BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

BY SOURAV CHAKRABARTI

[Link]
[Link]
SYLLABUS – Construction, working, torque-speed
characteristic and speed control of separately excited
dc motor. Construction and working of synchronous
generators. DC-DC buck and boost converters. duty
ratio control.

Torque-Speed Characteristic and Speed Control of

Separately Excited Dc Motor
A separately excited DC motor (SEDM) is a type of
direct current motor where the field winding and
armature winding are powered by separate DC
voltage sources.

This independent control allows for greater flexibility

in regulating the motor's speed and torque
characteristics.
Construction
Like all DC motors, a SEDM consists of
a stator (stationary part) and a rotor (rotating part).

• Stator: Contains the field windings, which are

responsible for generating the magnetic field.
• Rotor: Also known as the armature, it comprises
the armature windings, commutator, and brushes.

The distinguishing feature of a SEDM is that its field

windings and armature windings are connected to
different, isolated DC power sources.
Working principle
• Field Excitation: The field winding, connected to a
separate DC voltage source, creates a stationary
magnetic field (flux) within the motor.
• Armature Current: The armature winding,
connected to a separate DC voltage source, carries
current.
• Electromagnetic Force: The interaction between
the magnetic field created by the field winding and
the current flowing through the armature winding
produces an electromagnetic force (Lorentz force).
• Torque Generation: This electromagnetic force
generates torque, causing the rotor to rotate.
• Commutation: As the armature rotates, the
commutator and brushes ensure that the current
direction in the armature windings is continuously
reversed, maintaining a constant direction of torque
and continuous rotation.
Torque-Speed characteristics
The relationship between the output torque and
rotational speed of a SEDM is crucial for
understanding its performance.

• Inverse Relationship: In a typical DC motor, there's

an inverse and linear relationship between torque
and speed.
• No-Load Speed: At zero torque (no load), the
motor operates at its maximum speed (no-load
speed).
• Stall Torque: When the motor's speed is zero (it's
stalled), it produces its maximum torque (stall
torque).
• Linear Curve: For a constant field excitation, the
speed drops almost linearly as the load (and thus
the torque) increases.

Speed control methods

The ability to control the speed of a SEDM is a
major advantage. Here are the primary methods:
• Armature Voltage Control: By varying the voltage
applied to the armature circuit (keeping the field
current constant), the speed of the motor can be
controlled.
• Mechanism: Increasing the armature voltage
increases the back EMF, leading to an increase in
armature current and ultimately motor speed.
• Application: This method provides smooth speed
adjustment from zero to the rated speed and is
suitable for constant torque applications.
• Example: The Ward-Leonard control system
utilizes this principle for precise speed control in
industrial applications like machine tools, cranes,
and elevators.
• Field Flux Control: By varying the current flowing
through the field winding (keeping the armature
voltage constant), the motor speed can be adjusted.
• Mechanism: Weakening the field (reducing field
current) reduces the magnetic flux, leading to an
increase in speed (flux weakening mode).
Conversely, strengthening the field (increasing field
current) reduces the speed.
• Application: This method is primarily used to
achieve speeds above the motor's base speed and
is best suited for constant power applications.
• Limitations: Excessive field weakening can
negatively impact commutation.
• Armature Resistance Control: Adding resistance
in series with the armature winding (keeping the
field current constant) can also control speed.
• Mechanism: Increasing the armature resistance
increases the voltage drop across it, reducing the
effective voltage across the armature and thus
decreasing the motor speed.

• Limitations: This method results in significant

power loss as heat dissipated across the external
resistance and is primarily used for obtaining
speeds below the motor's rated speed. It is not
suitable for continuous speed variation or large
motors.
Note: The speed of a separately excited DC motor can
be controlled by combining these methods, such as
using armature voltage control for speeds below the
rated speed and field flux control for speeds above
the rated speed.

Construction And Working Of Synchronous

Generators
Synchronous generators, also known as alternators,
are crucial components in modern power systems,
responsible for converting mechanical energy into
alternating current (AC) electricity at a specific voltage
and frequency.

Here's a breakdown of their construction and

working principle:
Construction
A synchronous generator primarily consists of two
main parts:

• Stator (stationary part): It houses the armature

winding, which is where the AC voltage is
generated.
The stator includes:
• Frame: Supports the entire structure, often made of

cast iron or welded steel.

