC Chargaff’s rules by completing the
NHC CO T CC NN AA
HC
HC NH C CO Data Analysis Smart Grapher activity
HC NH
NH NN CH CH
at [Link].
NH2 N
NH2 HC N O
NHC2 N HC C C O
NH
C2 HN C
HC C N C C
cytosine HC C N N O C guanine HN C NH G
HC C
HCHC NHCC
HC NH
HC NH
O
O
O
CC
C
C
N
NN
N
C
NH
CNH2
G
The Inside Story
HC NH HC
HC NHO2O In 1951, Rosalind Franklin was invited to
CC CC
A Compare Which base is most similar in structure to thymine? HN
HN King’s College London to be part of a
CC
NHNH GG
NN CC team working on DNA analysis. Franklin
By 1950
By 1950
ErwinErwinChargaff
Chargaff
changed
changed
the the
thinking
thinking
aboutabout
DNA DNAby analyzing
by analyzingthe
NH
NH 22
the used x-rays to study DNA’s crystalline
O
DNA DNAof several
of several
organisms.
[Link]
Chargaff
found
found
thatthat
the the
same same
fourfour
bases bases
Oare found
C NH
are found R E A D I N G TO O L B OX structure. Meanwhile, at Cambridge
in the
in the
DNA DNAof alloforganisms,
all organisms,
but but
the the
proportion
proportion
of the
of the
fourfour
bases
CH3basesdiffers
C differs
C NH University, James Watson and Francis
somewhat
somewhat from from
organism
organismto organism.
to organism.
In the
In the
DNA DNAof each
of each CH3 C
organism,
organism,theC the
CO T VOCABULARY
HC NH C CO T An amine is a molecule that Crick were feverishly working to be the
amount
amountof adenine
of adenineapproximately
approximately
equals
equals
the the
amount
amountof thymine.
of thymine. Similarly,
HC Similarly,
NH the the contains nitrogen. Notice that first to accurately describe DNA’s
OO
amount
amountof cytosine
of cytosine
roughly
roughly
equals
equals
the the
amount
amountof guanine.
of guanine.
These TheseCC the four DNA bases end in -ine
structure. They knew DNA’s compo-
NH
NH and all contain nitrogen.
A =AT =and
T and
C =CG=relationships
G relationshipsbecame
became
knownknown
as Chargaff
as Chargaff’s rules.
’sCH3rules.
CH NH2
3 CC nents, as did many others, but no one
NH2 CC CO
C N CO TT
B Summarize
Summarize HowHow do the
do the
fourfour
DNADNA
nucleotides
nucleotides
differ
differ
in structure?
in structure?HC
HC
HCC NH
NHN could figure out how the pieces fit
HC C O C together.
HC NH C O C
MAINMAINIDEA IDEA HC In 1953, Maurice Wilkins, Franklin’s
NH2 NH
NH 2

Watson
Watsonand
and
Crick
Crick
developed
developed
anan
accurate
accurate CC NN coworker, showed Watson one of
HC
HC
CC Franklin’s x-rays, which provided an
model
modelofof
DNA’s
DNA’s
three-dimensional
three-dimensional
structure.
structure.
HC NH
HC NH
CC OO
all-important clue—a DNA molecule
TheThebreakthrough
breakthrough in understanding
in understandingthe the
structure
structure
of DNA
of DNA came came
in the
in the
earlyearly was a two-stranded helix of a constant
1950s1950s
through
through
the the
teamwork
teamworkof American
of American
geneticist
geneticist
JamesJamesWatson
Watson
andandBritish
British width. Within weeks, Watson and Crick
physicist
physicist
Francis
Francis
Crick.
Crick.
Watson
Watson
andand
Crick
Crick
werewere
supposed
supposed to be
tostudying
be studying
the the had figured out the structure of DNA.
structure
structure
of proteins.
of proteins.
BothBoth
men, men,
however,
however,
werewere
more more
fascinated
fascinatedby the
by the In 1962, Watson, Crick, and Wilkins
challenge
challenge
of figuring
of figuring
out out
DNA’s
DNA’s
structure.
structure.
Their
Their
interest
interest
waswassparked
sparked
not not
onlyonly shared the Nobel Prize for Physiology or
by the
by the
findings
findings
of Hershey,
of Hershey,
Chase,
Chase,
andand
Chargaff
Chargaff
but but
alsoalso
by the
by the
workwork
of the
of the Medicine for this work. Franklin had died
biochemist
biochemistLinusLinus
Pauling.
Pauling.
Pauling
Pauling
hadhad
found
found
thatthat
the the
structure
structure
of some
of some
pro-pro- of cancer four years earlier, at the age
teinsteins
waswas
a helix,
a helix,
or spiral.
or spiral.
Watson
Watson
andand
CrickCrick
hypothesized
hypothesized thatthat
DNA DNAmight
might
of 37. Some attribute her cancer to
alsoalso
be abehelix.
a helix.
exposure to x-rays. While the Nobel
©Jewish Chronicle Ltd/HIP/The Image Works

