Whats is communication?

Communication is defined as the process of understanding and sharing meaning through the use of mutually
understood signs, symbols and semiotic rules. Dictionaries define communication from different perspectives.
Webster's Dictionary describes communication as 'the art of expressing ideas’ and 'the science of transmitting the
information.' The view ignores the role of the receiver and regards communication as a one-way process. The Oxford
English Dictionary views communication as 'the imparting, conveying, exchange of ideas, knowledge and
information.’ The word exchange suggests the presence of a 'give something and get something' element in the
communication process. The Shorter Oxford Dictionary sees communication as 'imparting, conveying or exchange of
ideas, knowledge, etc. by speech, writing or signs.' The reference to 'signs' indicates one can communicate even
without words

Definitions: Perfect communication is an elusive concept. It takes place if after seeing a picture a person can describe
it to another person in an identical way as the picture appears in the original frame and the latter can form an image
of the picture in his/her mind without any distortion. Simply speaking, communication is the exchange of meanings
between individuals through a common system of symbols.

American management consultant Louis A. Allen explained the concept in an equally lucid way. He said:
'Communication is the sum of all things a person does when he wants to create an understanding in the mind of
another.'

The American Management Association keeps it simple. It says: communication is "any behaviour that results in an
exchange of meaning."

The English literary critic I.A. Richards (1928) saw communication as a discrete aspect of human enterprise. He says:
Communication takes place when one mind so acts upon its environment that another mind is influenced, and in
that other mind an experience occurs which is like the experience in the first mind, and is caused in part by that
experience.

William Rice-Johnson (De Montfort University) defined communication from the same perspective: Communication
takes place when an individual -- a sender-- displays, transmits or otherwise directs a set of symbols to another
individual -- a receiver - with the aim of changing something, either something the receiver is doing (or not doing) or
changing his or her world view.

This set of symbols is typically described as a message. Management academic Keith Davis viewed communication as
the process of ... passing information and understanding from one person to another. According to Koontz and
O'Donnel, communication may be understood "as the exchange of information at least between two persons with a
view to creating an understanding in the mind of the other, whether or not it gives rise to conflict." In his
Management: Principles and Practices, distinguished American scholar Dalton Edward McFarland defined
communication as "the process of meaningful interaction among human beings. More especially, it is the process by
which meanings are perceived and understandings are reached among human beings."

American psychologist Carl Hovland describes communication as "the process by which an individual transmits
stimuli (verbal symbols) to modify the behaviour of other individuals." He stresses what extension workers hope to
achieve - change of behaviour. Some scholars, however, object to the phrase "modify the behaviour". They point out
there are numerous occasions when they communicate, in their social lives for example, with no intention of
attempting to modify behaviour. There are many other definitions. However, meanings are in people, not in words.
It's unlikely that we could get a group of any size to agree exactly on one meaning

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Elements of Communication

Communication helps us to understand each other through an exchange of ideas, information, or feelings. These
abstract components are expressed through speech, visuals, signals, symbols, writing, or various nonverbal means.
Communication comprises several elements:

(i) sender
(ii) message
(iii) medium
(iv) encoding
(v) receiver
(vi) decoding
(vii) feedback,
(viii) and context.
To make communication work, the sender and the receiver have to be on the same wavelength and
contribute in equal measure.

The sender begins the process. Prompted by the need to arouse a response in others, the sender (source)
transmits a message (thought or feeling) to somebody (receiver) through a medium (channel). Messages
are intangible (non physical). The sender converts them into a common symbolic form (encoding). The
receiver discovers the meaning hidden within the common symbols (decoding) and responds (feedback) to
the message. Any obstruction (barrier), during the transmission of the message, upsets the entire exercise

Types of communication
Verbal communication: Verbal communication uses spoken words to carry a message. It requires the ability
to speak as much as to listen. It applies to a wide range of situations, from informal discussions to public speeches.
Generally, it takes place in a face-to-face situation and facilitates understanding faster. In course of communication,
it carries a lot of hidden non-verbal cues to impart implied meaning to the words. The feedback is immediate. It is
perhaps the closest that we come to (as is humanly possible) perfection in communication. Verbal communication
can either happen face to face or through other channels, such as mobile phone, radio and video conferencing.

Non-verbal communication: Nonverbal signals deliver a message without the use of words. It conveys
messages through gestures, postures, voice, facial expressions, eye contact or the lack of it, grunts and growls,
symbols, signals, smiles, laughter, and, even silence. You can even communicate non-verbally by the way you dress
or the hairstyle you sport. A shrug of the shoulders could indicate indifference while waving off hands could be
enough to say goodbye and a simple nod may show acceptance. When your nonverbal signals match up with the
words you're saying, they increase trust, clarity, and rapport. When they don't, they generate tension, mistrust, and
confusion. About nonverbal communication, management guru Peter Drucker quite justifiably observed: the most
important thing in communication is to hear what isn't being said.

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Written communication: Written communication is the expression of ideas by means of language or written
symbols (typed, printed or handwritten). You can write for sharing information through books, pamphlets, blogs,
letters, memos, blogs, brochures, websites and more. Emails and chats are common forms of written
communication in the workplace. It is one of the most trusted types of communication. A written document
preserved properly becomes a permanent record for future reference. It can also be used as legal evidence. Written
communication can be edited, revised, and changed to optimise quality.

Visual communication: Visual communication is a graphic representation of ideas. It is created with the help
of art, drawings, photographs, sketches, charts, graphs, infographics, or videos. Visuals are often used as an aid
during presentations to provide helpful context alongside written and verbal communication. Prehistoric cave
paintings in Altamira (Spain) and Bhim Baithka (Bhopal), dating back to 21,000 years, are perhaps the oldest
examples of human communication. Compared to a paragraph of text, it is faster for people to process a visual sign.
This form of communication also helps improve the clarity of any information.

Listening The art of conversation is the art of hearing as well as of being heard. -- William Hazlitt21 Listening is
an art that requires attention over talent, spirit over ego, others over self. We are never so rich in ideas that we can
afford not to listen. There is an old saying: when you talk you teach, when you listen, you learn. Ancient Greek
Philosopher Epictetus22 claimed that we have two ears and one mouth so that we can listen twice as much as we
speak. Our inability to communicate is a result of our failure to listen effectively It is not the voice that commands
the story; it is the ear. If you wish to communicate, you would need to understand others first. And, understanding
comes only from listening. Listening means taking interest in what is being said. You can listen like a blank wall or a
splendid auditorium where every sound comes back fuller and richer. Listening is more than just hearing. When we
listen, we are engaged in receiving and processing the data and giving meaning to them. Hearing is the mere
detection of sounds.

Empathy Empathy is putting your feet into someone else's psychological shoes and feeling exactly what they feel.
It opens you up to more sensitive communication because empathy induces you to think, feel, and act precisely from
the perspective of others. Empathy is the capacity to realise the situation of the sufferers and see things from their
point of view. Referring to the lack of empathy among the rich to feel how poverty hits the poor, a folk- poet
laments, “How can a barren woman realise what it means to give birth to a baby”! Sympathy implies recognition of
somebody's suffering while empathy implies undergoing the identical situation yourself. Sympathy implies feeling for
them, but empathy is experiencing with them. The French queen Marie Antoinette’s reported remark at the sight of
the poor fighting for bread: “Let them eat cake,” is an example of her sympathy for the starving people.25 She had,
however, no empathy for them.

Barriers to communication
Mechanical barriers: mechanical barriers arise from strange sounds coming out of the radio, a distorted picture
on television, and smudged printing. They result from defective machines, power failure, and transmission
interruption. For example, an army Major sent a message from the battlefield to the headquarters: “we are going to
advance in sector six. Send us reinforcements.” The poor quality of transmission distorted the message. It reached
the headquarters as: “we are going to get some sex, lend us three and fourpence”.
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Physical barriers: the whirling sound of a passing vehicle or somebody trying to enter your conversation while you
are talking to your friend will make you miss vital words. If everybody talks at the same time, communication is the
first casualty – a situation we frequently come across in television talk shows. Physical discomforts-- excessive cold
or heat – also disturb the flow of communication.

Cultural diversity: different cultural norms can make communication difficult, especially in the workplace. When
people from different cultures work together, several factors like language, behavious and beliefs, symbols, and
stereotype and prejudices can bock barriers.

Proximity: proximity is about a person’s positioning and the space in relation to others. It plays a key role in
communication, especially in team- building. The distance is normally determined by social and cultural norms and
the unique patterns of those interacting.

Psychological barriers: Age, gender, anger, status, jealousy, caste, religion, politics, and insecurity often separate
one from another and block communication. Prejudice, suspicion, and emotional aggressiveness also disturb
communication. If you dislike somebody, you will probably find faults with his/her views rather than trying to grasp
what he says.

Organisational barriers: poor corporate culture, stringent rules, and rigid official hierarchy, and lack of opportunities
disrupt communication.

Physiological barriers: physiological barriers such as hearing difficulties, poor eyesight, ill-health, shrill voice, speech
problems, or dyslexia28 affect communication. These can be overcome with proper treatment and practice.

Filtering: people see the world through the prism of their own experiences and values. A sender sees the world
through one set of filters (experiences and values) and the receiver sees it through another set of filters. The greater
the difference in their outlook and culture, the higher is the probability of communication failure.

Stereotyping: stereotyping assumes “they’re all alike.” It is a preconceived notion, rooted in racial or cultural
prejudice. Stereotypes are dangerous because no two individuals are the same. If you assume how the other person
would behave before you have met her or him, your communication is bound to fail.

Gender barriers: Men and women are equal in every way: education, experience, and efficiency, Despite possessing
the same ability, they can sometimes be very different in their communication style, probably because they have a
history of being painted into a box of stereotypical personalities from childhood.

Industrial psychologists make certain general observations about the distinct difference in communication style
between the two at work: women stress politeness, empathy, and rapport building; male communication is
generally more direct.

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Semantic barriers: Semantic is the study of meaning, signs and symbols used for communication. Semantic
barriers crop up when the meaning you attach to words differs from the meaning your partner makes out of it. To
call Sunetra an angel doesn't mean she lives in heaven. It means she is a kind-hearted girl. Semantic barriers arise
from difficult words, controversial symbols, verbosity, euphemism, jargons, and ambiguity. Semantic barriers can be
overcome with clear expressions.

Seven Cs of communication
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 • Clarity: clarity makes the message easy to understand.
• Credibility: credibility makes it trustworthy and acceptable.
• Concise: without sacrificing clarity, write within a minimum of words.
• Complete: include all relevant facts.
• Continuity & Consistency: facts should be harmonious, one following from the other.
• Courtesy: courtesy improves the appeal of communication.
• Correctness: correctness ensures the accuracy of facts and figures.

