Waves overview

A wave is a means of transferring energy and information from one point to another without
there being any transfer of matter between the two points.

Types of waves:
Transverse waves are waves where the direction of vibrations is at 90° to the direction in
which the wave travels. Example: light waves. These waves can travel through different
types of mediums (substances such as solid, liquids and gases) or it can travel through a
vacuum (space with no particles).

Longitudinal waves are waves where the vibrations of the particles are along the direction
in which the wave travels. Example: sound waves. These waves MUST travel through a
medium and cannot travel through a vacuum.

Parts of a Wave:

Amplitude is the maximum movement of the particles that make up a wave from their rest
position. The amplitude is the height of a crest OR the depth of a trough.

Wavelength is the distance between one wave peak and the next wave peak along the path
of a wave. Wavelength is measured in metres, which can be expressed as nanometres,
micrometres, cm or km.

Frequency is the number of wave peaks that pass a point in one second. Frequency is
measured in hertz (Hz)

Activity - Draw and labelling the parts of a wave

Draw a diagram of a wave and label the following parts: amplitude, wavelength, normal,
crest and trough.
Activity - Slinky waves
Aim: model the motion of particles travelling through a longitudinal wave and a transverse
wave.
Equipment: A slinky, a partner and space.
Method:
1. Stand 2m away from your partner.
2. Hold the slinky between you and your partner.
3. One person moves the slinky to make a longitudinal wave - make sure you observe
the areas of compression and rarefaction.
4. Wait until the slinky stops moving, then one person moves the slinky to make a
transverse wave - make sure you observe the difference in the movement of the
slinky.

On the image below, label the different types of waves they represent.

Basic information on sound waves

Sound is a very important for communication in humans and other animals. Sound is a form
of energy that requires a medium to be transmitted therefore sound cannot travel in a
vacuum. Sounds can be loud or soft and they can have a variety of tones, this is known as
the pitch. You might remember from music that pitch describes how high or low a sound is.
The normal hearing range for a human under 25 years is 20-20,000 Hz. As you age your
hearing range decreases and you cannot hear sounds at the top end of the spectrum.
When an object vibrates sound is produced. Sound is a form of energy that travels through a
medium (material). The medium vibrates as the energy passes through it. Vibrations
produce compressions (zones where the particles are pushed together) and rarefactions
(zones where the particles are spread apart) in the material or medium that it passes
through.

Activity - Compression and rarefactions

On the images below, label the different areas of compression and rarefaction.

Sound waves and pitch

When we use sound to communicate it does not always sound the same, this is due to
changes in pitch. Pitch refers to the highness or the lowness of a sound and is determined
by the frequency and wavelength of the wave.

As the number of waves that pass a point in one second (frequency) increases, the pitch will
also increase. Therefore when the frequency decreases, the pitch becomes lower (or
deeper). The amplitude of a wave does not impact on the pitch but it does impact on how
loud or soft the sound is. Sounds are perceived as being loud or soft according to the
amplitude of their waveform. Higher amplitudes corresponds to louder sounds, smaller

amplitudes mean softer sounds.

Ear Structure
The human ear is an organ that has two functions - balance and the detection of sound.

The ear can be divided into three sections:

 the outer ear
 the middle ear
 the inner ear.

To hear sound, the ear has to do three basic things:

 Direct the sound waves into the hearing part of the ear.
 Sense the fluctuations in air pressure.
 Translate these fluctuations into an electrical signal that the brain can understand.
Outer ear
The outer ear is the part that you can see from the outside and by looking into the ear canal. It
starts at the external ear and ends at the eardrum.

Anatomy (structure)

The outer ear consists of the fleshy organs located on the side of your head that you call
your ears, the ear canal and the eardrum. The scientific names for these parts are pinna
(external part of the ear) auditory canal (ear canal) and tympanic membrane (eardrum).

Function

The pinna collects sound waves and channels the sound into the ear. From here the
vibrations travel along the auditory canal until they reach the eardrum. Here they cause the
tympanic membrane to vibrate at the same frequency as the incoming sound waves. The
sound waves in air have been changed into vibrations in a solid (the tympanic membrane).
Middle ear
The middle ear is an air-filled chamber that contains the ear ossicles and the Eustachian
tube. It lies between the eardrum and the oval window.

Anatomy

The ear ossicles are three tiny bones that are found in the middle ear. They are named after
their shapes. You may recall the names hammer, anvil and stirrup. The scientific names for
these bones are the malleus (hammer), incus (anvil) and stapes (stirrup). The stapes is the
smallest bone in the human body. Also in the middle ear is the Eustachian tube.

Function

The function of the middle ear is to transmit and amplify the vibrations from the outer ear to
the inner ear. The first of the ossicles, the hammer is attached to the tympanic membrane
and vibrates at the same frequency as the vibrating tympanic membrane. The vibrations
then pass through to the anvil and the stirrup. These tiny bones act as levers and magnify
the vibrations by up to twenty-two times. The stirrup is attached to the oval window, which
lies between the middle and the inner ear. As the stirrup pushes against the oval window the
vibrations are transmitted through to the fluid in the inner ear.

