BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

BY SOURAV CHAKRABARTI

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SYLLABUS – Significance of torque-slip characteristic.
Loss components and efficiency, starting and speed
control of induction motor. Single-phase induction
motor.

Significance Of Torque-Slip Characteristic

The torque-slip characteristic curve is a fundamental
tool for understanding the behaviour, capabilities,
and operational range of induction motors under
varying load conditions.
Here's why it's so significant?
• Predicting Motor Behaviour: The curve reveals

how the torque produced by the motor changes

with slip, which is the difference between the
synchronous speed (the speed of the rotating
magnetic field) and the actual rotor speed. By
analysing this relationship, engineers can predict
how the motor will respond to changes in load,
whether it will accelerate, maintain speed, or
potentially stall.

• Understanding Operating Regions: The curve can

be divided into distinct regions that indicate
different operating modes.

• Low Slip (Motoring) Region: This is the normal

operating region, where torque is directly
proportional to slip, and the motor runs close to
synchronous speed.

• High Slip Region: In this region, torque decreases

with increasing slip, indicating that the motor is
becoming unstable and could potentially stall if the
load exceeds the motor's capacity.
• Generating Region: When the rotor speed exceeds
the synchronous speed, the motor acts as a
generator, receiving mechanical energy and
converting it into electrical energy.

• Braking Region: By reversing the direction of the

rotating magnetic field, the motor can be brought
to a rapid stop, dissipating kinetic energy as heat.

• Optimization and Design: The torque-slip

characteristic is essential for designing and
optimizing motor systems for various applications.
The curve can be described in three modes of
operation-

The torque-slip characteristic curve can be divided

roughly into three regions:
• Low slip region

• Medium slip region

• High slip region

• Starting Torque: It helps determine the motor's

ability to overcome initial friction and accelerate to
operating speed.
• Slip ring induction motors, for example, allow for
external resistance to be added to the rotor circuit,
which can increase the starting torque for
applications requiring heavy loads or frequent
starting, but this comes at the cost of reduced
efficiency due to increased rotor losses.

• Efficiency: Understanding the relationship

between torque and slip helps engineers select the
right motor for specific load conditions to maximize
efficiency and minimize energy wastage.

• Speed Control: The curve helps design speed

control strategies for applications requiring precise
speed regulation by analysing the motor's torque-
speed relationship.
• Selecting the Right Motor: Different applications
have different requirements for starting torque,
operating efficiency, and speed control.

• Squirrel Cage Induction Motors: Known for their

simple, robust design and high efficiency at full
load, these are suitable for applications.
• speed regulation is not critical. However, their low
starting torque and high starting current might
require specialized starting methods for heavy
loads.

• Slip Ring Induction Motors: Offering greater

flexibility in terms of starting torque and speed
 control by adding external resistance to the rotor
circuit, these are ideal for applications requiring
high starting torque, like cranes and hoists.
However, their more complex construction and
higher maintenance requirements need to be
considered.
In essence, the torque-slip characteristic acts as a
roadmap for understanding the induction motor's
dynamic behavior, enabling engineers to design,
operate, and optimize these motors effectively for a
wide array of applications.
Loss Components And Efficiency
Induction motors are widely used in various
applications, and their efficiency is a key factor in
minimizing energy consumption and operating costs.
The overall efficiency of an induction motor is
determined by its losses, which can be broadly
categorized into two main types:

Fixed or constant losses

These losses remain relatively constant regardless
of the motor's load, they include:
• Iron or core losses: These losses occur in the stator

and rotor core due to the alternating magnetic flux.

They are further divided into:

• Hysteresis losses: Result from the energy required

to magnetize and demagnetize the core material

repeatedly.

• Eddy current losses: Caused by circulating currents

induced within the core laminations due to the
changing magnetic field. These losses are
minimized by using thin laminations to increase
 resistance and reduce the magnitude of eddy
currents, High-grade silicon steel is used to
minimize hysteresis losses.

• Mechanical losses: These include friction in the

bearings and windage losses caused by the
resistance of air to the rotating parts. These are
typically small but increase with speed.
Variable losses
These losses change with the load on the motor
and include:
• Copper losses (I²R losses): These occur in both the

stator and rotor windings due to the resistance of

the conductors and the current flowing through
them. Stator copper loss is a function of the stator
winding resistance and current, while rotor copper
loss depends on rotor resistance and current. These
are the dominant losses in many cases, often
accounting for 55% to 60% of total losses.
• Stray load losses: These are additional losses that
vary with the load but are difficult to accurately
determine or calculate. They result from factors like
leakage flux variations, winding harmonics, and
non-uniform current distribution.

• Stray load losses can represent 4% to 5% of total

losses and are typically proportional to the square
of the load current.
Efficiency Of Induction Motors
The efficiency of an induction motor is defined as the
ratio of its output mechanical power to the electrical
input power, often expressed as a percentage.

