CHAPTER THREE
RIVER MORPHOLOGY
November,2025
RIVER MORPHOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
The terms river morphology used to describe the shapes of river channels and
how they change in shape and direction over time.
River morphology can be determined by the interaction of water flow, sediment
transport and landscape.
The river’s shape is for a large part determined by the valley topography and the
mechanical characteristics of the river basin (geology, soil properties).
Rivers have a shape which is the result of a long history of changes in climate,
in tectonic activities, in land use and human interference.
Planform
land use changes, such as land clearance, construction, farming and
forestry can all have an effect on rivers morphology.
climatic events such as heavy rainfall and flooding are believed to
be the primary cause for morphology changes.
Rivers can be classified as meandering or braided depending on
whether they consist of a single channel or a number of channels.
In the upper part of the basins, rivers are formed by erosion of the
bedrock: their course incises progressively (zone 1). Flow carries
the products of the incision and of the soil erosion towards the lower
zones.
In zone 2 some equilibrium exists between sediment transport
capacity of the flow and the sediment supply; it is the transfer zone.
In zone 3, the sediments are deposited by lack of transport capacity,
in deltas, lagunes or estuaries.
Stages of rivers
As the river flows from its origin in a mountain to a sea, it passes through
various stages. A river generally has the following 4 stages:
Rocky stages
Boulder stage
Alluvial stage
Deltaic rivers
The watercourse in equilibrium
The watercourse in equilibrium indicates that where a river channel shape is
stable and balanced against the water and sediment it carries.
The shape of the river bed is in balance with the flow of water and the
amount of sediment it transports.
The river adjust its shape through a continuous balance of erosion and
deposition until reaches this equilibrium profile.
The river’s energy and capacity for transporting sediment are in balance
with the resistance of its bed and banks.
The system is not static, it continuously adjust its width, depth and meander
patterns to cope with variations in flow and sediment supply.
Morphology of natural channels
Morphology of natural channels is determined by the shape and structure
of a river which is influenced by water flow, sediment movement and
slope.
The presentation of natural channel morphology covers plan form( straight,
meandering, braided), cross-sectional characteristics(width, depth, slope)
and long profile(channel gradient).
When slopes change rapidly, sediment deposits on the riverbed may be
coarse or fine, depending on the local slopes (selective deposition with the
varying velocities and slopes)
There are four variables, which govern the meandering process. They are:
(i) Valley slope,
(ii)Silt grade and silt charge,
(iii)Discharge,
(iv)Bed and side materials and their susceptibility to erosion.
All these factors considerably affect the meandering patterns, and all of them are
interdependent. On the basis of this theory and experiments, various empirical
formulas have been developed for connecting various meander parameters but
much remains to be learnt about the meander process.
Meander parameters: The various meander parameters are shown below:
Meander Length (ML). It is the axial length of one meander, i.e. the tangential
distance between the corresponding points of a meander.
Meander Belt (MB). It is the distance between the outer edges of clockwise and
anti-clockwise loops of the meander.
Meander Ratio. It is the ratio of meander belt to meander length, i.e. MB/ML
Tortuosity. It is the ratio of the length along the channel to the direct axial length
of the river reach.
Crossings or Cross-overs. The short straight reaches of the river, connecting two
consecutive clockwise and anti-clockwise loops, are called crossings or cross-
overs.
For natural rivers, the discharge which determines the meander length and
meander belt may be called the dominant discharge. Dominant discharge is
different from the maximum discharge, because at maximum discharge, the
main flow swings away from the bend and erosion at the bank is reduced.
Thus, the meander pattern is developed due to the combined effect of the
discharge cycle during a flood season, and not by the maximum discharge. In
most rivers, the dominant discharge varies between 1/2 to 2/3 of the maximum
discharge.