Importance of Communication
1. Communication Foundation:
The manager explains to the employees the goals of the organization, the methods of their
success and the interpersonal relationships between them. This provides communication
between the various staff and departments. Therefore, communication serves as the basis
for collaboration in the organization.

2. Functional:
The manager coordinates the individual and physical aspects of the organization in order to
run it efficiently and effectively. This integration is not possible without proper
communication.

3. The Basis for Making Decisions:

Good communication provides information to the manager that helps them make decisions.
No decisions could have been made without knowledge. Thus, communication is the basis for
making the right decisions.

4. Improves Management Ability:

The manager transfers targets and issues instructions and assigns tasks to subordinates. All
of these factors are involved.

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Functions of Communication
Good communication skills are not only important in life, but they are also essential in business. Good communication
leads to high employee productivity and morale and strengthens relationships with those outside the organization such as
vendors and clients. Communication can be verbal from person to person or written in the form of an email, company
handbook, or even a print ad.
When people communicate, there is usually a communication intent or reason that initiates the communication. In
business, these reasons are known as functions of communication, or categories of communication function. The three
functions of communication are to inform, to persuade, and to motivate. Understanding these fundamental
communicative functions and their examples is crucial to having a successful organization.

Inform
The first function of communication is to inform. Informing refers to providing information and data to the employees.
Employees must have a good understanding of their job duties, the company's rules and procedures, and the company's
objectives. When employees are informed about the company's expectations, uncertainty is eliminated, and employees
can effectively perform their jobs. Employees also need feedback about their performances. Feedback helps employees
realize their strengths and work to improve their weaknesses.
Information within a company can travel three directions known as downward-moving communication, upward-moving
communication, and horizontal-moving communication.

1. Downward-moving communication: Downward communication is information that is communicated by the

superiors to the subordinates and consists of making the subordinates aware of directives and updates. A CEO
informing the managers about an upcoming round of layoffs is an example of downward-moving communication.
2. Upward-moving communication: Upward communication is information that is communicated by the
subordinates to the superiors and consists of feedback and reports. A marketing director asking the company
owner for an increase in her advertising budget is an example of upward-moving communication.
3. Horizontal-moving communication: Horizontal communication is between peers and includes communication
between employees and communication between managers. One employee telling another employee the
company's sales figures is an example of horizontal communication.

Persuade
The second function of communication is persuasion. Persuasion refers to the ability to influence the thoughts or behavior
of employees within the company or people outside the company such as clients and vendors. Persuasion is used to close
sales, form partnerships, and sign contracts. Persuasion can be written or verbal. In order for persuasion to work
effectively as a communicative device, the three parts of persuasion must be present: source credibility, emotional appeal,
and social and ego needs

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 • There are five forms of communication: intrapersonal, interpersonal, group, public,
and mass communication.
o Intrapersonal communication is communication with oneself and occurs only
inside our heads.
o Interpersonal communication is communication between people whose lives
mutually influence one another and typically occurs in dyads, which means in
pairs.
o Group communication occurs when three or more people communicate to
achieve a shared goal.
o Public communication is sender focused and typically occurs when one person
conveys information to an audience.
o Mass communication occurs when messages are sent to large audiences using
print or electronic media.

Verbal and non verbal communication

• Verbal communication is defined as communication to express our views, information, and ideas in the form of
sound and words. The spoken part usually involves face-to-face communication.
• Communication through radio, television, or mobile phones is also called verbal communication.
• The series of words and grammar rules define the language. Two or more persons can quickly communicate if
they are aware of their languages. It might be difficult for people to communicate without a common known
language. For effective communication, there must be a common language, which everyone present can
understand.
• Effective verbal communication encompasses good relations at the workspace and home.

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Ayush Pandey
Nonverbal communication (NVC) is the transmission of messages or signals through a nonverbal
platform such as eye contact, facial expressions, gestures, posture, and the distance between two individuals.

It includes the use of visual cues such as body language (kinesics), distance (proxemics) and physical
environments/appearance, of voice (paralanguage) and of touch (haptics).

It can also include the use of time (chronemics) and eye contact and the actions of looking while talking and
listening, frequency of glances, patterns of fixation, pupil dilation, and blink rate

• Facial expressions: Your teenage cousin we referred to at the beginning of this section might have told you he was
happy, but his apathetic facial expression may have communicated different information. Facial expressions—happy,
sad, angry—help you convey your message. Be aware of your facial expression when you talk and particularly when
you listen, which is when it’s easy to forget.

• Gestures: When you speak, a gesture can make your message stronger. Pointing out something you want your
listener to look at more closely is an example of nonverbal communication that makes your message understood.
Motioning warmly toward a coworker who deserves special recognition, making a fist to show frustration or anger,
such gestures help further engage your audience when you speak

• Proximity: How close you are to your audience when you speak sends a nonverbal message. If your size is imposing
and you leave a very small distance between you and your listener, it’s likely your nonverbal communication will be a
bit threatening. On the other hand, giving someone too much space is an awkward nonverbal communication that
might confuse your listener.

• Touch: Shaking an audience member’s hand, putting your hand on his shoulder: these are nonverbal cues that can
affect the success of your message. Touch communicates affection, but it also communicates power. In fact, when
women touch a listener, it’s often assumed that they’re being affectionate or conveying empathy, but when a man
touches a listener, it can be taken as a sign of communicating power or even dominance

• Eye contact: Making and maintaining eye contact with an audience when you’re verbally communicating or
listening communicates to the other party that you’re interested and engaged in the conversation. Good eye contact
often conveys the trait of honesty to the other party.

• Appearance: Your clothing, hair, and jewelry are also a part of nonverbal communication. If you put a dachshund
pin on your lapel each morning (because you have a pet dachshund), that says something about you as a person.
Similarly, the quality and condition of your clothing, how it fits, if it’s appropriate for the season—all of these things
speak nonverbally about you as a communicator.

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Aristotle’s definition of Rhetoric,
Rhetoric is the art of persuasion through communication. It is a form of discourse that
appeals to people’s emotions and logic to motivate or inform. The word “rhetoric” comes
from the Latin “rhetorica,” which comes from the Greek “rhetorikos,” meaning “oratory.”

In Ancient Greece, oration, or public speaking, was the primary use of rhetoric, but today,
there are many written examples of rhetoric.

3 Types of Rhetoric
Aristotle outlined three types of rhetoric, or modes of persuasion, that can shape words into effective
rhetoric. Each appeals to a different part of the human psyche to influence.

1. Logos: This argument appeals to logic and reason. It relies on the content of the message, including
data and facts, to support its claims. Harper Lee uses logos in the courtroom scenes in To Kill a
Mockingbird. To persuade a jury that the right-handed Tom Robinson is innocent, Atticus Finch
shows evidence that proves the culprit had to be left-handed, excluding Robinson as a suspect.
2. Ethos: This element of rhetoric relies on the reputation of the person delivering the message. The
writer or speaker must be a notable person or known authority on the subject matter. In F. Scott
Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby, the narrator, Nick Carraway, establishes his credibility as an objective
insider to gain the reader’s trust.
3. Pathos: This mode establishes an emotional connection with the audience. Advertisements often
tug on heartstrings to influence people to buy a product or service. Pathos is also used in literature
to encourage readers to invest in a story.

4 Rhetorical Devices
There are a number of stylistic techniques and literary devices writers use to create a rhetorical effect and
convey a point of view. Rhetorical devices are the tools used to manipulate language to construct
arguments. Examples include:

1. Rhetorical questions: A rhetorical question emphasizes a point by posing a question without

expecting an answer. For example, “Do birds fly?” is a rhetorical question implying, “Isn’t it
obvious?”
2. Hyperbole: Hyperbole exaggerates claims to prove a point and make an impression on an
audience. Former U.S. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt used hyperbole when he declared, “The
only thing we have to fear is fear itself.”
3. Chiasmus: This is a figure of speech that rearranges the normal order of words. A good example is
former U.S. President John F. Kennedy’s famous line, “Ask not what your country can do for you,
ask what you can do for your country.” Learn more about chiasmus.

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 4. Eutrepismus: This commands authority and clarity by presenting an argument through a numbered
list of facts or points.

Lasswell’s Model

Harold Dwight Lasswell, the American political scientist states that a convenient way to describe an act of
communication is to answer the following questions

▪ Who
▪ Says What
▪ In Which Channel
▪ To Whom
▪ With what effect?

This model is about process of communication and its function to society, According to Lasswell there are
three functions for communication:

1. Surveillance of the environment

2. Correlation of components of society
3. Cultural transmission between generation

Lasswell model suggests the message flow in a multicultural society with multiple audiences. The flow of
message is through various channels. And also this communication model is similar to Aristotle’s
communication model.

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In this model, the communication component who refers the research area called “Control Analysis”,

➢ Says what is refers to “Content Analysis”,

➢ In which channel is refers to “Media Analysis”,
➢ To Whom is refers to “Audience Analysis”
➢ With What Effect is refers to “Effect Analysis”

BERLO’S SMCR MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

Source: The source is situated where the message originates.

➢ Communication skills – It is the skill of the individual to communicate. For example, the ability to
read, write, speak, listen etc.

➢ Attitudes – This includes attitudes towards the audience, subject and towards oneself. For
example, for the student, the attitude is to learn more and for teachers, it is to help teach.

➢ Knowledge– Communicating also means that the person needs to be knowledgeable about the
subject or topic. For e.g. a teacher needs to know about the subject in detail that he or she teaches
so that they can communicate properly such that the students understand here.

Note: It refers, not to the general knowledge, but to the knowledge of the subject that the person is communicating and their
familiarity with it.

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 ➢ Social system – The social system includes the various aspects of society like values, beliefs, culture,
religion and a general understanding of society. It is where the communication takes place.
For example, classrooms differ from country to country just like people’s behaviours and how they
communicate, etc.
Note: We can communicate only to the extent that the social system allows. When we communicate, we take the social system into
account.

➢ Culture: Culture of a particular society also comes under the social system.
According to this model, people can communicate only if the above requirements are met in the
proper or adequate proportion.

Encoder: The sender of the message, from where the message originates, is referred to as the encoder. So
the source encodes the message here.

Message
➢ Content – The body of a message, from the beginning to the end, comprises its content. For
example, whatever the class teacher teaches in the class, from beginning to end, is the content of
the message.

➢ Elements – It includes various things like language, gestures, body language, etc. They constitute all
the elements of a particular message. Any content is accompanied by some elements.

➢ Treatment – It refers to the packing of the message and the way in which the message is conveyed
or the way in which it is passed on or delivered.

Note: When there is too much treatment, communication will not go smoothly.

➢ Structure– The structure of the message refers to how it is arranged; the way people structure the
message into various parts.

Note: Message is the same, but if the structure is not properly arranged then the receiver will not understand the
message.