The three ossicles of the middle ear, malleus, incus and stapes.

The Eustachian tube

The Eustachian tube is a narrow tube that connects the middle ear to the back of the nose
and throat. During swallowing, the Eustachian tube opens up to allow air into the middle ear,
so that air pressure on either side of the tympanic membrane is the same. In some situations
when there is a sudden change in air pressure (for example – during take off and landing in
a plane), the pressure in the middle ear is not the same as the outside air pressure. This can
make the eardrum bulge or retract and less able to transmit vibrations, causing temporary
hearing problems. By swallowing or “popping” the ears, the pressure can again be

equalised.

Inner ear
The inner ear is located within the bone of the skull. It consists of fluid filled chambers called
the semicircular canals and the cochlea. It extends from the oval window to the auditory
nerve.

Anatomy

The oval window is a membrane that separates the middle and inner ear. The fluid filled
inner ear contains the semicircular canals and the cochlea. The semicircular canals are
involved in balance. The cochlea is the sense organ of hearing. It is a spiral tube, about the
size of a pea, and similar in shape to a snail’s shell (thus the name which means snail). It is
divided into three parts, which are separated by two membranes.

Within the cochlea is the organ of Corti. The organ of Corti has hair cells located on the
basilar membrane. These hair cells have cilia that are in touch with another membrane
called the tectorial membrane.
Function

The cochlea is filled with fluid and contains the organ of Corti – a structure that contains
thousands of specialised sensory hair cells with projections called cilia.

The cochlea has approximately 30,000 hearing nerve endings in the hair cells that are a part
of the organ of Corti. The hair cells in the large end of the cochlea respond to very high-
pitched sounds, and those in the small end (and throughout much of the rest of the cochlea)
respond to low-pitched sounds. These hair cells, and the nerve that connects them to the
brain, are susceptible to damage from a variety of causes.

The vibrations transmitted from the middle ear cause tiny waves to form in the inner ear fluid,
where they are interpreted as sound. As the stapes pushes back and forth against the
cochlea, it compresses the fluid to create waves in the fluid-filled compartments which make
the cilia vibrate.

Depending on the characteristics of the waves, specific nerve messages (impulses) are
created. The hair cells then convert these vibrations into nerve impulses, or signals, which
are sent via the auditory nerve (the hearing branch of the eighth cranial nerve) to the base of
the brain (brainstem) and the brain where they are interpreted as sound.

The organ of Corti

Path of sound
Sound enters the ear at the pinna as energy in the form of sound waves in a gas. When the
sound waves reach the tympanic membrane the energy is changed into vibrations in a solid.
The energy is then transferred and amplified by the ossicles in the inner ear. At the oval
window the energy is transferred to vibrations in a fluid in the cochlea of the inner ear. Here
the energy is transduced into electrochemical energy by the stereocilia of the hair cells. The
stereocilia are attached to neurons. The axons of the neurons join together to form the
auditory nerve.
 Energy transformations in the ear

Activity - Ear structure and function summary

Name Anatom Function

y

Pinna

Ear canal

Tympanic membrane (eardrum)

Ear Ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes)

Eustachian tube

Round window

Oval window

Cochlea (contains organ of Corti)

Semicircular canals

Auditory nerve
Activity - Pathway of sound
Trace the path of sound through the ear by using the following words to fill in the
blanks below.
cochlea, middle, tympanic, ossicles, hair, malleus, pinna, incus, stapes, organ of Corti,
auditory

When sound waves enter the_____________ they travel along the auditory canal and cause

the ___________________ membrane (eardrum) to vibrate. These vibrations are carried

and amplified by the _____________ in the____________ ear. The ossicles are three tiny

bones also known as the ______________ (hammer), the _________________ (the anvil)

and the _______________ (the stirrup).

The ossicles join the inner ear at the oval window. The _________________ is a snail-

shaped, fluid-filled structure in the inner ear. Inside the cochlea is another structure called

the ______________________. Inside the organ of Corti there are _______________ cells

located on the basilar membrane. These are in contact with the tectorial membrane. When

vibrations reach the hair cell the message is converted into an electrochemical response

which travels via the ________________nerve to the brain.

Hearing loss
The following information is from HEARnet Online:

Hearing loss occurs when one or more parts of the ear and/or the parts of the brain that
make up the hearing pathway do not function normally. The causes of hearing loss come in
many forms and can have multiple causes with each individual having a unique type of

hearing loss.

The impact on the ability to hear sounds, known as audiometric hearing loss can, can range
from being mild to profound. Hearing loss can be a condition that exists at birth or develops
later in life, may occur suddenly or gradually over many years. The extent of an individual’s
hearing loss can also differ depending on the pitch (frequency) of the sounds being heard.
Individuals can also have different hearing losses in each ear.