• Efficiency (%) = (Output Power / Input Power) x 100

• Output Power (Watts) = Input Power - Total Losses

• Generally, larger induction motors tend to be more

efficient than smaller ones. Motor efficiency can
range from about 85% to 97% at full load, with 90%
being a more common value.
• However, efficiency significantly decreases at light
or no-load conditions because a substantial portion
of the current is used to maintain the motor's
magnetic field, not to do useful work.

Factors affecting efficiency

• Design and manufacturing: High-quality
materials and optimized designs, including reduced
resistance in windings, minimal core losses
(hysteresis and eddy currents), and efficient cooling
mechanisms, contribute to higher efficiency.
Operational factors:
• Load: Operating the motor close to its rated load is

crucial for maximizing efficiency.

• Voltage and frequency: Fluctuations or harmonics

in the power supply can negatively affect efficiency.

• Temperature: Excessive heat increases winding
resistance, leading to higher copper losses and
reduced efficiency.
• Maintenance: Regular inspections, proper
lubrication, cleaning, and addressing any alignment
issues are essential for maintaining optimal
efficiency.
• Control Systems: Advanced control systems like

Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs) and optimized

control algorithms can improve motor efficiency,
particularly under varying load conditions.

Methods to improve efficiency

Several strategies can be employed to enhance the
efficiency of induction motors:
• Using higher efficiency motors: Replacing older

motors with newer, higher-efficiency models (e.g.,

 IE3 or IE4 class) can significantly reduce energy
consumption.

Reducing losses:
• Copper losses: Increase the cross-sectional area of

the conductor, improve winding techniques, use

higher conductivity materials like copper, and
improve cooling systems.
• Iron losses: Use higher-grade silicon steel
laminations and optimize core design to minimize
flux density and core length.
• Friction and windage losses: Optimize the fan size

and bearing lubrication, and minimize air friction

within the motor.

Optimizing operating conditions:

• Matching motor to load: Ensure the motor is

appropriately sized for the task to avoid operating

at excessively light or heavy loads.
• Speed control: Implement speed control methods

like Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs) to match the

motor's speed to the application's needs.
• Power factor correction: Using capacitors to
improve the power factor reduces reactive power
draw and enhances efficiency.
• Improved maintenance: Regular inspection,
lubrication, cooling system maintenance, and
addressing any wear or damage to components
contribute to sustained high efficiency.
Starting And Speed Control of Induction Motor
Induction motors are widely used in various industrial
and domestic applications due to their robust
construction and relatively simple operation.

Starting methods
Induction motors draw a high starting current when
connected directly to the power supply, which can
cause voltage drops and stress on the motor and
network. To address this, different starting methods
are used:

• Direct-On-Line (DOL) Starting: The simplest

method, used for small motors.
• Stator Resistance Starting: External resistors
reduce the voltage during startup.
• Star-Delta (Y-Δ) Starting: The windings are
initially connected in a star configuration to reduce
voltage, then switched to delta.
• Autotransformer Starting: An autotransformer
reduces starting voltage.
• Rotor Resistance Starting: For wound rotor
motors, external resistors in the rotor circuit limit
starting current and enhance torque.
Speed control methods
Induction motors typically operate at a constant
speed, but various methods allow for speed control:

Stator side control methods

• Frequency Control (V/f Control): Commonly used

with Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs), this method

varies frequency and voltage to control speed while
maintaining the V/f ratio.
• Controlling Supply Voltage: Reducing voltage
decreases torque and thus speed, but it's less
efficient for precise control.
• Changing the Number of Stator Poles: Altering

the number of poles provides fixed speed changes.

This can be done with multiple windings,
consequent poles, or Pole Amplitude Modulation
(PAM).

Rotor side control methods

• Rotor Resistance Control: Applicable to slip-ring

motors, adding external resistance increases slip

and decreases speed, though it reduces efficiency.
• Slip Power Recovery: This method recovers slip
power to improve efficiency, using systems like
Static Kramer or Static Scherbius drives.
The choice of starting and speed control method
depends on factors like motor size, required speed
range, application needs, efficiency, and cost.

• The static Kramer-drive converts the slip power of

an induction motor into AC power and supply back
to the line. The slip power is the air gap power
between the stator and the rotor of an induction
motor which is not converted into mechanical
power. Thus, the power is getting wasted.
• The static Kramer drives fed back the wasted power
into the main supply. This method is only applicable
when the speed of the drive is less than the
synchronous speed.