➢ Code– The code of the message refers to the means through which it is sent and in what form. It
could be, for example, language, body language, gestures, music, etc. Even culture is a code.
Through this, people give and receive messages and communication takes place.

Note: Only when the code is clear, the message will be clear. The wrong usage may lead to misinterpretation .

Channel– It refers to the five sense organs. The following are the five senses:
▪ Hearing
▪ Seeing
▪ Touching

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 Smelling
▪
Tasting
▪
Communication occurs through one or more of these channels.

➢ Hearing: The use of ears to receive the message. For example, orally transmitted messages,
interpersonal communication etc.

➢ Seeing: Visual channels, for example, Watching television so the message is conveyed through the
scene/film.

➢ Touching: The sense of touch can be used as a channel to communicate. For example, we touch,
buy food, hugging our loved ones,etc.

➢ Smelling: Smell also can be a channel to communicate. For example, perfumes, food, fragrances
etc. Charred smell communicates something is burning. People can deduct which food is being
cooked by its smell etc.

➢ Tasting : The tongue is a muscular organ used in the act of eat and taste food. For example, while a
food is being shared, the communication can happen regarding its taste.
Note: Despite not mentioning a medium, we need to assume that as communication is taking place, channels can be any of the 5
senses or combination.
➢ Decoder : The person who receives the message and decodes it is referred to a decoder.

➢ Receiver: The receiver needs to think all the contents and elements of the source, so as to
communicate/responds to sender effectively.;

Berlo’s model believes that for effective communication to take place, the source and the
receiver need to be on the same level. Only then communication will happen or take place
properly. Hence, the source and the receiver should be similar.

For example, if the communication skill of the source is good, then the receiver should have equally good
listening skills.

It cannot be said that the receiver does not receive the whole message because even though he may
receive it, but may not be able to interpret its meaning. For effective communication, the source and the
receiver need to be on the same level.

Note: Self-image differs from person to person. For communication, the person should consider the receiver, speak accordingly
and give them what they need.

Criticism of Berlo’s SMCR model of communication:

1. There is a lack of feedback. The effects are practically unknown.
2. It does not mention the barriers to communication.
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 3. There is no room for noise.
4. It is a rather complex model.
5. It is a linear model of communication.
6. It requires people to be on the same level for effective communication to happen. However,
that rarely happens in everyday life.
7. The main drawback of the model is that it omits the usage of sixth sense as a channel of
communication, which is an asset to human beings (thinking, understanding, analyzing etc.)

The Osgood-Schramm Model

The Osgood-Schramm model is built on the theory that communication is a two-way street, with a sender and a receiver.
Charles Egerton Osgood popularized the notion that communication was circular rather than linear, meaning that it
required two participants taking turns sending and receiving a message.
Later, Wilbur Schramm, who talked about the model in his book, The Process and Effects of Communication, adapted the
model and added the notion of field of experience, or commonality, to the mix. Field of experience incorporates what is
mutually understood between the sender and receiver. For example, a professor of calculus would have very little luck
communicating important math principles to a classroom of kindergarten students, because they do not share a field of
experience that makes the message easy to understand.
For his part, Schramm is considered one of the pioneers of the mass communications field. He started the doctoral
program in mass communication at the University of Iowa, helping develop mass communication (television, print news,
and other ways to communicate) as a university discipline.

Components of Osgood-Schramm
Most communication models have different components that help to identify the structure of the model. In the Osgood-
Schramm model, the components are fairly simple:

• Sender: This is the person who encodes (converts) and sends the message.
• Message: This is the content being shared between the parties.
• Receiver: This is the person who decodes (interprets) the message.
• Semantic barriers: The backgrounds, beliefs, experiences, and values that influence how the sender conveys a
message and how the receiver interprets it.

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Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication

In 1948, Shannon was an American mathematician, Electronic engineer and Weaver was an American
scientist both of them join together to write an article in “Bell System Technical Journal” called “A
Mathematical Theory of Communication” and also called as “Shannon-Weaver model of communication”.

This model is specially designed to develop the effective communication between sender and receiver.
Also they find factors which affecting the communication process called “Noise”. At first the model was
developed to improve the Technical communication. Later it’s widely applied in the field of
Communication.

The model deals with various concepts like Information source, transmitter, Noise, channel, message,
receiver, channel, information destination, encode and decode.

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 ➢ Sender : The originator of message or the information source selects desire message

➢ Encoder : The transmitter which converts the message into signals

Note: The sender’s messages converted into signals like waves or Binary data which is compactable to transmit the
messages through cables or satellites. For example: In telephone the voice is converted into wave signals and it
transmits through cables

➢ Decoder : The reception place of the signal which converts signals into message. A
reverse process of encode
Note : The receiver converts those binary data or waves into message which is comfortable and understandable for
receiver. Otherwise receiver can’t receive the exact message and it will affect the effective communication between
sender and receiver

➢ Receiver : The destination of the message from sender

Note : Based on the decoded message the receiver gives their feed back to sender. If the message distracted
by noise it will affect the communication flow between sender and receiver

➢ Noise: The messages are transferred from encoder to decoder through channel.
During this process the messages may distracted or affected by physical noise like
horn sounds, thunder and crowd noise or encoded signals may distract in the channel
during the transmission process which affect the communication flow or the receiver
may not receive the correct message

Note : The model is clearly deals with external noises only which affect the messages or signals from external
sources. For example: If there is any problems occur in network which directly affect the mobile phone
communication or distract the messages

Criticism of Shannon-Weaver model of communication :

1. One of the simplest model and its general applied in various communication theories

2. The model which attracts both academics of Human communication and Information theorist to
leads their further research in communication
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3. It’s more effective in person-to-person communication than group or mass audience

4. The model based on “Sender and Receiver”. Here sender plays the primary role and receiver plays
the secondary role (receive the information or passive)

5. Communication is not a one way process. If it’s behaved like that, it will lose its strength. For
example: Audience or receiver who listening a radio, reading the books or watching television is a one way
communication because absence of feedback

6. Understanding Noise will helps to solve the various problems in communication

Westley and MacLean’s Model of Communication

Introduction:
In 1957 Westley and MacLean’s model of communication is proposed by Bruce Westley (1915-1990) and
Malcolm S. MacLean Jr (1913-2001). Being one of the creators of journalism studies, Westley served as a
teacher at the University of Wisconsin, Madison, between 1946 and 1968. Malcolm was director of
University of Journalism School (1967-74) and co founder of the University College at University of
Minnesota.

This model can be seen two contexts, interpersonal and mass communication. And the point of difference
between interpersonal and mass communication is the feedback. In interpersonal, the feedback is direct
and fast. In the mass, the feedback is indirect and slow.

Model:
Westely and Maclean realized that communication does not begin when one person starts to talk, but
rather when a person responds selectively to his/her physical surroundings. This model considers a strong
relation between responds from surroundings and the process of communication. Communication begins
only when a person receives message from surroundings. Each receiver responds to the message they
received based on their object of orientation.

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X1, X2, X3 and X4….—are news articles or information, Feedback (f), Clients (A), Reader or Audience (B)
and Gate Keeper (c)

Example:
A Daily News Papers will receive many Press releases from Many Public Relations Agencies on behalf of
their clients. In this case, News paper will publish the selected Press release due to the space constraints.
Then, Readers can directly respond to the client or they can respond to the News daily which published in
the Newspaper. If Readers responded to daily News paper, it will communicate the feedback to concern PR
Agency.

X1, X2 and X3—are Press Release, Feedback (f), Clients (A), Reader (B) and Daily News Paper (Gate Keeper)
(c)

1. Feedback Loop between Reader (B) and News Paper (C) – fBC
2. Feedback Loop between News Paper(C ) and Client (A)- fCA
3. Feedback loop between Reader (B) and Client (A)- fBA.

Merits and Demerits:

▪ This model accounts for Feedback.

▪ It can account for different modes of communication, i.e., for both interpersonal communication and
Mass communication.

▪ It is a predictive model of communication and very descriptive also.

▪ It also account for non binary interactions, this means that it will remain good even for communications
involving more than two sources.

▪ Westley and Maclean communication model is Two Dimensional.

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 ▪ It cannot account for multi dimensions; this means this model will not be applicable for typical
communication events that involve broader context and wide range of communication messages.

Newcomb’s Model of Communication

The New Comb’s model of communication was introduced by Theodore M Newcomb of the University of
Michigan in 1953. He gives different approach to the communication process. The main purpose of this
theory is to introduce the role of communication in a social relationship (society) and to maintain social
equilibrium within the social system. He does not include the message as a separate entity in his diagram,
implying it only by use of directional arrows. He concentrates on the social purpose of communication,
showing all communication as a means of sustaining relationships between people. Sometimes it’s called
as an “ABX” model of communication.

The Newcomb’s model works in a triangular format or A-B-X system

A – Sender

B – Receiver

X – Matter of Concern

The relationship between A and B is like student and teacher, government and public or newspaper and
readers. Sender and Receiver may work in a same flow but the same time some factor like “X” may affect
their flow of relationship. “X” it may be third persons, issue, topic or policy.

For Example:
Teachers introduce a new policy to increase the college timing from 6 hours to 8 hours.

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A – Teachers B – Students X – Policy or issue
If both students and teachers are satisfied with this policy then the communication maintains its
equilibrium status between them.
Otherwise the flow of communication between “A” and “B” becomes trouble in the social system.

If “A” or “B” is not ready to accept the policy then it will directly affect the social system and can’t maintain
the equilibrium status.

So Teachers”A” can convince students “B” as much as possible. Otherwise they have to make some
adjustments in the Policy “X” and convince them towards the policy.
Introduction:
Mr. George Gerbner is one of the pioneers in the field of communication research. His works are
descriptive as well as very easy to understand any other before. He is working as a professor and head of
the Annenberg School of Communications in the University of Pennsylvania. In 1956, Gerbner attempted
the general purpose of communication models. He stressed the dynamic nature of communication in his
work and also the factor which affecting the reliability of communication.

(Note: This model can be best understood when read along with the diagram beginning at E – Event.)

(i) Perceptual Dimension:

An ‘E’ is an event happens in the real life and the event content or message is perceived by ‘M’ (Man or a
Machine). After Perceives the message from “E” by “M” is known as “E1”. E1 is not same as like ‘E’.
Because any man or machine can’t perceives the whole event and they perceives only the part of the event
(E1). This is known as “Perceptual Dimension”.

These 3 factors are involves between ‘E’ and ‘M’

➢ Selection
➢ Context
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 ➢ Availability
M (man or machine) cannot perceive the entire content of the event “E”.
So M selects the interesting or needed content from the entire event and filtering the
others. The context occurs in the event and Availability is based on ‘M’s attitude, mood, culture and
personality. (For eg.