©Jewish Chronicle Ltd/HIP/The Image Works

X-Ray
X-Ray
Evidence
Evidence Rosalind Franklin
Prize is never awarded posthumously, no
At the
At the
samesame
time,
time,
Rosalind
Rosalind
Franklin,
Franklin,
shownshownin FIGURE
in FIGURE
2.2, and
2.2, and
Maurice
Maurice mention of Franklin’s contribution was
FIGURE 2.2 Rosalind Franklin made at that time. Her work and its
Wilkins
Wilkins
werewere
studying
studying
DNA DNAusing
using
a technique
a technique called
called
x-ray
x-ray
crystallography.
crystallography. (above) produced x-ray photo-
WhenWhenDNA DNAis bombarded
is bombarded withwith
x-rays,
x-rays,
the the
atomsatoms
in DNA
in DNAdiffract
diffract
the the
x-rays
x-rays
in in graphs of DNA that indicated it oversight have now ensured her a place
a pattern
a pattern
thatthat
can can
be captured
be captured
on film.
on film.
Franklin’s
Franklin’s
x-rayx-ray
photographs
photographs of DNA
of DNA was a helix. Her coworker, Mau- in history.
rice Wilkins, showed the data
showed
showedan Xansurrounded
X surrounded by aby
circle.
a circle.
Franklin’s
Franklin’s
datadata
gavegave
Watson
Watsonandand
Crick
Crick without Franklin’s consent to
the the
cluesclues
theythey
needed.
needed.
TheThepatterns
patterns
andandangleangle
of the
of the
X suggested
X suggestedthatthat
DNADNAis is Watson and Crick, which helped
a helix
a helix
consisting
consistingof two
of two
strands
strands
thatthat
are aare
regular,
a regular,
consistent
consistent
width
width
apart.
apart. them discover DNA’s structure.

Chapter 8: From DNA to Proteins 221

INCLUSION
Answers
A Compare cytosine, because it has a
PM
BI_CNLESE817982_C08S2.indd 221 For students who have difficulty sorting out 11/02/16 10:43 PM
single ring
the relationship between different aspects of
the text, use DNA’s base pairs as a point of B Summarize Their nitrogen-containing
reference. Show students where the base bases differ from one another.
pairs are found in various diagrams and
photos in the section. Suggest a mnemonic to
help students remember the pairs: C-G: Cars
need gas; A-T: Acorns grow on trees. Or point
out that the letters C and G are both round,
whereas the letters A and T are made of
straight lines.