It’s important to know if you have a hearing loss, as it can reduce your ability to learn, listen,
and talk with family, friends and workmates.
Different types of hearing loss
There are the different types of hearing loss:
 Conductive hearing loss
 Auditory processing disorder
 Sensorineural (sen-sor-ee-new-rul) hearing loss
Note: some individuals will experience mixed hearing loss which is hear loss caused by
conductive and sensorineural conditions.
Conductive hearing loss
If there is a problem in the external or middle ear, a conductive hearing loss exists. This
means sound is not being conducted properly to the inner ear. Common causes of
conductive hearing loss are:
  wax in the external ear;
 fluid in the middle ear;
 a hole or tear (perforation) in the eardrum;
 improper development of the outer or middle ear;
 damage to the small bones in the middle ear;
 an infection in the middle ear;
 a blockage in the Eustachian tube meaning that air cannot move into the middle ear.
 Otosclerosis is a hereditary disorder in which a body growth forms around an ossicle
in the middle ear. This prevents the ossicles from vibrating properly when stimulated.

Conductive hearing losses do not cause the hearing to be lost completely but there is a loss
of volume. Sounds may be quiet but there is no distortion. Sometimes this is from too much
fluid in the middle ear which means the three small bones cannot vibrate properly. This is
sometimes called "glue ear." If a person has repeated ear infections, these may cause more
permanent damage to the inner ear.

Sensorineural hearing loss

Sensorineural hearing loss is the most common type of hearing loss. More than 90 percent
of all hearing aid wearers have sensorineural hearing loss. This can occur in one of two
ways. The first is when the delicate hearing cells (hair cells) in the inner ear are damaged,
and they become unable to convert sound vibrations into the electrical signals needed by the
auditory nerve. Secondly, when nerve pathways in the auditory nerve itself become
damaged, preventing the signals from reaching the brain.

Sensorineural hearing loss not only involves a reduction in sound level, or ability to hear soft
sounds, but also affects the ability to hear and understand speech clearly.

Although this damage can be caused by exposure to loud noise – through working in a noisy
environment for too long – the primary cause of sensorineural hearing loss in adults is
ageing. Sensorineural hearing loss is a permanent loss and cannot be corrected medically or
surgically.

Auditory processing disorders

This disorder doesn’t result from an inability to detect sound, rather it occurs when the brain
has problems processing the information contained in sound. This means the individual can
have difficulties understanding speech and working out where sounds are coming from.
Currently there is no cure to these types of processing issues and if not addressed early in
young children it can result in language, speech and learning difficulties and delays. Early
interventions in terms of speech and language education interventions to help them
overcome this disorder.
Technology that assists with hearing impairments
When hearing is not working efficiently there are some devices that can improve or return
hearing. Two of these devices are:
 hearing aids
 cochlear implants
 bone conduction implants

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Hearing aids
Hearing aids are small electrical devices that sit behind the ear. They consist of a
microphone, an amplifier, a receiver and a speaker. The hearing aid takes sound waves
arriving at the ear, increases the volume and redirects the sound into the ear.

Position and type of energy transfer occurring

Hearing aids detect sound waves. The energy is then transferred to electrical energy which
is then transformed back into sound waves which are amplified into the auditory canal.

Conditions under which the technology will assist hearing

Hearing aids are useful when there has been damage to the outer and middle ear. They will
not improve hearing if there has been damage to the inner ear. The technology is much
cheaper than the cochlear implant and does not have the risks associated with surgical
treatments.

Limitations of technology
Hearing aids are amplifiers, making the sounds in the environment louder. Louder does not
necessarily lead to better hearing. Hearing aids are a simple device that are relatively cheap
but some people find them annoying as they amplify all sound including background noise.
Cochlear implants
Cochlear implants are also known as the bionic ear. This is an Australian invention by Dr
Graeme Clark. They consist of external parts and surgically implanted parts. They return a
sense of hearing to people who have damaged middle or inner ear function.

Position and type of energy transfer occurring

The external parts include a microphone, speech processor and a transmitter. The
microphone picks up sound waves and sends them to the speech processor. This is usually
located behind the ear or in a pocket.
Sound waves are picked up by the microphone and are processed by the speech processor
into an electrical signal. The speech processor is a computer that digitises the sound. This
signal is then sent to the transmitter coil located on the outside of the ear. FM radio waves
transfer the signal to the implanted receiver. This then transmits the signals to the electrodes
inside the cochlea which is interpreted by the brain. The electrodes stimulate the nerve fibres
in the auditory nerve.

Conditions under which the technology will assist hearing

Cochlear implants are particularly useful to people who have sustained middle ear damage
or damage to the hair cells in the middle ear. These people would not benefit from traditional
hearing aids. The cochlear implant directly stimulates the auditory nerve therefore bypassing
the hair cells.

