CHAPTER TWO

RIVER HYDRAULICS

October ,2025
 Introduction

The term ‘hydraulics’ is related to the study of the flow of rivers.

It is also the application of the Fluid Mechanics principles to water engineering
structures, civil and environmental engineering facilities, especially hydraulic
structures (e.g. canal, river, dam, reservoir and water treatment plant).
 VARIABLES INVOLVED IN RIVER FLOW

 flow:
cross section
stage
discharge
velocity
turbulence
 sediment:
bed-material properties
load
 sediment discharge
bed configuration
slope or profile
base level
 geometry:
width
depth
cross-section shape
plan pattern
 Stage

• The stage of a river is the height of the water surface of the stream above
an arbitrary datum, usually either sea level or an elevation slightly below
the channel bed.
• Stage is related to depth, but the two are not the same.
 Discharge

• The discharge of a river is the volume rate of flow past a given cross section,
measured in cubic feet per second, cfs (cusecs) or cubic meters per second,
m3/s (cumecs).
• It’s not nearly as easy to measure discharge as it is to measure stage.
• Most measurement of river discharge makes use of a simple equation that
relates discharge (Q) past a cross section to the area( A) of the cross section
and the mean velocity (U) of flow past that cross section.
• In terms of flashiness (qualitative magnitude of change in discharge from
time to time).
• one of the most important aspects of river behavior for sedimentation, you
can plot a diagram of discharge vs. percentage of time (this is called a flow-
duration curve (or a discharge-duration curve) if you have a long record of
discharge.
 Slope

 It’s the difference in water surface elevation between two stations along
the river divided by the horizontal distance.
 the slope can be measured in feet per mile or in some metric units like
meters per kilometer.
 measuring the slope of a river is not easy: you have to do some
surveying to establish elevations and you have to worry about what
exactly is the course of the river.
The slope of a river
 bed shear stress

• The bed shear stress is the force per unit area the flow exerts on the bed.
• Actually the force per unit area varies strongly from point to point depending on the
details of the bed geometry.
• The concept of boundary shear stress is built around the idea that you average over
an area large enough to eliminate the effects of such things as sediment particles or
local sediment topography.
• The importance of the bed shear stress lies in its role in moving the sediment
particles resting on the river bed.
 Flow resistance
Flow resistance: is the force opposing motion and flow of the water on the river.
 It describes a fluid's internal resistance to movement and can be thought of as
a measure of fluid friction.
 It is the force or drag the boundary exerts on the flow.
 The importance of the flow resistance is in determining the particular
combination of flow depth and flow water discharge passed through a given
reach of a river.
 Types of flow and water movement in rivers

Laminar and Turbulent flow

• Laminar flow occurs at relatively low fluid velocity.
• The flow is visualized as layers which slide smoothly over each other without
macroscopic mixing of fluid particles.
• in turbulent flow the water particles move in very irregular paths, causing an
exchange of momentum from one portion of fluid to another.
 uniform and non-uniform

• a flow is uniform when the flow properties does not change along the flow
direction where parameters are constant.
• Non- uniform flow is a type of flow where parameters change from one point
to another point.
 Boundary layer flow

• For fluids having small viscosity, the effect of internal friction in the flow is
appreciable only in a thin layer surrounding the flow boundaries. However,
the boundary layer fills the whole flow in open channels.
• Prandtl developed the concept of the boundary layer. It provides an important
link between ideal-fluid flow and real-fluid flow.
• Prandtl introduced the mixing length concept in order to calculate the
turbulent shear stress. He assumed that a fluid parcel travels over a length
before its momentum is transferred.
 Prandtl’s mixing length theory