How a journalist perceives the messages from the event and also can’t focus the whole event so they filter
the unwanted or unrelated content from the event. This filtered content is not same as like the actual
event content because the journalist edits the content based on his attitude, mood and cultural
background or press policies).

(ii) Means and Controls dimension:

E2 is the event content which is drawn or artified by M. Here M becomes the source of a message about E
to send someone else. M creates a statement or signals about the message and Gerbner termed its Form
and content as “SE2”. S (Signal or Form) it takes and E2 (Man’s content). Here Content (E2) is structured or
formed (S) by ‘M’ and it can communicate in a different ways or based on the structured ways.

M has to use channels (or media) over to send the message which he has a greater or lesser degree of
control. The question of ‘control’ relates to M’s degree of skill in using communication channels. If using a
verbal channel, how good is he using words? If using the Internet, how good is he at using new technology
and words?

This process can be extended to infinitum by adding on other receivers (M2, M3etc.) who have further
perceptions (SE3, SE4 etc.) of the statements about perceived events.

Important Note:
Message at every level is altered or changed.

Example:
In case of news reporting, E can be any event that has happened and the reporter (M) selects a particular
part of event (E1) that may be provide his channel higher TRP ratings or the news may boost the particular
party which his channel supports. This SE2 is sent through a medium to the mass audience. Then the
audience distributed the message (SE2) and he (M1) sends to his friends with his interpretation and the
process continues.

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Wilbur Schramm’s Interactive Model

Helical Model of Communication

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In 1967, Frank Dance has proposed the communication model called Dance’s Helix Model for a better
communication process. The name helical comes from “Helix” which means an object having a three-
dimensional shape like that of a wire wound uniformly around a cylinder or cone. He shows
communication as a dynamic and non-linear process.

Frank Dance explains the communication process based on this Helix structure and compares it with communication.
In the Helix structure, the bottom or starting is very small then it gradually moves upward in a back and forth circular
motion which forms the bigger circle in the top and it is still moves further. The whole process takes some time to
reach. As like helix, the communication process starts very slowly and defined small circle only. The communicators
shared information only with a small portion of themselves to their relationships. Its gradually develops into next
level but which will take some time to reach and expanding its boundaries to the next level. Later the
communicators commit more and shared more portions by themselves.

When a child is born the only means of communication for him is crying, he
cries for everything like hunger, pain, cold etc.. As the child grows the means of communication become
wider and broader. He learns to make noises then he learns a language to obtain attention and to fulfil his
needs. As a Helix, the process of communication, in this case, started as crying and later it developed into a
complex and compound means.

The Helical model of communication is largely dependent on its past. A child learns to pronounce a word in
his elementary classes and throughout his life he uses that word in the same way he learnt. Just like that,
we used to react to certain things in a certain way in our childhood and such reactions and habits lasts with
us forever. The communication evolves in the beginning in some simple forms then the same process of
communication functions and develops based on past activities. Thus, his way of communication or his
reactions may also different from the past behavior and experiences. It develops further with modifications
according to the situations.

Therefore the model concludes that the process of communication is like a continuous curve with some
changes or flexibility. The base of the helical curve (lower level) can be affected and/or altered at any time
accordingly the experience of an individual.

Frank Dance included the concept of time in his theory. The lifetime experience gained over the issue will always be
based on the similar event/incident happened in the past according to him. This theory of communication was
subject to a number of experimental researches. Even though this model of communication clarifies everything there
is a problem of oversimplification. According to this theory, a communication process is the product of what we
learnt.

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Ecological model of communication
Davis Foulger argues that Shannon’s model for communication processes functions well enough as an introductory model,
but it may be time to turn to alternative models in order to accommodate for newer forms of technology and media. He
writes that Shannon’s model is too basic and abstract in light of how people selectively consume and interact with media
today (Foulger 1). Additionally, Ronald Day concludes in his piece that the linear conduit model is reminiscent of a Cold
War era way of thinking about communication (Day 10). One of the more recent phenomena that may require a more
complicated diagram than Shannon’s is the rapid growth of fandom within the Internet sphere. Fandom is composed of a
large, varied, and sometimes hierarchical network that does not function as a simple linear route through a transmitter.

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MAGIC BULLET OR HYPODERMIC NEEDLE THEORY
OF COMMUNICATION
History :
In mid 1930’s media scholars found the first theory on Media Effects and the Media Behaviors. During
second world wars media plays a vital role in both United States and Germany to made influence in the
people’s mind. The Germany Hitler’s Nazi used film industry for Propaganda and they produced lots of
movies about their achievements which made a great impact in Germans mind. Later the United States
also used its own Hollywood and produced films like “Its Happened one night”, “It’s a wonderful life” and
Mr. Smith goes to Washington” to portrait Germany as Evil force which also made impact in Americans
Mind. Here media audience accepts the messages directly without any rejection.

Theory :
The media (magic gun) fired the message directly into audience head without their own knowledge. The
message cause the instant reaction from the audience mind without any hesitation is called “Magic Bullet
Theory”. The media (needle) injects the message into audience mind and it cause changes in audience
behavior and psyche towards the message. Audience are passive and they can’t resist the media message
is called “Hypodermic Needle Theory”.

Both theories are deals with impact of media messages in audience mind and how audience react towards
the message without any hesitation.

Example :
In 1930, Newly formed mercury theater and Orson Wells join together and created a fake news bulletin
about aliens invasion in american city called Grover’s Mill, New jersey. They broadcast this news bulletin in
between the radio program called “The War of the Worlds”. The “Panic Broadcast” was reached merely 12
million American people and one million were seriously believed. Due to this broadcast the whole country
was in chaos.

Study :

The magic bullet theory is based on assumption of human nature and it was not based on any empirical
findings from research. Few media scholars do not accepting this model because it’s based on assumption
rather than any scientific evidence. In 1938, Lazarsfeld and Herta Herzog testified the hypodermic needle
theory in a radio broadcast “The War of the Worlds” (a famous comic program) by insert a news bulletin
which made a widespread reaction and panic among the American Mass audience. Through this
investigation he found the media messages may affect or may not affect audience.

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“People’s Choice” a study conducted by Lazarsfeld in 1940 about Franklin D. Roosevelt election campaign
and the effects of media messages. Through this study Lazarsfeld disproved the Magic Bullet theory and
added audience are more influential in interpersonal than a media messages.

Two step/ multi step flow of communication

Opinion Leader:
Opinion Leader is a leader for a certain group who gives details and information to lesser active persons in
the group. In office, the managing director is an opinion leader and in public, a political leader is an opinion
leader. They interpret the information to their own group. But one thing the Opinion leader is a leader only
for their own group not for all.

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In Public, Political leader is an opinion leader. Here few people are not influenced by the leader and their
political views and thought. These people won’t support opinion leaders and isolated from the population.

Katz and Paul seems “the flow of media messages from radio and print to opinion leaders and then the
leaders leads the messages to lesser active users in the population”. Through this transformation of
message, the leaders may add their opinion on the actual content which may affects the low active users.
In some cases the Opinion leaders are filtering the actual content ensures the information is needed by the
people. Mostly the opinion leaders are selective and they pass the messages to the group. (Low-end media
users: Poor, Worker and People who are not affordable for getting information directly).

Note: The Opinion leaders have enough voice only in structured social groups not in an isolated individual
in the population.

Gate keeping model of communication

Concept:
The Gatekeeper decides what information should move to group or individual and what information
should not. Here, the gatekeeper are the decision makers who letting the whole social system. The
gatekeeper is having its own influence like social, cultural, ethical and political. Based on personal or social
influences they let the information to the group. Through this process the unwanted, sensible and
controversial information’s are removed by the gate keeper which helps to control the society or a group
and letting them in a right path. In home mother plays the vital role and she has to decide what their kid’s
needs and what should avoid.

In news medium editor play vital role. He has to decide what kind of news items will publish and what
should not. Every day the news channel receives various news items from all over the world. The channel
have its own ethics and policies through this the editor decide the news items for publish or aired. In some
cases few news items are rejected by the editor due the organizations policy or the news items which are
not suitable for publish.

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Individual Difference Theory,
The theory predicts that individual differences in personality and cognitive ability variables,
in combination with learning experiences, lead to variability in knowledge, skills, and work
habits that mediate effects of personality and cognitive ability on job perform- ance

Individuals differ from each other in many characteristics of life. For example:- Changes
among individuals can be found in physical forms like in height, weight, color, complexion
strength, etc., the difference in intelligence, achievement, interest, attitude, aptitude,
learning habits, motor abilities, skill.

Selective exposure
Selective exposure is a theory within the practice of psychology, often used in media and communication research, that
historically refers to individuals' tendency to favor information which reinforces their pre-existing views while
avoiding contradictory information. Selective exposure has also been known and defined as "congeniality bias" or
"confirmation bias" in various texts throughout the years.[1]

Selective exposure relies on the assumption that one will continue to seek out information on an issue even after an
individual has taken a stance on it. The position that a person has taken will be colored by various factors of that issue that
are reinforced during the decision-making process. According to Stroud (2008), theoretically, selective exposure occurs
when people's beliefs guide their media selections

Selective perception

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Selective perception is the tendency not to notice and more quickly forget stimuli that cause emotional discomfort and
contradict our prior beliefs. For example, a teacher may have a favorite student because they are biased by in-group
favoritism. The teacher ignores the student's poor attainment. Conversely, they might not notice the progress of their
least favorite student.

Selective perception may refer to any number of cognitive biases in psychology related to the way expectations
affect perception. Human judgment and decision making is distorted by an array of cognitive, perceptual and motivational
biases, and people tend not to recognise their own bias, though they tend to easily recognise (and even overestimate) the
operation of bias in human judgment by others.[3] One of the reasons this might occur might be because people are simply
bombarded with too much stimuli every day to pay equal attention to everything, therefore, they pick and choose
according to their own needs

Selective retention,
Selective retention, in relating to the mind, is the process whereby people more accurately remember messages that are
closer to their interests, values and beliefs, than those that are in contrast with their values and beliefs, selecting what to
keep in the memory, narrowing the information flow.
Examples include:

• A person may gradually reflect more positively on their time at school as they grow older
• A consumer might remember only the positive health benefits of a product they enjoy
• People who view a company favorably are likely to focus on the positive its times of trouble
• People tending to omit problems and disputes in past relationships
• A conspiracy theorist paying less attention to facts which do not aid their standpoint
Outside the theory of memory and mind, selective retention may also refer to the retaining of contractual agreements
upon moving on in open politics or of physical phenotypes in eugenic methods of propagation of traits and features of a
genome, among other fields where action can impose a stratum of creative limitation.