Limitations of technology

The cochlear implant does not help all people with hearing difficulties. It has some limitations
including:
 it is different from hearing sound
 it requires the person to learn to interpret the sensations they receive
 it takes time and experience for this to occur.

There are also risks associated with the surgery that requires a general anaesthetic
including risks to the facial nerves and the chance of infection.
Bone conduction implants
A bone conduction implant is a medical device that transmits sound by direct conduction
through bone to the inner ear, effectively bypassing the outer and middle ear. A bone
conduction system consists of a small titanium implant, abutment and sound processor.
Sound is transmitted as vibrations from the sound processor to the implant, through the bone
to the inner ear.

Position and type of energy transfer occurring

Bone conduction implants are similar to cochlear implants and have an internal and external
component.
Activity - Bone conduction implants
1. Using the above image and your knowledge of sound waves and the ear structure,
construct a flow diagram in the space below to that shows the energy transformation
through the bone conduction implant components.
 2. Construct a table to identify 3 advantages and 3 disadvantages of bone conduction
implants. You will need to complete some research for this activity.

Activity - Effectiveness of hearing loss technology

Evaluate the effectiveness of ONE type of technology that is used to manage and assist with
the effects of a hearing loss disorder. To answer this question you need to include ALL of the
following:
 o A brief summary of the hearing disorder that describes what causes the
disorder
o The effect of the disorder
o Describe how the technology works
o Who can use the technology
o Advantages/Benefits
o Disadvantages/Limitations
o Long term suitability
o Make a statement about the effectiveness of the technology in addressing the
disorder

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Basic information on Light Waves

 Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation, which makes it an electromagnetic wave

because it consists of both electric and magnetic fields. It can also be referred to as
visible light and is classed as a transverse wave (from earlier in this topic).

 All electromagnetic waves, including light, do not require a medium/material to travel

through. It will pass through a vacuum.

 Light waves travel at a speed 300 000 000 m/s whereas sound will travel through air
at 340m/s

 When light hits a surface it will either be transmitted through it, reflected off it or
absorbed into it.

Light interacting with different surfaces

Law of Reflection

An incoming ray of light, also known as an incident ray, will be reflected off a mirror at the
same angle it hits the mirror.

Terms to know:
Angle of incidence (i)= incoming light wave
Angle of reflection (r) = reflected light wave
Normal (n) = imaginary line which is at a right angle to the mirror surface.

Law of Refraction
Not to be confused with rarefaction in sound waves. Refraction is the bending of light. It
occurs when light travels from one transparent substance to another. The light bends
because there is a change in the speed of the light wave as it travels through different
substances. When refraction occurs correctly it allows us to see a clear image. When it
doesn’t occur properly, images are not clear.

Different substances cause different amounts of bending (refraction) because not all material
allows light to travel at the same speed. We refer to this as the refractive index.

Refractive Index (RI) - is a measure of how easily light travels through a substance. The
smaller the RI of the material the faster light will travel though. Air has a RI of 1 and other
substances have a high RI then air.

The images below show the effect of the different medium on the angle of refraction.
Anatomy and function of the human eye

The structure of the eye is delicate and complex. It makes sense of the light stimuli
streaming into it every waking hour of the day. To see clearly all components of the eye must
work properly and together. Visual acuity is the ability to see objects clearly.

The anatomy of the eye consists of three layers. The outer layer consists of the sclera which
surrounds the eye and the cornea at the front of the eye. The sclera is the dense white layer
of the eye and its function is to protect the eye. The cornea is the clear jelly-like front of the
eye. It protects the front of the eye and focuses light entering the eye.

The middle area of the eye consists of the dark pigmented choroid layer. This membrane
layer prevents light from scattering by absorbing light and it contains the blood vessels that
nourish the eye. Suspended from the choroid layer is the pigmented iris. The iris is a
muscular structure that controls the amount of light that enters the eye by changing the size
of the pupil. The pupil is the hole in the centre of the iris.

Behind the iris is the lens which consists of layers of transparent proteins. The lens is
responsible for the fine focus of light onto the back of the eye. The lens is moved by the
ciliary muscles. The ciliary
muscles and the suspensory ligaments are located in the ciliary body this links the
choroid to the lens.

In front of the lens is a clear watery fluid called the aqueous humour (also spelt aqueous
humor). This fluid transmits light and maintains the pressure of the eye. Behind the lens in
the centre of the eye is the vitreous humour (vitreous humor). This jelly-like substance
allows light to travel through to the back of the eye and maintains the shape of the eye. The
conjunctiva is a continuation of the epidermis, it covers the surface of the eye and protects
the cornea.

The inner layer of the eye consists of the retina, which detects light with light sensitive cells
called photoreceptors (rods & cones). At the back of the retina is the fovea, it is the area of
greatest visual acuity and the start of the optic nerve. The optic nerve carries the nervous
impulses from the retina to the visual cortex in the brain. Where the optic nerve leaves the
retina is the blind spot. There are no photoreceptors at that point.