• Prandtl's mixing length theory is a model in fluid dynamics that explains

momentum transfer in turbulent flows by introducing a mixing length, Which
represents the average distance a fluid particle travels.
• prandtl relates the turbulent shear stress to the mean velocity gradient
through an eddy viscosity concept.
• It is a foundation tool for understanding turbulent boundary layers and shear
flows in applications like aerodynamics and is still used for its physical
insight though it is considered a simplification.
The turbulent shear stress can be expressed as follows
• The fluid parcel located in layer 1 and having the velocity u1, moves to layer 2
due to eddy motion.
• There is no momentum transfer during movement, i.e. the velocity of the fluid
parcel is still u1 when it just arrives at layer 2, and decreases to u2 sometime
later by the momentum exchange with other fluid in layer 2.
• This action will speed up the fluid in layer 2, which can be seen as a turbulent
shear stress τt acting on layer 2 trying to accelerate layer 2.
• Mixing length: the distance between two layers in transverse direction such that
fluid particles from one layer move to another layer and the momentum in that
direction is constant.
• a small length scale representing the average distance a fluid eddy travels before
it gets absorbed into a new surrounding fluid mass. It is the characteristics
distance over which fluid parcels retain their identity.
• Eddy viscosity: a measure of the momentum transfer caused by turbulence.
The theory proposes that turbulent shear stress is proportional to the eddy viscosity,
which is itself a function of the mixing length and the mean velocity gradient.
Fluid force and bottom shear stress
 Fluid Shear Stress and Friction Velocity

• Fluid shear stress: The forces on a fluid element with unit width as shown in
the figure above, because the flow is uniform (no acceleration), the force
equilibrium in x-direction reads as

• For small slope, sinβ ≈ tan β = S. Therefore

• The bottom shear stress is

 Bottom shear stress

In the case of arbitrary cross section, the shear stress acting on the boundary
changes along the wetted perimeter, Then the bottom shear stress means actually
the average of the shear stress along the wetted perimeter. The force equilibrium
reads
Where P is the wetted perimeter and A the area of the cross section. By applying
the hydraulic radius (R = A/P),
In the case of wide and shallow channel, R is approximately equal to h.
• Friction velocity: The bottom shear stress is often represented by friction
velocity, defined by

• The term friction velocity comes from the fact that has the same unit as
velocity and it has something to do with friction force.
Classification of flow layer
• Viscous sublayer: a thin layer just above the bottom. In this layer there is almost
no turbulence. Measurement shows that the viscous shear stress in this layer is
constant. The flow is laminar. Above this layer the flow is turbulent.
• Transition layer: also called buffer layer. Viscosity and turbulence are equally
important.
• Turbulent logarithmic layer: viscous shear stress can be neglected in this layer.
Based on measurement, it is assumed that the turbulent shear stress is constant
and equal to bottom shear stress. It is in this layer where Prandtl introduced the
mixing length concept and derived the logarithmic velocity profile.
• Turbulent outer layer: velocities are almost constant because of the presence of
large eddies which produce strong mixing of the flow.
 Velocity distribution for rigid boundary channel

In a rigid boundary channel, the velocity distribution is not uniform and is
highest slightly below the free surface, not at it due to friction along the
channel bed and sides.
The velocity profile varies both vertically and horizontally being zero at the
boundaries and increasing with distance from the walls.
The maximum velocity typically occurs near the center of the channel but
below the water surface.
• The highest velocity typically occurring near the center of the flow, slightly
above the channel's center of gravity, and away from the boundaries.
• The velocity is zero at the channel walls due to friction, increases with
distance from the boundary, and is often highest near the free surface in a
wide channel, though the exact profile depends on the channel's cross-
sectional shape and flow conditions like turbulence.
• Uniform velocity distribution: A uniform velocity distribution where the
velocity is constant across the entire cross-section is an idealization used for
simplified calculations, but it does not represent the real-world situation in a
rigid boundary channel.
• The velocity distribution of a fluid flowing over a rigid boundary
is characterized by a boundary layer where the velocity transitions from
zero at the boundary (due to the no-slip condition) to the free-stream
velocity further away.
• The specific profile within this layer depends on the flow's nature, such as
laminar or turbulent, and can be complex in more intricate scenarios like
those involving rigid vegetation.
 Key characteristics of the velocity distribution