Chapter 8: From DNA to Proteins 221

 CorrectionKey=NL-A C

FIGURE 2.3 James Watson

. Teach continued (left) and Francis Crick
(right) used a model to fig-
ure out DNA’s structure.
Their model was influ-
enced by data from other
Vocabulary researchers, including an
x-ray image (far right) taken
Greek and Latin Word Origins The by Rosalind Franklin. When
x-rays bounce through a
words spiral and helix are synonymous. sample of DNA, they form
The word spiral comes from a Latin root this characteristic x-shaped
meaning “coil.” The word helix comes pattern.
from a Greek root meaning “to wrap
around.” A single molecule of DNA
molecule has two helixes, or strands,
making it a double helix.
James Watson and Francis Crick

Science Trivia The Double Helix

Back in their own laboratory, Watson and Crick made models of metal and
Interpretation of Rosalind Franklin’s
wood to figure out the structure of DNA. Their models placed the sugar-
x-ray image showed the following: phosphate backbones on the outside and the bases on the inside. At first,
• DNA has a width of about Watson reasoned that A might pair with A, T with T, and so on. But the bases
2 nanometers (1029 m). A and G are about twice as wide as C and T, so this produced a helix that
• One complete turn of the helix varied in width. Finally, Watson and Crick found that if they paired double-
occurs every 3.4 nanometers. ringed nucleotides with single-ringed nucleotides, the bases fit like a puzzle.
• There are ten base pairs in each turn In April 1953 Watson and Crick published their DNA model in a paper in
of the helix, so the base pairs are the journal Nature. FIGURE 2.3 shows their double helix (DUB-uhl HEE-liks)
stacked 0.34 nanometers apart. model, in which two strands of DNA wind around each other like a twisted
ladder. The strands are complementary—they fit together and are the opposite
• There are approximately 3 billion of each other. That is, if one strand is ACACAC, the other strand is TGTGTG.
base pairs in human DNA.
The pairing of bases in their model finally explained Chargaff ’s rules.
A Apply How did the Watson and Crick model explain Chargaff’s rules?

(tl) ©A. Barrington Brown/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (tr) ©Photo Researchers, Inc.

(tl) ©A. Barrington Brown/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (tr) ©Photo Researchers, Inc.
MAIN IDEA

CONNECT TO Nucleotides always pair in the same way.

Chemical Bonds Helping students CONNECT TO The DNA nucleotides of a single strand are joined together by covalent bonds
understand the relative strengths of CHEMICAL BONDS that connect the sugar of one nucleotide to the phosphate of the next nucleo-
covalent bonds and hydrogen bonds lays Recall from the chapter
tide. The alternating sugars and phosphates form the sides of a double helix,
the groundwork for understanding DNA Chemistry of Life that a covalent sort of like a twisted ladder. The DNA double helix is held together by hydro-
replication in Section 3. Because bond is a strong bond in which gen bonds between the bases in the middle. Individually, each hydrogen bond
two atoms share one or more is weak, but together, they maintain DNA structure.
­hydrogen bonds between the bases are pairs of electrons. Hydrogen
easily broken, the two strands of DNA bonds are much weaker than As shown in FIGURE 2.4, the bases of the two DNA strands always pair up
can be readily separated, while the covalent bonds and can easily in the same way. This is summarized in the base pairing rules: thymine (T)
be broken.
strong covalent bonds between nucle­­ always pairs with adenine (A), and cytosine (C) always pairs with guanine (G).
otides keep the individual strands These pairings occur because of the sizes of the bases and the ability of the
intact.
222 Differentiated
Unit 3: Genetics Instruction
English Learners  For “in my head” questions, the answers are
Answers Use the Assessment questions in this section
BI_CNLESE817982_C08S2.indd 222
not directly stated in the text. With critical- 11/02/16 10:42 P

A Apply Because A pairs only with T, to go over question-answer relationships. thinking questions, students use information
Explain that the best way to look for an from the text to work out the answer. Such
and C pairs only with G, DNA will
answer depends on the type of question questions are categorized as “author and
always have approximately the same
asked. Tell students that there are two basic you.” Other questions, such as those labeled
proportion of A and T and the same
categories: “in the book” and “in my head.” Connect To, require students to answer “on
proportion of C and G.
my own.” The answer may rely on something
Tell students that the review questions at the the student learned earlier or gained from
end of a section are “in the book” questions. personal experience.
The answers can be found either “right there”
(in the text), as with question 1, or the Teacher Toolkit, Section C, QAR
question may require students to “think and
search,” as with question 2.
222 Unit 3: Genetics
 CorrectionKey=NL-A
CorrectionKey=NL-A