Meander length for rivers in flood plains may, therefore, be given by:
𝑀𝐿 = 65.8 𝑄𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡
Where Qdominant = 1/2 to 2/3 (generally 9/16) of maximum discharge
Meandering rivers usually have a ratio of channel to valley length greater than 1.5
with the meander length (the distance between vertices of alternate bends) about 10
times the stream width. The ratio of meander length to width varies between 2 and
4.
In rivers the mean cross-sectional velocity varies, from about 0.5ms-1 at low flows to
4.0ms-1 at floods, but there are exceptions to these values. The maximum velocity in a
section usually exceeds the mean by 25-30%.
River regime is concerned with the channel geometry. A river in alluvium is
considered to be in regime if its channel is stable on a long-term average. Short-
term changes will occur with changes of discharge and sediment transport, and the
concept of 'stability' here dearly differs from the one defined by the critical limiting
tractive force implying no motion of sediment on the bed and banks.
The cross-section and longitudinal slope for a regime channel will primarily be a
function of discharge, with the width B, depth y and slope S providing three degrees
of freedom for self-adjustment of the channel.
Fluvial processes and shaping of rivers
Fluvial processes: erosion, transportation and deposition by flowing water
are the fundamental forces that shape river morphology.
Fluvial geomorphology focuses on the hydrodynamic forces that shape
rivers, the result of the interplay between the forces of moving water and
the materials forming the streambed.
Gorges,canyons,waterfalls,rapids and river capture are examples of fluvial
eroded landforms.
Fluvial system variables include hillslope angle, flow discharge and
sediment transport rates. These all are quantities that change through time.
There are 3 major processes that are taking place in a river. These are:
Erosion: wearing away of material. Involves four major processes.
Abrasion: is the grinding of rock fragments carried by the river against the bed and
banks of the river. This action causes the channel to widen and deepen. This
grinding is most powerful in flood time when large fragments of rock are carried
along in the river bed.
Attrition: Attrition is the collision of rock fragments in the water against one
another. The rock particles are broken into smaller pieces and become smoother the
longer the process continues.
Solution: Solution (corrosion) is the process by which river water reacts chemically
with soluble minerals in the rocks and dissolves them.
Hydraulic action: The sheer force of the water as the turbulent current hits banks and
pushes water into cracks. The air in cracks compressed, pressure increased and in time
bank will collapse. When water from a fast moving stream enters minute cracks in a
rock, the pressure exerted weakens and eventually breaks up the rock.
Transportation: movement of the eroded material. There four major transportation
processes. These are:
Saltation: when pebbles, sand and gravel (bed load) are lifted up by current and
bounced along the bed in a hopping motion.
Traction: is where boulders or stones are rolled along the stream bed by the force of the water.
Suspension: Fine particles such as clay, silt and fine sand are carried along in the river.
Solution: Dissolved materials containing minerals like calcium and sodium are carried in the
water and are invisible to the naked eye.
Deposition: when velocity begins to fall, it has less energy and no longer had competence and
capacity to carry all its load so largest particles, materials begins to be deposited. Deposition my
occurs when:
Low discharge during period of low precipitation
Less velocity when river enter sea or lake.
Shallow water occurs on inside of a meander.
The load suddenly increase (debris from landslide)
River overflow its bank so velocity outside channel is reduced. (resulting in floodplain)
River and flood plain habitats
Rivers in Flood Plains: The cross-section of the river is decided by the sediment load
and the erodibility of the bed and banks of the river.
The sediment transported by such rivers is predominantly of the same type as the
material forming the channel bed. During high floods, these rivers inundate very large
areas and cause considerable damage to life, property, and crops. Such rivers are also
called alluvial rivers.
Floodplain habitats in rivers are crucial ecosystems that support ecosystem shaped by
periodical flooding. Rivers and floodplain habits are interconnected systems where
floodplains ,the flat land adjacent to a river provide crucial ecosystems for diverse
wildlife and deliver essential ecosystem services.
Floodplains are important parts of the river system because when in their natural state
they deliver multiple important ecosystem services and offer protection in a changing
climate.