Activity: test your blind spot

You can find your blind spot by performing this activity using the diagram below. Cover your
left eye and stare at the cross. You will be able to see the circle in the periphery of your view.
Don’t look at the
circle. Move the page in and out as you look at the cross. The circle will disappear when the
image of the circle is focused on the blind spot. Try the same with the other eye. This time
cover your right eye and look at the circle.
Activity - Eye Structure

1. Fill in the names for the structure of the eye using the following terms: conjunctiva,
choroid, sclera, vitreous humour, fovea, ciliary body, cornea pupil, retina, iris, lens,
aqueous humour, optic nerve, blind spot.

2. Now draw your own diagram of the eye and label it. You need to be able to draw the
eye and label the key parts. So practice makes perfection!
3) Complete this table - you may need to research some of the structures.
Part of the eye Structure Function
conjunctiva

cornea

sclera

choroid

retina

iris

lens

aqueous humour
 vitreous humour

ciliary body (contains ciliary muscles & suspensory ligaments)

optic nerve

4) What is meant by the term visual acuity?

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Activity - Dissection of a mammalian eye

Aim:
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Risk assessment
There are some risks to assess in this activity. You will be dealing with animal tissue so
make sure that you wear rubber gloves. You will also be using sharp instruments so be
aware of the dangers of cutting yourself. When you have finished dispose of any waste by
wrapping in paper and then place in a plastic bag before placing in the garbage bin. Wear
appropriate clothing including covered footwear during the activity. Risk of any infection from
the material is very unlikely. In some overseas countries where BSE (bovine spongiform
encephalitis or mad cow disease) is common there may be a slightly higher risk of infection
and more care is need to be taken with the disposal of the material.

Materials required:

 one single-edged razor blade, knife or scalpel

 scissors (optional)
 paper towels
 plastic garbage bag
 rubber gloves.
 Newspaper
 Lab coats
 Safety glasses

Method:

1. Examine the outside of the eye. See how many parts of the eye you can identify.

2. You should be able to find the whites (or sclera) and the clear covering over the front
of the eye (the cornea). The conjunctiva is the outer membrane covering the cornea.
3) You should also be able to identify the fat and muscle surrounding the eye.

4) Return your attention to the outside of the eye. Locate the optic nerve - this can be hard to
do, as it is normally cut off but you can see a white circle at the back of the eye. To see the
separate fibers that make up the optic nerve, pinch the nerve with a pair of scissors or with

your fingers.

5) Make the first incision where the sclera meets the cornea - take your time doing this and
be careful! Cut until the aqueous humour is released. Rotate the eye and cut around the
cornea. Be careful not to cut too deep or you may cut the lens. As the cornea starts to come
free, hold the cornea in the centre and make the last cuts around it.

6) Once you have removed the cornea, place it on the board (or cutting surface) and cut it
with your scalpel or razor. With the cornea removed, the next step is to pull out the iris.
Place one finger in the centre of the eye. Find the iris and pull it back. It should come out in
one [Link] can be a bit tricky to remove the lens with the vitreous humour attached. It works
best if you cut slits in the sclera. Be careful not to cut the lens. Note: sometimes this step can
be skipped until you remove the lens, then come back to find the iris.

7) After enough incisions have been made in the sclera, you should be able to remove the
lens. Sometimes the vitreous humour will be removed along with the lens. Hold up the lens
and look through it. If the lens is too slippery, pat it dry with the paper towel and try again.
Place the lens over some text on the newspaper - what does it do to the text?

8) With the vitreous humour now removed, you should be able to turn the eye inside out
using your hands. You may need to partial cut down one side of the eye to do this if your eye
is small or has a lot of fat/muscle attached.

9) The thin tissue on the back of the eye is the retina. Find the blind spot where the optic
nerve is attached.

10) Clean up all of your equipment, wipe down your desk and wash your hands. Then
complete the questions on the next page.
Activity - Dissection questions
1. Draw a diagram of your dissection. Show the optic nerve, cornea, sclera, lens, retina
and the blind spot.

2. Explain why do scientist dissect organs like the eye?

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3. Why are 5 safety considerations you need to have when dissecting an eye?

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Photoreceptors in the eye

The retina is a thin sheet of cells (0.5 mm thick) that contains photoreceptor cells. These
cells are called rods and cones. They are a type of modified neuron (nerve cell).

Photoreceptor cells are responsible for an animal’s perception of vision. They contain light
sensitive pigments that absorb light energy. When the pigments absorb light they convert the
information into an electrochemical signal that the brain can interpret. There are two types of
light sensitive receptors in the retina of the human eye.
 Rods are responsible for night vision, and are located in the peripheral (edge) retina.

