Ligaments

There are different ligaments involved in the holding together of the vertebrae in the
column, and in the column's movement. The anterior and posterior longitudinal
ligaments extend the length of the vertebral column along the front and back of the
vertebral bodies.[13] The interspinous ligaments connect the adjoining spinous
processes of the vertebrae.[14][better source needed] The supraspinous ligament extends the
length of the spine running along the back of the spinous processes, from the
sacrum to the seventh cervical vertebra.[15] From there it is continuous with the nuchal
ligament.

Development
The striking segmented pattern of the spine is established
during embryogenesis when somites are rhythmically added to the posterior of the
embryo. Somite formation begins around the third week when the embryo
begins gastrulation and continues until all somites are formed. Their number varies
between species: there are 42 to 44 somites in the human embryo and around 52 in
the chick embryo. The somites are spheres, formed from the paraxial mesoderm that
lies at the sides of the neural tube and they contain the precursors of spinal bone,
the vertebrae ribs and some of the skull, as well as muscle, ligaments and
skin. Somitogenesis and the subsequent distribution of somites is controlled by
a clock and wavefront model acting in cells of the paraxial mesoderm. Soon after
their formation, sclerotomes, which give rise to some of the bone of the skull, the
vertebrae and ribs, migrate, leaving the remainder of the somite now termed a
dermamyotome behind. This then splits to give the myotomes which will form the
muscles and dermatomes which will form the skin of the back. Sclerotomes become
subdivided into an anterior and a posterior compartment. This subdivision plays a
key role in the definitive patterning of vertebrae that form when the posterior part of
one somite fuses to the anterior part of the consecutive somite during a process
termed resegmentation. Disruption of the somitogenesis process in humans results
in diseases such as congenital scoliosis. So far, the human homologues of three
genes associated to the mouse segmentation clock, (MESP2, DLL3 and LFNG),
have been shown to be mutated in cases of congenital scoliosis, suggesting that the
mechanisms involved in vertebral segmentation are conserved across vertebrates. In
humans the first four somites are incorporated in the base of the occipital bone of the
skull and the next 33 somites will form the vertebrae, ribs, muscles, ligaments and
skin.[16] The remaining posterior somites degenerate. During the fourth week
of embryogenesis, the sclerotomes shift their position to surround the spinal
cord and the notochord. This column of tissue has a segmented appearance, with
alternating areas of dense and less dense areas.

As the sclerotome develops, it condenses further eventually developing into

The less dense tissue that separates the sclerotome segments develop into
the intervertebral discs.
The notochord disappears in the sclerotome (vertebral body) segments but persists
in the region of the intervertebral discs as the nucleus pulposus. The nucleus
pulposus and the fibers of the anulus fibrosus make up the intervertebral disc.

The primary curves (thoracic and sacral curvatures) form during fetal development.
The secondary curves develop after birth. The cervical curvature forms as a result of
lifting the head and the lumbar curvature forms as a result of walking.

Function
Spinal cord

The spinal cord nested in the vertebral column.

Main article: Spinal cord

The vertebral column surrounds the spinal cord which travels within the spinal canal,
formed from a central hole within each vertebra. The spinal cord is part of the central
nervous system that supplies nerves and receives information from the peripheral
nervous system within the body. The spinal cord consists of grey and white
matter and a central cavity, the central canal. Adjacent to each vertebra
emerge spinal nerves. The spinal nerves provide sympathetic nervous supply to the
body, with nerves emerging forming the sympathetic trunk and the splanchnic
nerves.

The spinal canal follows the different curves of the column; it is large and triangular
in those parts of the column that enjoy the greatest freedom of movement, such as
the cervical and lumbar regions, and is small and rounded in the thoracic region,
where motion is more limited.[17] The spinal cord terminates in the conus
medullaris and cauda equina.

Clinical significance

3D medical animation still shot of spina bifida

Disease
Spina bifida is a congenital disorder in which there is a defective closure of the
vertebral arch. Sometimes the spinal meninges and also the spinal cord can protrude
through this, and this is called spina bifida cystica. Where the condition does not
involve this protrusion it is known as spina bifida occulta. Sometimes all of the
vertebral arches may remain incomplete.[18]

Another, though rare, congenital disease is Klippel–Feil syndrome, which is the

Spondylolisthesis is the forward displacement of a vertebra and retrolisthesis is a

Spondylolysis, also known as a pars defect, is a defect or fracture at the pars

Spinal disc herniation, more commonly called a "slipped disc", is the result of a tear
in the outer ring (anulus fibrosus) of the intervertebral disc, which lets some of the
soft gel-like material, the nucleus pulposus, bulge out in a hernia.

Spinal stenosis is a narrowing of the spinal canal which can occur in any region of
the spine though less commonly in the thoracic region. The stenosis can constrict
the spinal canal giving rise to a neurological deficit.

Pain at the coccyx (tailbone) is known as coccydynia.[19]

Spinal cord injury is damage to the spinal cord that causes changes in its function,
either temporary or permanent. Spinal cord injuries can be divided into categories:
complete transection, hemisection, central spinal cord lesions, posterior spinal cord
lesions, and anterior spinal cord lesions.

Scalloping vertebrae is the increase in the concavity of the posterior vertebral body.
It can be seen on lateral X-ray and sagittal views of CT and MRI scans. Its concavity
is due to the increased pressure exerting on the vertebrae due to a mass. Internal
spinal mass such as spinal astrocytoma, ependymoma, schwannoma, neurofibroma,
and achondroplasia causes vertebrae scalloping.[20]