• Boundary friction: The velocity is zero at the rigid boundary (bed and walls)
and increases as the distance from the boundary increases.
• Maximum velocity: The point of maximum velocity is not at the free surface
in all cases. It is often found slightly below the surface and towards the center
of the channel in wide channels.
• Cross-sectional shape: The shape of the channel's cross-section significantly
influences the velocity distribution. For example, the location of the maximum
velocity can shift depending on the angle of the side walls in a triangular or
trapezoidal channel.
No-slip condition: At the exact point of contact with the rigid
boundary, the fluid velocity is zero because of friction.
Velocity profile: As the distance from the boundary increases, the
velocity increases, although the rate of increase varies. This is not a
uniform increase and depends on the flow regime.
Turbulence: In turbulent flow, the velocity profile is more complex and
influenced by turbulent eddies. Models can be used to accurately
predict velocity profiles under turbulent conditions.
 Velocity distribution of movable boundary in alluvial channel

• In an alluvial channel, the velocity distribution is generally logarithmic,

especially in the turbulent flow zone, but is complicated by the mobile,
changing boundary.
• The sediment-laden flow creates bedforms like dunes and ripples, which
cause significant variations in the local velocity profile and increase flow
resistance compared to a rigid boundary.
 Characteristics of the velocity distribution

• Logarithmic law: For both rigid and mobile boundaries, the velocity profile is often
described by the logarithmic law, but the parameters change due to the sediment.
• No-slip boundary: The velocity is approximately zero at the sediment bed due to the no-slip
condition, which is essential to prevent the bed from being eroded by infinite shear stress.
• Maximum velocity: The maximum velocity is typically found at or near the free surface,
though the actual location can vary.
• Turbulence and eddies: Turbulent flow, characterized by eddies, is generated by the flow's
instability. These eddies are influenced by the bedforms, which distorts the velocity profile.
• Boundary layer: A very thin, viscous sublayer exists near the bed where flow is laminar, but
the overall flow is turbulent.
 Impact of the movable boundary
• Bedforms: The mobile bed is not flat but forms dynamic features like dunes and
ripples.
• Increased complexity: These bedforms create significant variations and fluctuations in
the local velocity profile and cause flow resistance to be higher than in a clean, rigid
channel.
• Changes in flow resistance: Sediment movement can increase or decrease the overall
friction factor depending on factors like sediment concentration, particle fall velocity,
and flow velocity.
• Non-uniform flow: The velocity can vary significantly depending on the specific
bedform and its location within the channel. This makes it difficult to find a single,
simple velocity distribution equation that applies universally.
 Predicting velocity distribution

1. Manning equation: this equation provides a way to estimate the average

velocity in a channel which can be used as a starting point for estimating
velocity distribution.
2. Numerical models: advanced models can simulate the velocity distribution
more accurately by considering factors like channel geometry, roughness
and flow conditions.
3. Experimental data: experiments using devices like pitot tubes can be used
to measure velocity profiles and validate models.
 Thickness of Laminar sublayer

• The viscous sublayer is defined as the innermost layer near a smooth bottom
where momentum is transferred solely by molecular diffusion, characterized
by a linear velocity profile and a typical thickness of a few millimeters.
• The thickness of this sublayer is crucial in hydraulics, as it determines
whether a flow is "hydraulically rough" (where roughness elements are larger
than the sublayer) or "hydraulically smooth" (where they are smaller and are
ignored by the main flow).
• The thickness (d) of the laminar sublayer is calculated using the formula
(d=11.6 V/U* ) where V is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid and U*is the
friction velocity.
• This formula is derived from the study of turbulent boundary layers and helps
determine the thickness of the region where viscous forces dominate near a
surface.
 Examples

1. Consider a large river during a flood. The main channel width is 250 m, the
flow depth is 6.62 m and the flow velocity is 2.26 m/ s . The channel slope is
10cm/km and the grain diameter is uniform 0.25 mm sand. Determine the
following:
a. Manning coefficent,n

b. The bed shear stress

c. The shear velocity of the flow

2. Consider a smooth plate that is 1.25m wide and 3.7m long. the plate is moving in
a stationary air with a velocity of 4.2 m/s. calculate the thickness of the boundary
layer? Take kinematic viscosity of air as 1.54*10-5 m2/s.

3. Consider water flows from a river through a rectangular open channel that is 10m
wide at a depth of 3m. The channel slope is 0.0025 using n [Link]
a. the velocity of flow
b. the flow rate
c. the boundary shear stress
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