 Cones are responsible for colour vision and fine detail. They function best under
daylight conditions and are mostly concentrated in a region of the retina called the

fovea.
Structure of rods and cones

The diagram shows the structure of rods and cones. They are named after their shape. Rod
cells are longer and thinner than cone cells and have a photopigment called rhodopsin. They
contain plate-like membranes containing light-sensitive pigments at one end and a
connection to nerve cells on the other end. Cone cells have a pointed (cone-shaped) end
that contains photopigments called photopsins arranged in plate-like membranes.

Distribution of rods and cones

The photoreceptors are unevenly distributed over the retina. Cones are concentrated at the
fovea, the area of best vision and highest acuity.

The fovea contains the highest concentration of cone cells. While the rod cells are scattered
over the rest of the retina.

Rods are not present in the fovea and are more concentrated at the sides of the retina.
There are 120 million rods and 6.5 million cones. See the graph on the next page for the
graphical representation of the distribution of rods and cones in the human eye.
 Graph - The distribution of rod and cone cells across the retina. Note how the number of
cones per square mm drops off rapidly away form the fovea. The rods are not found at the
fovea and also have a decreasing density away form the fovea.

Function of rods and cones

Rod cells are important in night vision and peripheral (or side) vision. They are very efficient
photoreceptors and respond to low levels of light. They detect movement and shapes but do
not distinguish between colours. There are more rods than cones and they are more
sensitive to light than the cones. The photosensitive pigment in rods is a form of rhodopsin
that is particularly sensitive to blue-green light (505 nm).

Cones cells are only stimulated by bright light and are important in day vision, colour vision
and acuity of vision. The number of cone cells in an area decides the visual acuity that is
possible. When you are looking at fine print you position your head so that the image falls
directly on the fovea where most of the cone cells are located. At night it is better to look out
of the side of your eye if you want to see something in dim light. This forces the image to fall
onto an area that has rod cells which are more sensitive to low light.

The role of rhodopsin in rods

Rhodopsin is a photosensitive pigment. It consists of two molecules joined together, they are
retinal (a derivative of vitamin A) and opsin. When light falls on rhodopsin a series of
chemical reactions break the molecule of rhodopsin into retinal and opsin. This generates
the electrical impulse that is transmitted to the bipolar cells, the ganglion cells and then
through the optic nerve where the signal is interpreted by
the brain. Several milliseconds are required before the absorption of light can be recorded as
electrical activity in the receptor cell membrane. Opsin and retinal then recombine to form
rhodopsin and can then be split again by light. The reaction is reversible and is known as the
visual cycle. Rods cells only have a form of rhodopsin often called visual purple. It responds
to light in the blue–green area of the spectrum.

Graph - Absorption spectrum for rhodopsin

Colour vision by cones

In 1802 the scientist and medical doctor Thomas Young concluded that the retina responded
to only three principle colours which combined to form all the other colours in humans.
These three colours of light are red, blue and green. It is the cone cells that are the
photoreceptors responsible for colour vision. It is now known that cone cells contain three
different kinds of photopigments each sensitive to a different set of colour wavelengths. Each
photopigment has its own form of opsin combined with retinal to form pigments known as
photopsins. These three different photopigments combine to produce the array of different

hues detected by the human eye.

There are three types of cone cells:

 red cones
 blue cones
 green cones.

Each type of cone has a different range of light sensitivity but their sensitivities overlap.
When light energy hits the eye, more than one of the three types of cone cells will be
stimulated. The retina and the brain process the mixture of the stimulation so that different
hues and intensities are perceived, allowing many more colours to be recognised than the
three detected by the cone cells. The first type of cone cell is called S cones (S for short
wavelength 437 nm) or blue cones. These are sensitive to blue and violet light. Next is the M
or green cones (medium wavelength 533 nm) these respond to green light. The third type is
L cone or red cones (long wavelength 564 nm) these respond to the red end of the
spectrum. The graph below shows the sensitivity of each type of cone cell. Notice that they
do overlap.

Colour discrimination occurs through the integration of information arriving from all three
types of cones. For example, the perception of yellow results from a combination of inputs
from green and red cones, and relatively little input from blue cones. If all three cones are
stimulated, white is perceived. If a red light is shone into the eyes then only the red cones
will fire and the colour is perceived as red. If none of the cones fire the colour is perceived as
black.

You have covered the different parts of the eye and how they work. In this section you will
investigate the different disorders that can occur in the eye and technologies that are used to
treat or minimise the disorder.

Vision Disorders and the technology to assist

Colour blindness
Full colour vision depends on having all three types of cone cells being present and
functioning properly. Any defect in one or more of these cone cells will affect colour
sensation and people with this condition are known as colour blind. The most common form
of colour blindness is red/green colorblindness. People with this condition have trouble
telling the difference between brown, red and green.