FIGURE 2.4 Base Pairing Rules TEACH FROM VISUALS

The base pairing rules describe how nucleotides form pairs in FIGURE 2.4 Help students decode the
DNA. T always pairs with A, and G always pairs with C. figure. Ask
This ribbonlike part • How many rings are there in each
T represents the phosphate base pair? three
A groups and deoxyribose
• Why is DNA’s shape called a double
sugar molecules that make
up DNA’s “backbone.” helix? It is made of two spirals that
G
C are twisted around each other.
T A
• How are the two diagrams related to
A each other? The left diagram can
T be superimposed onto the right
The nitrogen-containing G C
bases form hydrogen diagram, with the sugar-phosphate
C bonds in the middle to backbones on the spiral strands and
G A
form the rungs of the T the bases on the rungs connecting
DNA ladder.
C
the strands.
G
hydrogen bond covalent bond

A Synthesize Which base pairs do you think are held more

tightly together? Why?
Answers
A Synthesize C and G because they
bases to form hydrogen bonds with each other. Due to the arrangement of are connected by three hydrogen bonds,
bhspe-030802-008
their molecules, A can form unique hydrogen bonds with T, and C with G. whereas A and T are held by only two
Notice that A and T form two hydrogen bonds, whereas C and G form three.
B Apply ACTGAT
You can remember the rules of base pairing by noticing that the letters C
and G have a similar shape. Once you know that C and G pair together, you
know that A and T pair together by default. If a sequence of bases on one
strand of DNA is CTGCTA, you know the other DNA strand will be GACGAT. Assess and Reteach .
B Apply What sequence of bases would pair with the sequence TGACTA?
Assess Use the Section Self-Check
SELF-CHECK Online or Section Quiz, both available at
[Link] [Link].
8.2 Formative Assessment GO ONLINE
Reteach Have students make models of
CRITICAL THINKING CONNECT TO
DNA by cutting out and arranging
REVIEWING MAIN IDEAS
cardboard shapes representing deoxyri-
1. How many types of nucleotides are 4. Infer Which part of a DNA molecule EVOLUTION bose, phosphate groups, and the four
in DNA, and how do they differ? carries the genetic instructions that 6. The DNA of all organisms bases. Encourage students to make their
2. How are the base pairing rules are unique for each individual: the contains the same four bases
sugar-phosphate backbone or the
model at least four nucleotides long.
related to Chargaff’s research on (adenine, thymine, cytosine,
DNA? nitrogen-containing bases? Explain. and guanine). What might
5. Predict In a sample of yeast DNA, this similarity indicate about
3. Explain how the double helix model
31.5% of the bases are adenine (A). the origins of life on
of DNA built on the research of
Predict the approximate percentages Earth?
Rosalind Franklin.
of C, G, and T. Explain.

8.2 FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT Chapter 8: From DNA to Proteins 223

1. four; their nitrogen-containing bases differ 3. Franklin’s data suggested that DNA was a 5. Matching A, T is approximately 31.5 percent.
2. Because A pairs only with T, and C pairs helix made of two strands an even width Thus, C and G together make up 37 percent
PM
BI_CNLESE817982_C08S2.indd 223 11/02/16 10:42 PM
only with G, DNA will always have approxi- apart. From this, Watson and Crick realized of the bases, so each makes up approxi-
mately the same proportion of A and T and that a base with one ring would bond with mately 18.5 percent of the bases.
the same proportion of C and G. a base with two rings. 6. It suggests that the wide diversity of life
4. The backbone is the same in all DNA. The that we see might have stemmed from a
nitrogen-containing bases provide the common ancestor.
unique instructions.

Chapter 8: From DNA to Proteins 223