Cultivation Theory
Cultivation theory is a sociological and communications framework to examine the lasting effects of media, primarily
television. It suggests individuals routinely exposed to certain media for extended durations at a time perceive the
world's social reality as it is similarly presented through the media they are exposed to, which then influences their
attitudes and behaviours.
Cultivation theory suggests that exposure to media affects a viewer's perceptions of reality, drawing attention to
three aspects: institutions, messages, and publics
Television, Gerbner suggested, binds diverse communities together by socializing people into standardized roles and
behaviours; thus, television functions as part of the enculturation process.[16][17] Gerbner's research focused on the
larger meaning of heavy television consumption instead of the meaning behind specific messages.

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Mainstreaming is the process by which TV viewers from disparate groups develop a common outlook of the world
through exposure to the same images and labels, the effect being stronger among those whose TV viewing is more
constant.

• Blurring refers to the fusion of traditional distinctions,

• Blending refers to the emergence of new conceptions into television's cultural mainstream, and
• Bending refers to shifting the mainstream to the institutional interests of the medium and its sponsors.
Resonance occurs when things viewed on television are congruent with the actual lived realities of viewers.

Agenda setting theory (Maxwell McCombs and Donald L. Shaw)

The influence of media affects the presentation of the reports and issues made in the news that affects the
public mind. The news reports make it in a way that when a particular news report is given importance and
attention than other news the audience will automatically perceive it as the most important news and
information are given to them. The priorities of which news comes first and then the next are set by the
media according to how people think and how much influence will it have among the audience.

Agenda setting occurs through a cognitive process known as “accessibility”. Media provides information
which is the most relevant food for thought, portraits the major issues of the society and reflects people
minds.

These are the levels of agenda setting theory:

First Level:
The first level is usually used by the researchers to study media uses and its objectives or the influences
that media creates on people and the most proximal thought that people will have on the exposure to the
information given by media house.

Second level:
At the second level, the media focuses on how people should think about the nature of the issues. Thus,
sensationalization of news reports may happen to bring in the interest of the audience. In fact, media
wants to grab attention and implant thoughts in people minds about some serious issues. That’s why
media turn certain issues viral.

Factors affecting Agenda setting

Gatekeepers, editors and managers and other external influences.

Non-media sources like government officials and influential personnel.

For example “if the media has close relationship with the elite society, that class will probably affect the
media agenda and the public agenda in turn”.

Criticisms of Agenda setting theory is

▪ Media users are not ideal. The people may not pay attention to details.
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 ▪ The effect is weakened for people who have made up their mind.
▪ Media cannot create problems. They can only alter the level of awareness, priorities,
importance, etc.

Uses and gratifications theory (UGT)

Uses and gratifications theory (UGT) is an approach to understanding why and how people actively seek out specific
media to satisfy specific needs. UGT is an audience-centered approach to understanding mass communication. Diverging
from other media effect theories that question "what does media do to people?", UGT instead focuses on "what do
people do with media?" It postulates that media is a highly available product and the audiences are the consumers of the
same product.
This communication theory is positivistic in its approach, based in the socio-psychological communication tradition, and
focuses on communication at the mass media scale .
The driving question of UGT
is: Why do people use media and what do they use them for? UGT discusses how users deliberately choose media that will
satisfy given needs and allow one to enhance knowledge, relaxation, social interactions/companionship, diversion, or
escape
UGT assumes that audience members are not passive consumers of media. Rather, the audience has power over
their media consumption and assumes an active role in interpreting and integrating media into their own lives. Unlike
other theoretical perspectives, UGT holds that audiences are responsible for choosing media to meet their desires and
needs to achieve gratification. This theory would then imply that the media compete against other information sources for
viewers' gratification.
UGT has a heuristic value today because it gives communication scholars a "perspective through which a number of ideas
and theories about media choice, consumption, and even impact can be viewed"

▪ DOMINANT PARADIGM MODERNISATION and

DEPENDENCY paradigm focusses on short term and quick results
to achieve development as “was in the west”

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 ▪
▪ This paradigm indicated heavy dependence on industries as prime movers for
development.
▪ Role of communication in this paradigm was on educating people for better governance ,
use of mass media for diffusion of innovation where media can inject behaviours practices
and information to media audiences .
▪ Media termed as hyper needle or magic bullet .
▪ Audience assumed as passive receivers of information
▪ Role of inter personal network was limited and media was a multiplier of change .
▪
▪ Dependency paradigm in 1960s brought
➢ Economic growth concept
➢ Modernisation theory
➢ Shift of under development to development concepts in
political science
➢ Theories of transformation in communication literature
▪ United nations DSCS(development support communication services
) UNDP (united nations development programme) took up
development activity and other works like FAO(food and
agriculture organisation) UNICEF etc.
▪ Dependency paradigm was criticised for central planning , low
priority to agricultural consideration, its induatry focus and lack of
recognistion of external factor in development process.

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 ▪ Alternate paradigm came from non western terrains and it
explored the reason for failures of social development inspite of
achieving economic development.
▪ It revealed that profit was not the prime mover of behavioural
change .
▪ Contrary to dependency paradigm here the role and importance of
audience and people is far more in the process of development
communication.
▪ Interpersonal relation were crucial in channelling and shaping
opinions.
▪ They concluded that effective change can be induced through mass
media as well as face to face interaction
▪ Triadic communication involving change agents, beneficiaries and
communicators become essential function of alternate paradigm.
➢ Social mobilisation
➢ Community empowerment
➢ Social movements
➢ Grass root participation
➢ Media advocacy.

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Diffusion of Innovation Theory
Diffusion is the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time
among the members of a social system (Everett Roger, 1961). An Innovation is an idea, practice, or object
perceived as new by an individual or other unit of adoption (Rogers, 2003).

The diffusion of innovation theory analysis how the social members adopt the new innovative ideas and how they
made the decision towards it. Both mass media and interpersonal communication channel is involved in the diffusion
process.

The theory heavily relies on Human capital. According to the theory , innovations should be widely adopted in order
to attain development and sustainability. In real life situations the adaptability of the culture played a very relevant
role where ever the theory was applied. Rogers proposed four elements of diffusion of innovations they are

▪ Innovations – an idea, practice, or object perceived as new by an individual. It can also be an

impulse to do something new or bring some social change

▪ Communication Channel – The communication channels take the messages from one
individual to another. It is through the channel of communication the Innovations spreads
across the people. It can take any form like word of mouth, SMS, any sort of literary form etc

▪ Time – It refers to the length of time which takes from the people to get adopted to the
innovations in a society. It is the time people take to get used to new ideas. For an example
consider mobile phones it took a while to get spread among the people when it is introduced in
the market

▪Social System – Interrelated network group joint together to solve the problems for a common
goal. Social system refers to all kinds of components which construct the society like religion,
institutions, groups of people etc
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Who made the decision to accept the innovation? Rogers says that in a social system there are three
ways the decisions are taken. He suggested the three ways considering the ability of people to make
decisions of their own and their ability to implement it voluntarily, the three ways are as follows..

▪ Optional – Individuals made a decision about the innovation in the social system by
themselves

▪ Collective – The decision made by all individuals in the social system

▪ Authority – Few individuals made the decision for the entire social system

Further Roger identifies the Mechanism of Diffusion of Innovation Theory through five following stages

➢ Knowledge :
An Individual can expose the new innovation but they are not showing any interest in it due to the
lack information or knowledge about the innovation

➢ Persuasion :
An Individual is showing more interest in the new innovation and they are always seeking to get
details or information about the innovation

➢ Decision :
In this stage, an individual analysis the positive and negative of the innovation and decide whether
to accept / reject the innovation. Roger explains “one of the most difficult stages to identify the
evidence”

➢ Implementation :
An individual’s take some efforts to identify the dependence of the innovation and collect more
information about the usefulness of the innovation, then its future also

➢ Confirmation :
An individual conforms or finalize their decision and continue to use the innovation with full
potential

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The Spiral of Silence Theory
The one view dominated the public scene and others disappeared from the public awareness as it adherents became
silent. In other words, the people fear of separation or isolation those around them, they tend to keep their attitudes
to themselves when they think they are in the minority. This process is called “Spiral of Silence”.

Example:
In a company, the managing director decides to increase their working hour from 8 to 10 and send e-mail
to all employees. Majority of them accept this time changes and few employees are not satisfied with his
decision. But they cannot or ready to express their thought publicly.

Because
1. They may feel unsupported by the other employees.

2. “Fear of isolation” like transfer

3. “Fear of Rejection” By rejecting their personal opinion from the public will help to avoid fight.

4. They may try to save their job by suppressing or avoid personal statement in public.

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Spiral of silence theory describe as a dynamic process, the predication about public opinion in mass
media which gives more coverage for the majorities in the society and gives very less coverage for
minorities.

Normative Theory – Four Theories of the Press

A Normative theory describes an ideal way for a media system to be controlled and operated by the
government, authority, leader and public. These theories are basically different from other communication
theories because normative theories of press are not providing any scientific explanations or prediction. At
the same these “four theories of the press” were came from many sources rather than a single
source. Sometimes media practitioners, social critics and academics also involved to develop these
normative theories.

Normative theories are more focused in the relationship between Press and the Government than press
and the audience. These theories are more concern about the ownership of the media and who controls
the press or media in the country.

The four theories of the Press/Media

▪ Authoritarian theory
▪ Libertarian theory
▪ Social responsibility theory
▪ Soviet media theory

Authoritarian Theory
Authoritarian theory describe that all forms of communications are under the control of the governing elite
or authorities or influential bureaucrats.

Authoritarians are necessary to control the media to protect and prevent the people from the national
threats through any form communication (information or news). The press is an instrument to enhance the
ruler’s power in the country rather than any threats. The authorities have all rights to permit any media
and control it by providing license to the media and make certain censorship.

If any media violate the government policies against license, then the authority has all right to cancel the
license and revoke it. The government have all right to restrict any sensitive issues from press to maintain
peace and security in the nation.
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Censorship:
Censorship is a suppression of any communication which may consider as harmful to the people, King,
government and its nation. Especially these censorship methods are much familiar in press which against
the freedom of speech and freedom of expression. In some other cases, the censorship helps to protect
the rulers and authorities from sensitive issues.
There are different types of censors like

▪ Political censor
▪ Moral censor
▪ Religious censor
▪ Military censor
▪ Corporate censor

Libertarian Theory
Introduction:
The Libertarian theory is one of the “Normative theories of press”. The theory which is originally came
from libertarian thoughts from 16th century in Europe. The libertarian theorists are against the
authoritarian thoughts. International trade and urbanization undermine the power of a rural aristocracy
which leads various social movements raise includes the Protestants reformation, that demands
individual’s freedom and their own lives and free thoughts. Liberalism means information is knowledge
and knowledge is power. Libertarianism is free from any authority or any control or censorship. The
libertarianism is an idea of individualism and limited government which is not harmful to another.