Colour blindness is the inability to distinguish certain colours. It occurs when one or more of
the cone types are missing or defective to any extent. They may be absent entirely or unable
to manufacture the
necessary signals to the brain. Colour blind people may experience no colour sensation or
abnormal
colour matching and colour confusions. Colours that look different to people with normal
colour vision, can look the same to people with defective colour vision. Grass may appear
green to non-colour blind
people, but be the same colour as orange for people with certain colour defective vision.
There is also a reduction in the number of separate colours that can be distinguished in the
spectrum.

Activity - Research EnChroma Glasses

Create an A4 poster or brochure on EnChroma Glasses. On your poster or brochure you
need to include the following:
 Describe how the technology works
 Who and/or why the technology is used
 3 to 4 advantages
 3 to 4 disadvantages
 Pictures and graphic
Complete and submit this research work via Google Classroom activity called “EnChroma
Glasses”.
Cataracts
The lens of the eye is made up mostly of water and protein. The protein is arranged to allow
light to pass freely. Sometimes the protein clumps together clouding small areas of the lens.
This obstructs light from
reaching the retina causing vision problems and is called a cataract. A cataract is a
progressive clouding of the lens and happens over a prolonged period of time. The amount
of visual impairment depends on how much clouding of the lens occurs. The degree of
cataract formation depends on factors such as age, lifestyle or diseases like diabetes.

The technology used to prevent blindness from cataracts

The technology used to prevent blindness from cataracts is the replacement of the cloudy
lens with an artificial intraocular lens (IOL). There are three methods of cataract surgery:
 phacoemulsification
 extracapsular extraction
 intracapsular extraction.

Activity - Importance of removing cataracts

Complete the following case study into cataracts.
1. What is the incidence of cataracts in Australia and world wide?
_________________________________________________________________________
__________

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2. What is the prevalence of cataracts in Australia and world wide?

_________________________________________________________________________
__________

_________________________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________________________
__________

3. What are the risk factors that contribute to developing cataracts? What populations
are most at risk?
_________________________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________________________
__________

_________________________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________________________
__________

4. How does having cataracts impact the following parts of a population:

1. The individual with cataracts -

_________________________________________________________________________
__________

_________________________________________________________________________
__________

_________________________________________________________________________
__________

_________________________________________________________________________
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b. The family of the individual -

_________________________________________________________________________
__________

_________________________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________________________
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c. Society as a whole -
_________________________________________________________________________
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d. The government -
_________________________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________________________
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5. Complete the table below into the different treatment methods for cataracts.

Treatment Describe how it Benefits of this Limitations of this

works method method

phacoemulsification

extracapsular
extraction

intracapsular
extraction

6. Who was Fred Hollows? Why is his contributions to society so signification?

_________________________________________________________________________
__________

_________________________________________________________________________
__________

_________________________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________________________
__________

Bending light with your eyes

The aqueous and the vitreous humour are in fact very clear and the cornea is often called
the window to the eye. The lens is also a transparent medium. Each of these parts has a
different density therefore as light passes through them they will refract or bend light.

The four refractive media found in the eye are:

 cornea
 aqueous humour
 lens
 vitreous humour.

The result of this refraction is that as light travels through these structures it bends or
refracts in such a way as to focus the light on the retina. Notice the way light bends so that it
is focused on the retina. The greatest amount of bending occurs at the cornea-air surface.
The cornea, aqueous humour, lens and vitreous humour are all refractive media found in the
eye.

Activity - Visual Interpretation

What does the diagram to the right show, when the eye focuses on an object?
________________________________________
________________________________________
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Accommodation
To enable objects at different distances to be viewed clearly, your eyes have evolved a
method of focusing the image on your retina no matter where the image is located. The
ability of your eyes to change focus so that objects can be seen sharply at varying distances
is called accommodation. When the lens of your eye alters to make an image clear and
focused, the eye is said to be accommodated.

Activity - Modelling Accommodation Prac 1

1. Hold your finger up in front of you and look at it so that the finger is in focus.
Depending on your eyesight this could be as close as 25–30 cm.
2. While keeping your finger in focus, observe the objects behind and further away from
your finger. Write down what you notice about the clarity of these objects.

_________________________________________________________________________
__________

3. Now focus your vision on a far object while keeping your finger in exactly the same
position. Describe the clarity of your finger while focusing on the background.

_________________________________________________________________________
__________
Activity - Modeling accommodation prac 2

Types of lenses
The lens found within the eye is a convex lens. It bulges out in the centre. Another type of
lens is a concave lens. This type of lens goes in at the center.

A good way to model accommodation is to pass parallel rays of light through some convex
lenses. A convex lens converges (brings together) light into a focal point. The distance from
the lens to the focal point is called the focal length. The curvature of the lens is responsible
for the focal length. The greater curvature of the lens the shorter the focal length.