Single-Phase Induction Motor

A single-phase induction motor is a type of electric
motor that uses a single-phase AC power supply to
convert electrical energy into mechanical energy
through electromagnetic induction. They are widely
used in residential, commercial, and light industrial
settings where a three-phase power supply is
unavailable or impractical.
Here's a breakdown of its key aspects:
Construction
• Stator: The stationary part of the motor that
houses the main winding and, in some types, an
auxiliary or starting winding. It's typically made of
laminated silicon steel to reduce eddy current and
hysteresis losses.

• Rotor: The rotating part, typically a squirrel cage

rotor made of aluminium or copper bars that are
short-circuited at both ends by end rings.
• Skewed slots are often used in the rotor to prevent
magnetic locking and reduce noise.
• Bearings: Support the rotor and allow it to rotate
smoothly within the stator, reducing friction.

Working principle
• A single-phase AC supply connected to the stator's

main winding creates a pulsating magnetic field

which is not sufficient for starting the motor.

• To initiate rotation, an auxiliary winding, often with

a capacitor, is used to generate a phase difference,
mimicking a rotating magnetic field.
• This field induces current in the rotor, resulting in a
magnetic field that interacts with the stator's field,
causing rotation.
• Once the motor gains speed, a centrifugal switch
may disconnect the auxiliary winding, allowing the
motor to run solely on the main winding.

• It has a cage rotor and its stator has two winding

(main winding and auxiliary winding) which are
displaced 90° in space. The capacitor Cs is
connected in series with starting windings. The
centrifugal switch Sc is also connected.
A split-phase induction motor is a type of single-
phase induction motor in which the stator is provided
with a starting or auxiliary winding (S) and a main or
running winding (M). The starting winding is
displaced by 90° from the main winding as shown in
the figure.

The starting winding operates only during the brief

period when the motor starts up. The starting and the
main windings are so designed that the starting
winding (S) has a high resistance and relatively low
reactance while the main winding (M) has relatively
low resistance and high reactance so that the currents
flowing in the two windings have reasonable phase
difference (α) of about 25° to 30° as shown in the
phasor diagram.
Operation of Split-Phase Induction Motor
• When the starting winding of the motor is
connected to the source of single-phase AC supply,
the starting winding carries a current Is while the
main winding carries a current Im as shown in the
connection diagram.
• As the starting winding is made highly resistive
whereas the main winding highly inductive.
Therefore, the currents Is and Im in the two
windings have a reasonable phase difference of
about 25° to 30° between them. As a result, a weak
revolving field is produced which starts the motor.
• The starting torque of the split-phase motor is
given by,

• Where, k is a constant of proportionality whose

value depends upon the design of the machine.

• When the motor speed reaches about 80% of the

synchronous speed, then the centrifugal switch
isolates the starting winding from the circuit.

Now, the motor operates as a single-phase induction

motor and continues to accelerate till it reaches the
normal speed. The normal speed of the motor is less
than the synchronous speed and it depends upon the
mechanical load on the shaft of the motor.
Types of single-phase induction motors
These motors are categorized by their starting
methods:
• Split-phase motors: Use two windings with
differing resistances for starting, with the starting
winding disconnected later by a centrifugal switch.

• Capacitor-start motors: Employ a starting

capacitor in series with the auxiliary winding for
improved starting torque, which is disconnected
after startup.
• Capacitor-start capacitor-run motors: Utilize two
capacitors; one for starting and another that
remains in the circuit for better efficiency and power
factor during operation.

• Permanent split capacitor (PS C) motors: Have a

capacitor permanently connected to the auxiliary
winding, eliminating the centrifugal switch but
resulting in lower starting torque.

• Shaded-pole motors: Use conductor shading on

the poles to create a phase lag and a quasi-rotating
 field without an auxiliary winding. They are simple
and inexpensive but have very low starting torque.

Applications
Single-phase induction motors are commonly
found in:
• Household appliances: Such as fans, refrigerators,

and washing machines.

• Small tools: Including drills and grinders.

• Pumps: Like water and circulation pumps.

• HVAC systems: For fans and blowers.

• Commercial refrigerators:

Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages
• Simple and rugged construction: Making them

reliable and cost-effective.

• Economical: Less expensive than comparable
three-phase motors.
• Wide availability: Operate on standard household

AC power.
• Versatile: Available in various types and sizes.
• Capacitor Start and Capacitor Run induction Motor
uses two capacitors (C₁ and C₂) for starting, one of
them (C₂) being cut out for running by means of a
centrifugal switch (S) when the motor reaches about
75 to 80" Which is shown on the above fig.

Disadvantages
• Not self-starting: Require additional starting
mechanisms.
• Lower efficiency and power factor: Compared to
three-phase motors.
• Limited power range: Not ideal for heavy loads.

• Noise and vibration: Some types can be noisier

and vibrate more.

Overall, single-phase induction motors are a practical
choice for applications with readily available single-
phase power and low-power requirements.