Libertarian theory:
Libertarian theory sees people are more enough to find and judge good ideas from bad. The theory says
people are rational and their rational thoughts lead them to find out what are good and bad. The press
should not restrict anything even a negative content may give knowledge and can make better decision
whilst worst situation. The libertarian thoughts are exactly against or opposite to the authoritarian theory
which means the authoritarian theory says “all forms of communication works under the control of
government or elite like king”.

Strength and Weakness:

1. Freedom of press will give more freedom to media to reveal the real thing happening in the society
without any censorship or any authority blockades.
2. Is reliable with U.S media traditions.
3. It gives more values for individuals to express their thoughts in media.
4. Theory excessively positive about media’s willing to meet responsibilities which may leads people into
negative aspects.
5. Is too positive about individual ethics and rationality.
6. Ignores need for reasonable control of media.
7. Ignores dilemmas posed by conflicting freedoms.

Social Responsibility Theory

Introduction:

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In mid 20th century most of the developing countries and third world nations have used this social
responsibility theory of press which is associated with “the Commission of the Freedom of Press” in United
States at 1949. In the book “Four theories of Press” (Siebert, Peterson and Schramm) it’s been stated that
“pure libertarianism is antiquated, out dated and obsolete.” That paved way for replacement of Libertarian
theory with the Social responsibility theory.

Social Responsibility Theory:

Social responsibility theory allows free press without any censorship but at the same time the content of
the press should be discussed in public panel and media should accept any obligation from public
interference or professional self regulations or both. The theory lies between both authoritarian theory
and libertarian theory because it gives total media freedom in one hand but the external controls in other
hand. Here, the press ownership is private. The social responsibility theory moves beyond the simple
“Objective” reporting (facts reporting) to “Interpretative” reporting (investigative reporting). The total
news is complete facts and truthful but the commission of the freedom press stated that “No longer giving
facts truthfully rather than give a necessary analysed or interpretative report on facts with clear
explanations”.

The theory helped in creating professionalism in media by setting up a high level of accuracy, truth, and
information. The commission of press council also included some tasks based on social responsibility of
media, which are as follows:

1. Formulate the code of conduct for the press.

2. Improve the standards of journalism.
3. Safeguarding the interests of journalism and journalist.
4. Criticise and make some penalty for violating the code of conduct.

Soviet Media Theory

Introduction:
After the 1917th revolution, the Soviet Union was restructured with new political system based on the
Marxist-Leninist principles. The newly formed communist party by Lenin shows much interest in the media
which serves to the working class in the country and their welfares. So the Soviet originates a theory from
Marxist, Leninist and Stalinist thoughts, with mixture of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel ideology is called
“Soviet Media Theory” is also known as “The Communist Media Theory”. The same theory was developed
and followed by Adolf Hitler’s Nazi in Germany and Benito Mussolini in Italy.

Soviet media theory is imitative of Leninist principles which based on the Carl Marx and Engel’s ideology. The
government undertake or controls the total media and communication to serve working classes and their
interest. Theory says the state have absolute power to control any media for the benefits of people. They put end to
the private ownership of the press and other media. The government media provide positive thoughts to create a
strong socialized society as well as providing information, education, entertainment, motivation and
mobilization. The theory describe the whole purpose of the mass media is to educate the greater masses of working
class or workers. Here, the public was encouraged to give feedback which would able to create interests towards the
media.

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Manufacturing Consent/ Propaganda model (Chomsky)

The Propaganda model of media control was introduced by Edward. S. Herman and Noam Chomsky in their book
‘Manufacturing Consent – The Political Economy of the Mass Media’. This theory states how propaganda works in a
mass media. The model tries to understand how the population is manipulated, and how the social, economic,
political attitudes are fashioned in the minds of people through propaganda. Herman and Chomsky mostly
concentrated on American population and media for their research but this theory is universally applicable

According to the theory media operates as a business which sells its products (readers and subscribers) to
other business entities that do their advertisements in media, rather than performing the function of
disseminating news for the public. Here the news is being misshaped and reformed from its original form.
Herman and Chomsky call the factors which misshape news as filters. The news is being filtered by each of
these factors before they reaches its audience or general public.

The five filters are

Size, Ownership and Profit orientation of mass media
The major media organizations are in the hands of a few elites. The major news channels, newspapers and
other mass media instruments are a part of large corporation and conglomerations. The information
presented to the public will be varying as per the interests of these organizations. As a part of maximizing
profit they sacrifice some news objectives. The extensive financial interests of these organizations may
endanger the quality of news. It is common

Funding
The advertisements play the major role of funding in mass media. If advertisements were not funding mass
media, then price of the newspapers may include cost of its production and also it’s applicable for other
mass media like Television, Radio and electronic media. So it is common that the media filters the news, in
favor of their advertisement providers. The ethics of the mass media is often modified for their existence
by media.

Source
Even the biggest media organizations cannot afford to have reporters and camera persons where ever the
news breaks. There will be some sources for news and the media is supposed to protect these sources and
in the same time there will be some powerful sources which tend to change the policies of media. For
availing a continuous flow of news, the media take suitable actions in favor of source. The relationships
have to be maintained with these sources and it is common that the news are published keeping the
‘source’ in mind.

Flaks
Flaks refer to the negative responses to the statement or programme published or broadcasted. If the flaks
are produced in a large scale it is destructive to the media. The media will always have an eye for the
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negative responses. It will have a through look on the materials and news before it publishes or broadcasts
some news about a publically loved figure. As a filter it will try to avoid the news items which may bring
sorts of negative responses.

Anti-communism
As far as the American corporations and elite groups are concerned the communism was an ultimate evil
because it took their wealth and power from them, it threatened their superior positions and high class. So
the elites who are the owners of media adopted a policy to bring censorship to the articles and news which
talks about the good side of communism. The American elite even feared the word communal. This is the
fifth filter in propaganda model suggested by Herman and Chomsky.

HEGEMONY

Hegemony, the dominance of one group over another, often supported

by legitimating norms and ideas. The term hegemony is today often
used as shorthand to describe the relatively dominant position of a
particular set of ideas and their associated tendency to become
commonsensical and intuitive, thereby inhibiting the dissemination or
even the articulation of alternative ideas. The associated
term hegemon is used to identify the actor, group, class, or state that
exercises hegemonic power or that is responsible for the dissemination
of hegemonic ideas

Frankfurt School
Frankfurt School, group of researchers associated with the Institute for Social Research in Frankfurt am
Main, Germany, who applied Marxism to a radical interdisciplinary social theory. The Institute for Social
Research (Institut für Sozialforschung) was founded by Carl Grünberg in 1923 as an adjunct of the
University of Frankfurt; it was the first Marxist-oriented research centre affiliated with a major German
university. Max Horkheimer took over as director in 1930 and recruited many talented theorists,
including T.W. Adorno, Erich Fromm, Herbert Marcuse, and Walter Benjamin.

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The members of the Frankfurt School tried to develop a theory of society that was based on Marxism and
Hegelian philosophy but which also utilized the insights of psychoanalysis, sociology, existential philosophy,
and other disciplines. They used basic Marxist concepts to analyze the social relations within capitalist
economic systems. This approach, which became known as “critical theory,” yielded influential critiques of
large corporations and monopolies, the role of technology, the industrialization of culture, and the decline
of the individual within capitalist society. Fascism and authoritarianism were also prominent subjects of
study. Much of this research was published in the institute’s journal, Zeitschrift für Sozialforschung (1932–
41; “Journal for Social Research”).

Herbert Marcuse, (born July 19, 1898, Berlin, Germany—died July 29, 1979,
Starnberg, West Germany [now Germany]), German-born American political philosopher and
prominent member of the Frankfurt School of critical social analysis, whose Marxist and
Freudian theories of 20th-century Western society were influential in the leftist student
movements of the 1960s, especially after the 1968 student rebellions in Paris and West
Berlin and at New York City’s Columbia University.

Theodor Wiesengrund Adorno, (born Sept. 11, 1903, Frankfurt am Main,

Ger.—died Aug. 6, 1969, Visp, Switz.), German philosopher who also wrote on sociology,
psychology, and musicology.

Adorno obtained a degree in philosophy from Johann Wolfgang Goethe University in

Frankfurt in 1924. His early writings, which emphasize aesthetic development as important
to historical evolution, reflect the influence of Walter Benjamin’s application of Marxism to
cultural criticism. After teaching two years at the University of Frankfurt, Adorno
immigrated to England in 1934 to escape the Nazi persecution of the Jews. He taught at
the University of Oxford for three years and then went to the United States (1938), where
he worked at Princeton (1938–41) and then was codirector of the Research Project on
Social Discrimination at the University of California, Berkeley (1941–48). Adorno and his
colleague Max Horkheimer returned to the University of Frankfurt in 1949. There they
rebuilt the Institute for Social Research and revived the Frankfurt school of critical theory,
which contributed to the German intellectual revival after World War II.

Cultural Studies (Birmingham school) Stuart Hall in

1964 was invited by Richard Hoggart to join his newly-established Centre for
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Contemporary Cultural Studies at Birmingham, in its research into youth cultures,
the press, film and television. Hall’s work at Birmingham was important particularly
when in 1970 Hoggart departed for UNESCO and Hall assumed the position of
Centre Director. Inspired by the political rebellions of 1968 and the work of the
Italian Marxist Antonio Gramsci, Hall sought out new working practices for
teachers and students that attempted to break down traditional academic
hierarchies. The centre became famous for a collaborative model of intellectual
work that was more in keeping with established practice in the sciences than the
arts. The Birmingham school is argued greatly influenced by E. P. Thompson’s The
Making of the English Working Class an influential and pivotal work of English social
history, which documents the evolution or formation of English artisan and
working class society in its formative years 1780 to 1832. Dick Hebdige was
another product of the Birmingham center. His work builds on earlier work at
Birmingham on youth subcultures. It was concerned with the relation between
subcultures and social class in postwar Britain. Whereas previous research described
subculture in terms of different aspects of a subcultural style (dress, hairstyle, music,
drugs), Hebdige argues that punk in London in 1976-77 borrowed from all previous
subcultures.

Concept and Process (Sahridaya and

Sadharanikaran, Natya Shastra)

Sadharanikaran model of communication (SMC), was proposed by Dr. Nirmala Mani

Adhikari on 2003. It is a systematic representation of communication process from a
Hindu perspective. It illustrates how the communication parties interact in a system for the
attainment of commonness or oneness.

• Sahridayata and Sahridayas are the core concepts upon which the meaning of
sadharanikaran resides.

• The sender and receiver attain sahridayata or become sahridayas only when they
accomplish the process of sadharanikaran.