• Stator Core: Laminated with high-grade silicon

steel to minimize energy losses due to hysteresis

and eddy currents. Slots on the inner periphery
accommodate the armature winding.
• Armature Winding: A 3-phase winding, typically

star-connected, distributed across multiple slots to

ensure a sinusoidal distribution of the induced
electromotive force (EMF).
• Rotor (rotating part): It generates the primary
magnetic field flux. Two types of rotors are
commonly used:

• Salient-Pole Rotor: Features prominent poles

protruding from the rotor surface with field coils
wound around them. These are best suited for low
to medium-speed alternators (120 to 400 RPM).

• Cylindrical Rotor (Non-Salient Pole

Rotor): Possesses a smooth cylindrical shape with
slots housing distributed field windings. These are
generally used in high-speed applications (1500 to
3000 RPM), often with steam turbines.
• Field Winding: Receives direct current (DC) via slip
rings and brushes from a separate DC source called
an exciter to create the rotor's magnetic field.
Working principle
Synchronous generators operate based on Faraday's
laws of electromagnetic induction.

• A prime mover (e.g., steam turbine, water turbine,

diesel engine) rotates the rotor at synchronous
speed.

• The DC exciter supplies current to the rotor's field

winding, creating alternating North and South
magnetic poles on the rotor.
• As the rotor spins, its magnetic field cuts through
the stationary armature conductors in the stator.
• This relative motion induces an electromotive force
(EMF) in the armature conductors, which generates
the AC voltage.
• The induced EMF is alternating because the North
and South poles of the rotor pass by the armature
conductors alternately.

• The frequency of the generated AC voltage is

directly proportional to the rotational speed of the
rotor and the number of poles.
In simpler terms: The spinning magnetic field of the
rotor induces an alternating current in the stationary
windings of the stator, thereby converting mechanical
energy into electrical energy.

Excitation system
The excitation system provides the DC current needed
to energize the rotor's field winding, thereby
establishing the necessary magnetic field for
synchronous operation. Different types of excitation
systems exist, including:

• DC Excitation System: Uses a main exciter and a

pilot exciter (both DC generators) to supply the DC
current to the rotor field windings.
• AC Excitation System: Employs an AC exciter and
a rectifier to provide the DC supply.
• Brushless Excitation System: Eliminates the need
for brushes and slip rings by using a small AC
generator as an exciter mounted on the same shaft,
rectifying its output to supply the main rotor's field.
This reduces maintenance and losses.
• synchronous generators convert mechanical energy
into AC electrical energy using the principle of
electromagnetic induction.
• They are characterized by their stator (containing
the armature winding) and rotor (containing the
field winding). The excitation system plays a vital
role in providing the DC field current required for
their operation and allows for control of voltage
and power factor.
Power Converters Dc-Dc Buck and Boost
Converters
DC-DC converters, also known as choppers, are
electronic devices that transform direct current (DC)
voltage from one level to another. They are essential
in various electronic devices and systems to ensure
the correct voltage is supplied to components.
Among the most common types are buck converters
and boost converters, which are widely used in
modern power electronics due to their efficiency and
versatility.

Buck converter (step-down converter)

• A buck converter steps down a higher DC input
voltage to a lower, regulated DC output voltage.
• How it works: It utilizes an inductor, a diode, a
capacitor, and a switch (often a MOSFET or IGBT) to
achieve this voltage reduction. When the switch is
on, energy is stored in the inductor. When the
switch is off, the inductor releases its stored energy,
allowing current to flow through the diode to the
output capacitor and load, resulting in a lower
output voltage. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) is
typically used to control the switching action and
regulate the output voltage.

• The D1 is the Schottky diode and it is turned OFF due

to the positive voltage to the cathode. The inductor
L is the initial source of current. If the first transistor
is OFF by using the control unit, then the current
flow in the buck operation.
• The magnetic field of the inductor is collapsed and
the back e.m.f is generated collapsing field turn
around the polarity of the voltage across the
inductor. The current flows in the diode D2, the load
and the D1 diode will be turned ON.

• The discharge of the inductor L decreases with the

help of the current. During the first transistor is in
one state the charge of the accumulator in the
capacitor.

• The current flows through the load and during the

off period keeping Vout reasonably. Hence it keeps
the minimum ripple amplitude and Vout closes to
the value of Vs.
• Applications: Widely used in applications where a
higher voltage needs to be reduced, such as in
battery-powered devices to extend battery life, or in
computer power supplies to regulate the voltage
for processors.

• Advantages: High efficiency, compact design, fast

transient response, fewer components, simplicity of
control, and reduced output ripple.