• Thus, sadharanikaran is the attainment of sahridayata by communication process.

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Sadharanikaran is rooted in Natyashastra of Bharata. Scholars widely believe that
Bhattanayaka introduced the concept of sadharanikaran. He is credited for the use of the
term in his commentary on Natyashastra to explain the concept of rasa. Sadharanikaran
word is derived from the Sanskrit word sadharan; which means ‘commonality’ or
‘simplification’ in English. The true essence of sadharanikaran is to achieve commonness or
oneness among the people. Sadharanikaran model is the first ever model of communication
in diagrammatic form proposed from the East.
Sadharanikaran model comprises of the following elements:

1. Sahridayas (Preshaka, i.e. sender and Prapaka, i.e. receiver)

2. Bhava (Moods or emotions)
3. Abhivyanjana (Expression or encoding)
4. Sandesh (Message or information)
5. Sarani (Channel)
6. Rasaswadana (Firstly receiving, decoding and interpreting the message and finally
achieving the rasa)
7. Doshas (Noises)
8. Sandarbha (Context)
9. Pratikriya (Process of feedback)

Sahridayas are the people with a capacity to send and receive messages. They are
the parties engaged in communication, and capable of identifying each other as sender
and receiver of the process. If communication Is taken as a step-by-step process, which
is just for the sake of easy understanding, the sahridaya-preshaka (sender), who has the
bhavas (moods or emotions or thoughts) in mind, is the initiator of the process. It is the
sahridaya-prapaka (receiver) with whom the bhavas are to be shared. He or she has to
pass the process of rasaswadana. Abhivyanjana refers to the activities that a source goes
to translate bhavas into a form that may be perceived by the senses. It can be
understood as expression or encoding in English. Simplification is the essential
dimension here. In the communication process; the complex concepts and ideas are
simplified by the speaker(source) with illustrations and idioms appropriate for the
understanding of the listener (receiver of the message)

New World order and post Cold War

Development, { International Communication Theories: Propaganda, New World order and post Cold War
Development, New World Information and Communication Order, Globalisation,
Telecommunication and Development, Soft Power }

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 New World Information and Communication Order

The New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO, also shortened to New World
Information Order, NWIO or just, more generally, information order) is a term coined in a debate
over media representations of the developing world in UNESCO in the late 1970s early 1980s. The NWICO
movement was part of a broader effort to formally tackle global economic inequality that was viewed as a
legacy of imperialism upon the global south.[1] The term was widely used by the MacBride Commission, a
UNESCO panel chaired by Nobel Peace Prize laureate Seán MacBride, which was charged with creation of
a set of recommendations to make global media representation more equitable. The MacBride
Commission produced a report titled "Many Voices, One World", which outlined the main philosophical points
of the New World Information Communication Order.

Issues
A wide range of issues were raised as part of NWICO discussions. Some of these involved long-
standing issues of media coverage of the developing world and unbalanced flows of media
influence. But other issues involved new technologies with important military and commercial
uses. The developing world was likely to be marginalized by satellite and computer technologies.
The issues included:

• News reporting on the developing world that reflects the priorities of news
agencies in London, Paris and New York. Reporting of natural disasters and military
coups rather than the fundamental realities. At the time four major news agencies
controlled over 80% of global news flow.
• The Universal Declaration of Human Rights states "everyone has the right ... to seek,
receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of
frontiers". This was used by supporters to claim the NWICO discussions were, at their
core, based upon human rights.
• An unbalanced flow of mass media from the developed world (especially the United
States) to the underdeveloped countries. Everyone watches American movies and
television shows.
• Advertising agencies in the developed world have indirect but significant effects on
mass media in the developing countries. Some observers also judged the messages of
these ads to be inappropriate for the Third World.
• An unfair division of the radio spectrum. A small number of developed countries
controlled almost 90% of the radio spectrum. Much of this was for military use.
• There were similar concerns about the allocation of the geostationary orbit (parking
spots in space) for satellites. At the time only a small number of developed countries
had satellites and it was not possible for developing countries to be allocated a space
that they might need ten years later. This might mean eventually getting a space that
was more difficult and more expensive to operate.
• Satellite broadcasting of television signals into Third World countries without prior
permission was widely perceived as a threat to national sovereignty. The UN voted in
the early 1970s against such broadcasts.
• Use of satellites to collect information on crops and natural resources in the Third World
at a time when most developing countries lacked the capacity to analyze this data.
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 • At the time most mainframe computers were located in the United States and there
were concerns about the location of databases (such as airline reservations) and the
difficulty of developing countries catching up with the US lead in computers.
• The protection of journalists from violence was raised as an issue for discussion. For
example, journalists were targeted by various military dictatorships in Latin America in
the 1970s. As part of NWICO debates there were suggestions for study on how to
protect journalists and even to discipline journalists who broke "generally recognized
ethical standards". However, the MacBride Commission specifically came out against
the idea of licensing journalists.

Language and Communication

Importance of Language in Communication
Thoughts, feelings, knowledge and learning are expressed through the language which are the first source of
communication. For good journalism, it is necessary to use it in the best possible way. It plays an important role in
undertaking any aspect of life. We convey our feelings and thoughts to others through it. It is the origin of creation. It is
the biggest source of journalism. These are the words which make the points in our discussion. Language help audience to
understand the arguments and opinion

Importance of Language in communication

Here we will discuss the communicative significance of language with the following points.

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 1. Language is an important source of communication. Man is not only affected by it, but also, expresses his
personality through it
2. All kinds of information can be sorted out by it and we convey our feelings, thoughts, impressions,
experiences to others though it.
3. In journalism language plays an important role.
4. Language helps in communication with people.
5. Language is a complex system of symbols; it is the source of human thoughts.
6. Language is the easiest source of dual communication.
7. Due to language people all over the world, come close, it creates universal brotherhood. In present age,
world has taken the shape of a family.
8. We persuade others through language to think and act.
9. It is right proverb that language gives happiness as well as sorrow. If it is used for creating trouble for
others; it is the negative aspect of the language.

Importance of Language in society

➢ Language Unites ➢ Language Enables
People in Society Knowledge Sharing
➢ Language Facilitates ➢ Language Promotes
Education in Society Empathy in Society
➢ Language is a Medium ➢ Language is a Symbol
for Self-Expression of Identity
➢ Language Enables ➢ Language Connects
Cooperation in Society Generations
➢ Language Enhances ➢ Language is a Powerful
Cultural Diversity Tool for Change
➢ Language is a Form of
Entertainment

Language used in different mediums

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Ayush Pandey
Media literacy
Media literacy is the ability to:

• Decode media messages (including the systems in which they exist);

• Assess the influence of those messages on thoughts, feelings, and behaviors; and
• Create media thoughtfully and conscientiously.

Media literacy education provides us with the tools and skills needed to be confident and
competent media consumers. Media literacy:

• Expands the concept of literacy, as today’s messages come in many forms and literacy
can no longer refer simply to the ability to read and write.
• Offers a solution to public health issues, such as body image issues and substance use,
exacerbated by toxic media messages.
• Empowers all people to engage in a global media environment.

What is Research
• Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge.
One can also define research as a scientific and systematic
search for pertinent information on a specific topic. In fact,
research is an art of scientific investigation.
• Some people consider research as a movement, a movement from
the known to the unknown. It is actually a voyage of discovery.
• We all possess the vital instinct of inquisitiveness for, when the
unknown confronts us, we wonder and our inquisitiveness makes
us probe and attain full and fuller understanding of the unknown.
• This inquisitiveness is the mother of all knowledge and the
method, which man employs for obtaining the knowledge of
whatever the unknown, can be termed as research.
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Objectives of research
• The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions
through the application of scientific procedures. The main aim of
research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has
not been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its
own specific purpose, we may think of research objectives as
falling into a number of following broad groupings:
• 1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new
insights into it (studies with this object in view are termed as
exploratory or formulative research studies);
• 2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular
individual, situation or a group (studies with this object in view
are known as descriptive research studies);
• 3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or
with which it is associated with something else (studies with this
object in view are known as diagnostic research studies);
• 4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables
(such studies are known as hypothesis-testing research studies).

Types of research
➢ Descriptive vs. Analytical
• Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of
different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is
description of the state of affairs as it exists at present.

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 • In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to
use facts or information already available, and analyze these to
make a critical evaluation of the material

➢ Applied vs. Fundamental

• Research can either be applied (or action) research or
fundamental (to basic or pure) research. Applied research
aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a
society or an industrial/business organization

• fundamental research is mainly concerned with

generalisations and with the formulation of a theory.
“Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’
or ‘basic’ research.” Research concerning some natural
phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples
of fundamental research

• the central aim of applied research is to discover a solution

for some pressing practical problem,

• whereas basic research is directed towards finding

information that has a broad base of applications and thus,
adds to the already existing organized body of scientific
knowledge.

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 Quantitative Research and Qualitative Research

• Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or

amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in
terms of quantity.
• Qualitative research, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon,
i.e., phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. For
instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons for
human behaviour

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Difference between methods and methodology
METHODS METHODOLOGY
• It is defined as the • It is a system of
procedure or methods, used
technique applied by
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 the researcher to scientifically for solving
undertake research. the research problem.
• It covers various • It entails the approach
investigation aligned towards the
techniques. attainment of purpose
• It is the application of of research.
the tools or techniques • It implies to the logical
employed in data reasoning or the way
collection. research is to be
• It is concerned with conducted.
carrying out • It is concerned with
experiment, test, learning various
surveys and techniques which can
interviews, etc. be employed in the
• It intends to discover due course of
the solution to the experiment, test or
problem at hand. survey.
• It aspires to apply
appropriate
procedures to
ascertain solutions.

Importance of literature review

• It helps the researcher to acquire in depth knowledge and in depth understanding on
the concepts, fundamentals and theories in the chosen field of study.
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 • It helps in identifying the issues on which research has already been done and
enables for a critical analysis on the previous studies.
• It empowers the researcher to approach the problem in a systematic, logical and
scientific way.
• It enables to choose the appropriate theoretical / conceptual framework for the
study.
• It leads to identify the research gaps in the field of study.
• It enables to identify the different variables and the relationships among them; which
leads to the formulation of hypothesis.

Research design
1. Dependent and independent variables: A concept which can take on different
quantitative values is called a variable.
• As such the concepts like weight, height, income are all examples of variables.
Qualitative phenomena (or the attributes) are also quantified on the basis of the
presence or absence of the concerning attribute(s). Phenomena which can take on
quantitatively different values even in decimal points are called ‘continuous
variables’.
• * But all variables are not continuous. If they can only be expressed in integer values,
they are non-continuous variables or in statistical language ‘discrete variables’.

2. Extraneous variable: Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of
the study, but may affect the dependent variable are termed as extraneous
variables. Suppose the researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a
relationship between children’s gains in social studies achievement and their self-
concepts
3. Control: One important characteristic of a good research design is to minimise the
influence or effect of extraneous variable(s). The technical term ‘control’ is used
when we design the study minimising the effects of extraneous independent
variables. In experimental researches, the term ‘control’ is used to refer to restrain
experimental conditions.
4. Confounded relationship: When the dependent variable is not free from the
influence of extraneous variable(s), the relationship between the dependent and
independent variables is said to be confounded by an extraneous variable(s).

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 Steps in sample design
• (i) Type of universe: The first step in developing any sample
design is to clearly define the set of objects, technically called the
Universe, to be studied. The universe can be finite or infinite. In
finite universe the number of items is certain, but in case of an
infinite universe the number of items is infinite, i.e., we cannot
have any idea about the total number of items. The population of
a city, the number of workers in a factory and the like are
examples of finite universes, whereas the number of stars in the
sky, listeners of a specific radio programme, throwing of a dice
etc. are examples of infinite universes.
• (ii) Sampling unit: A decision has to be taken concerning a
sampling unit before selecting sample. Sampling unit may be a
geographical one such as state, district, village, etc., or a
construction unit such as house, flat, etc., or it may be a social unit
such as family, club, school, etc., or it may be an individual. The
researcher will have to decide one or more of such units that he
has to select for his study.
• (iii) Source list: It is also known as ‘sampling frame’ from which
sample is to be drawn. It contains the names of all items of a
universe (in case of finite universe only). If source list is not
available, researcher has to prepare it. Such a list should be
comprehensive, correct, reliable and appropriate. It is extremely
important for the source list to be as representative of the
population as possible.
• (iv) Size of sample: This refers to the number of items to be
selected from the universe to constitute a sample. This a major
problem before a researcher. The size of sample should neither be
excessively large, nor too small. It should be optimum. An
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 optimum sample is one which fulfills the requirements of
efficiency, representativeness, reliability and flexibility. While
deciding the size of sample, researcher must determine the
desired precision as also an acceptable confidence level for the
estimate. The size of population variance needs to be considered
as in case of larger variance usually a bigger sample is needed. The
size of population must be kept in view for this also limits the
sample size. The parameters of interest in a research study must
be kept in view, while deciding the size of the sample. Costs too
dictate the size of sample that we can draw. As such, budgetary
constraint must invariably be taken into consideration when we
decide the sample size.
• (v) Parameters of interest: In determining the sample design, one
must consider the question of the specific population parameters
which are of interest. For instance, we may be interested in
estimating the proportion of persons with some characteristic in
the population, or we may be interested in knowing some average
or the other measure concerning the population. There may also
be important sub-groups in the population about whom we would
like to make estimates. All this has a strong impact upon the
sample design we would accept.
• (vi) Budgetary constraint: Cost considerations, from practical
point of view, have a major impact upon decisions relating to not
only the size of the sample but also to the type of sample. This
fact can even lead to the use of a non-probability sample.
• (vii) Sampling procedure: Finally, the researcher must decide the
type of sample he will use i.e., he must decide about the
technique to be used in selecting the items for the sample. In fact,
this technique or procedure stands for the sample design itself.
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 There are several sample designs (explained in the pages that
follow) out of which the researcher must choose one for his study.
Obviously, he must select that design which, for a given sample
size and for a given cost, has a smaller sampling error.

CRITERIA OF SELECTING A SAMPLING PROCEDURE

• 1. Inappropriate sampling frame: If the sampling frame is inappropriate
i.e., a biased representation of the universe, it will result in a systematic
bias.
• 2. Defective measuring device: If the measuring device is constantly in
error, it will result in systematic bias. In survey work, systematic bias can
result if the questionnaire or the interviewer is biased. Similarly, if the
physical measuring device is defective there will be systematic bias in the
data collected through such a measuring device.
• 3. Non-respondents: If we are unable to sample all the individuals initially
included in the sample, there may arise a systematic bias. The reason is
that in such a situation the likelihood of establishing contact or receiving a
response from an individual is often correlated with the measure of what
is to be estimated
• 4. Indeterminancy principle: Sometimes we find that individuals act
differently when kept under observation than what they do when kept in
non-observed situations. For instance, if workers are aware that
somebody is observing them in course of a work study on the basis of
which the average length of time to complete a task will be determined
and accordingly the quota will be set for piece work, they generally tend to
work slowly in comparison to the speed with which they work if kept
unobserved. Thus, the indeterminancy principle may also be a cause of a
systematic bias.

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 • 5. Natural bias in the reporting of data: Natural bias of respondents in the
reporting of data is often the cause of a systematic bias in many inquiries.
There is usually a downward bias in the income data collected by
government taxation department, whereas we find an upward bias in the
income data collected by some social organisation. People in general
understate their incomes if asked about it for tax purposes, but they
overstate the same if asked for social status or their affluence. Generally in
psychological surveys, people tend to give what they think is the ‘correct’
answer rather than revealing their true feelings.
Non-probability sampling: Non-probability sampling is that sampling
procedure which does not afford any basis for estimating the probability
that each item in the population has of being included in the sample. Non-
probability sampling is also known by different names such as deliberate
sampling, purposive sampling and judgement sampling.

Probability sampling methods

Probability sampling means that every member of the population has a chance of being selected.
It is mainly used in quantitative research. If you want to produce results that are representative of
the whole population, probability sampling techniques are the most valid choice.

There are four main types of probability sample.

[Link] random sampling

In a simple random sample, every member of the population has an equal chance of being
selected. Your sampling frame should include the whole population.

To conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools like random number generators or other
techniques that are based entirely on chance.

2. Systematic sampling
Systematic sampling is similar to simple random sampling, but it is usually slightly easier to
conduct. Every member of the population is listed with a number, but instead of randomly
generating numbers, individuals are chosen at regular intervals.

If you use this technique, it is important to make sure that there is no hidden pattern in the list that
might skew the sample. For example, if the HR database groups employees by team, and team
members are listed in order of seniority, there is a risk that your interval might skip over people in
junior roles, resulting in a sample that is skewed towards senior employees.

3. Stratified sampling
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Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into subpopulations that may differ in important
ways. It allows you draw more precise conclusions by ensuring that every subgroup is properly
represented in the sample.

To use this sampling method, you divide the population into subgroups (called strata) based on
the relevant characteristic (e.g., gender identity, age range, income bracket, job role).

Based on the overall proportions of the population, you calculate how many people should be
sampled from each subgroup.

4. Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling also involves dividing the population into subgroups, but each subgroup should
have similar characteristics to the whole sample. Instead of sampling individuals from each
subgroup, you randomly select entire subgroups.

If it is practically possible, you might include every individual from each sampled cluster. If the
clusters themselves are large, you can also sample individuals from within each cluster using one
of the techniques above. This is called multistage sampling.

This method is good for dealing with large and dispersed populations, but there is more risk of
error in the sample, as there could be substantial differences between clusters. It’s difficult to
guarantee that the sampled clusters are really representative of the whole population.

Non-probability sampling methods

In a non-probability sample, individuals are selected based on non-random criteria, and not every
individual has a chance of being included.

This type of sample is easier and cheaper to access, but it has a higher risk of sampling bias. That
means the inferences you can make about the population are weaker than with probability
samples, and your conclusions may be more limited. If you use a non-probability sample, you
should still aim to make it as representative of the population as possible.

Non-probability sampling techniques are often used in exploratory and qualitative research. In
these types of research, the aim is not to test a hypothesis about a broad population, but to
develop an initial understanding of a small or under-researched population.

1. Convenience sampling
A convenience sample simply includes the individuals who happen to be most accessible to the
researcher.

This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial data, but there is no way to tell if the sample
is representative of the population, so it can’t produce generalizable results. Convenience samples
are at risk for both sampling bias and selection bias.

Ayush Pandey
Example: Convenience samplingYou are researching opinions about student support services in your university, so
after each of your classes, you ask your fellow students to complete a survey on the topic. This is a convenient way
to gather data, but as you only surveyed students taking the same classes as you at the same level, the sample is not
representative of all the students at your university.

2. Voluntary response sampling

Similar to a convenience sample, a voluntary response sample is mainly based on ease of access.
Instead of the researcher choosing participants and directly contacting them, people volunteer
themselves (e.g. by responding to a public online survey).

Voluntary response samples are always at least somewhat biased, as some people will inherently
be more likely to volunteer than others, leading to self-selection bias.

3. Purposive sampling
This type of sampling, also known as judgement sampling, involves the researcher using their
expertise to select a sample that is most useful to the purposes of the research.

It is often used in qualitative research, where the researcher wants to gain detailed knowledge
about a specific phenomenon rather than make statistical inferences, or where the population is
very small and specific. An effective purposive sample must have clear criteria and rationale for
inclusion. Always make sure to describe your inclusion and exclusion criteria and beware
of observer bias affecting your arguments.

4. Snowball sampling
If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling can be used to recruit participants via other
participants. The number of people you have access to “snowballs” as you get in contact with
more people. The downside here is also representativeness, as you have no way of knowing how
representative your sample is due to the reliance on participants recruiting others. This can lead
to sampling bias.

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Ayush Pandey
Basic Citation Elements
➢ Author(s)
➢ Title(s)
➢ Source or venue name (e.g. name of the journal it was published or
conference where it was presented)
➢ Editor(s)
➢ Volume and edition
➢ Date or year of publication
➢ Page numbers
➢ City and country
➢ Publisher or university for theses
➢ URL for online sources
➢ DOI
➢ Retrieval date for online sources with dynamic content subjected to
change
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APA Style Citation Guide

APA stands for American Psychological Association. The APA style for citation is
popular among behavioral and social science journals. However, it is not limited to
such disciplines. The style originated in 1929, created by a group of psychologists,
anthropologists, and business managers to improve reading comprehension
(University of Pittsburgh, 2020). The citation style has undergone many changes
throughout the years.

The latest version is the APA 7th edition published in October 2019. This section draws
from the APA official Style and Grammar Guidelines (American Psychological
Association, n.d.).

The guidelines on how to add references in a research paper, including in-text citation,
formatting of the reference list, or bibliography section are explained in this section.

refer this link to read more about APA citation.

Axial Coding. This is a “second pass” through the data. During open coding, you
focus on the actual data and assigning code labels for themes. You are little concerned
about making connections among themes or elaborating the concepts that the themes
represent.

Selective Coding. By the time you are ready for this last pass through the data,
you have identified the major themes. Selective coding involves scanning all the data
and previous codes, looking selectively for cases that illustrate themes, and making
comparisons after most or all data collection has been completed. Selective coding
should begin after concepts have been well developed and several core generalizations
or ideas have been identified.

Ayush Pandey