• Disadvantages: Limited to stepping down voltage,

output voltage is directly dependent on the duty
cycle, potential for electromagnetic interference
(EMI), and may face challenges with wide input
voltage variations.
• In this Above converter the first transistor is
switched ON continually and for the second
transistor the square wave of high frequency is
applied to the gate terminal. The second transistor
is in conducting when the on state and the input
current flow from the inductor L through the second
transistor. The negative terminal charging up the
magnetic field around the inductor. The D2 diode
cannot conduct because the anode is on the
potential ground by highly conducting the second
transistor.

• By charging the capacitor C the load is applied to

the entire circuit in the ON State and it can
construct earlier oscillator cycles. During the ON
period the capacitor C can discharge regularly and
the amount of high ripple frequency on the output
voltage.

• The approximate potential difference is given by

the equation below.
• During the OFF period of second transistor the
inductor L is charged and the capacitor C is
discharged. The inductor L can produce the back
e.m.f and the values are depending up on the rate
of change of current of the second transistor switch.
The amount of inductance the coil can occupy.
Hence the back e.m.f can produce any different
voltage through a wide range and determined by
the design of the circuit. Hence the polarity of
voltage across the inductor L has reversed now.

• The input voltage gives the output voltage and at

least equal to or higher than the input voltage. The
diode D2 is in forward biased and the current
applied to the load current and it recharges the
capacitors to VS + VL and it is ready for the second
transistor.

Boost Converter (Step-Up Converter)

A boost converter increases a lower DC input voltage
to a higher, regulated DC output voltage.

• How it works: Similar to a buck converter, it uses an

inductor, diode, capacitor, and a switch. Energy is
 built up in the inductor when the switch is closed
and transferred to the capacitor when the switch
opens, increasing the output voltage.

• Applications: Boost converters are used in systems

needing higher voltage than the source, such as
LED lighting and portable battery chargers.

• Advantages: Provides a stable output voltage

higher than the input, has a simple structure, and is
low cost.
• Disadvantages: Efficiency may be lower than a
buck converter under light loads, and input current
is greater than output current.

Buck-Boost Converter
This type of converter combines the functions of both
buck and boost converters, allowing it to either step
up or step down the voltage based on the duty cycle.

• How it works: It uses similar components to buck

and boost converters, but the arrangement allows
for both voltages stepping up and down. It stores
energy in the inductor when the switch is ON and
releases it when OFF to regulate the output voltage.
• Applications: Useful when input voltage varies
significantly, requiring both reduction and
boosting, like in battery-powered systems.

• Advantages: Offers high flexibility by being able to

both step up and step-down voltage.

• Disadvantages: More complex circuitry, potentially

higher cost, and may have lower efficiency than
dedicated buck or boost converters.

• The selection among buck, boost, or buck-boost

converters depends on the application's voltage
needs, power supply characteristics, and desired
efficiency.
Duty Ratio Control
In power electronics, duty ratio control is a technique
used to regulate the output voltage or current of
power converters by varying the duty cycle of a
switching signal. The duty cycle (or duty ratio)
represents the fraction of time a switch in the
converter is in its "on" state during a complete
switching period.
Here's how duty ratio control works in power
converters:
• Pulse Width Modulation (PWM): Duty ratio
control is typically implemented using Pulse Width
Modulation (PWM). PWM involves generating a
periodic signal, usually a square wave, where the
pulse width (the duration of the "on" state) is varied.

• Switching the Power Converter: This PWM signal

is then used to control the switching element (e.g.,
a MOSFET or IGBT) within the power converter. By
controlling the "on" time of the switch, the average
voltage or current delivered to the load can be
adjusted.
Controlling Output:
• DC-DC Converters: In DC-DC converters, like buck
(step-down) and boost (step-up) converters, the
duty ratio directly influences the relationship
between the input and output voltages.

• Buck Converter: The output voltage is

proportional to the input voltage multiplied by the
duty ratio (Vout = D * Vin).

• Buck-boost converter with current-mode control.

• The green components show the current feedback;
without these, the control is voltage-mode.

• Boost Converter: The output voltage is inversely

proportional to (1-D) multiplied by the input
voltage (Vout = Vin / (1-D)).

• DC-AC Inverters: In inverters, the duty cycle is

modulated to generate an AC output waveform
from a DC input, allowing for control over the
output voltage and frequency.
• Regulation and Control: Duty ratio control can be
implemented with feedback mechanisms where the
output voltage or current is sensed and compared
to a reference. Based on this feedback, the duty
ratio is adjusted to maintain the desired output.