In this activity you will measure the focal length of two convex lenses. The focal length is the
distance from the middle of the lens to the point where the light rays converge. Mark on the
diagrams the focal point of each lens. Now use the grid squares (1 cm) to estimate the focal
length of each lens below by counting the squares from the middle of the lens to the focal
point.
Aim: to model the process of accommodation through convex lenses with different

curvatures.
Material:
 Light ray box
 2 convex lenses of different curvatures
 A ruler
 Pencil
Method:
1. Set up the experiment as for one convex lens as shown in the picture.
2. Trace around the convex lens onto the space “Convex Lens 1” on the next page.
3. Now on “Convex Lens 1” follow the path of all 3 light rays from the ray box and past
the focal point. Easiest way to do this is to use dots regularly on the light path, then
remove the len and the light box, use a rule to connect the dot - make sure you follow
the right pathway.
4. On the image label the focal point and focal length. Measure and record the focal
length.
5. Repeat this process with the other convex lens in the space “Convex Lens 2”.

Convex Lens 1

Focal length = ____________

Convex Lens 2

Focal length = ____________

From the two lenses above what is the relationship between the curvature of the lens and
the focal length?
_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________

The refractive power of the lens

The importance of accommodation is the ability of the eye to change the shape of the lens
and focus on objects whether they are near or far. This is achieved by the contraction of the
ciliary muscles in the
ciliary body.

Maximum accommodation
When the ciliary muscles contract the suspensory ligaments, that hold the lens are released
and the lens becomes more rounded. This is fully accommodated and maximum refraction of
light. Near objects would be in focus.
At rest
When the ciliary muscles relax the suspensory ligaments are taut and the lens is flattened.
Vision would be focused on far objects and the refractive power would be at a minimum.

Distance focused eye: Close focused eye:

• ciliary muscles relaxed • ciliary muscles contracted
• suspensory ligaments tight • suspensory ligaments loosened
• lens is flattened • lens is rounded
• minimum accommodation • maximum accommodation

Activity - Accommodation explained

1. What is accommodation?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
______________________________

2. Explain in detail how accommodation occurs to focus on objects that are close to you
and in the distance. Refer to the image provided to help you explain the process.
____________________________________________

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Visual impairment
You have just learnt that to focus on nearby objects requires a different lens shape to that
required for focusing on distant objects. People with clear vision have eyes where the lens
adjusts correctly in all situations. For people who can’t see clearly in some situations the
problem is caused by their eyes inability to focus light directly on the retina. Glasses (or
contact lenses) are used to change the way light is refracted so objects appear in focus.
People who wear glasses have a problem with seeing things clearly either close up or far
away.

You are required to distinguish between the two main kinds of eye focusing conditions,
namely myopia and hyperopia. - they are commonly known as short-sightedness and
farsightedness, respectively.

Hyperopia (Hi-per-o-pee-a)
Farsightedness is the inability of the eye to focus on objects that are close. The proper term
for this is hyperopia. The nearsighted eye has no difficulty viewing distant objects. There is a
problem however, when people with hyperopia view objects close to the eye. The lens of the
far-sighted eye can no longer assume the very rounded shape required when viewing
nearby objects. This causes these images to be focused at a location behind the retina
meaning the light-detecting cells will perceive a blurred image. The problem is most common
during later stages in life because of the weakening of the ciliary muscles and the decreased
flexibility of the lens.

In hyperopia a close object produces a blurred image because the lens cannot produce the
rounded shape necessary to bend light sufficiently to focus the image on the retina.

Myopia (My-o-pee-a)
Short-sightedness or myopia is the inability of the eye to focus on distant objects. The short-
sighted eye has no difficulty viewing nearby objects yet the ability to view distant objects is a
problem. This is because the light from distant objects is bent or refracted more than is
necessary. The problem is most common as a youth, and is usually the result of a bulging
cornea or an elongated eyeball.

A short-sighted person viewing a distant object focuses the image in front of the retina. If the
cornea bulges more than its customary curvature, then it tends to refract light more than
usual. The images of distant objects are focused in front of the retina. If the eyeball is
elongated in the horizontal direction, then the retina is placed at a further distance from the
cornea-lens system; subsequently the images of distant objects form in front of the retina.
On the retinal surface, where the light-detecting cells are located, the image is not focused.
The nerve cells thus detect a blurred image of distant objects.

Correcting technologies
Eyeglasses or spectacles and contact lenses are the most common way to correct these
conditions as they help the lens focus light on the retina properly.

Activity - Correcting hyperopia and myopia

Aim:
_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

____________________

Materials:
 Light ray box
 Thick convex lens - this will act as the lens in the eye
 Thin convex lens - act as the lens in a pair of glasses
 Thin concave lens - act as the lens in a pair of glasses
 A3 piece of paper - one per student
 A ruler
 Pencil

Method:
1. Place the A3 sheet of paper in a portrait position on your desk.
2. Place the ray box with the 3 light beam filter at the top right hand side of the page.
 3. At the top of the page, use the thick convex lens, pass the 3 beams of light through
the lens, draw your results and find the focal length of this lens.

4. Repeat this process with the thin convex lens and the concave lens, just below the
first diagram.
5. Place the thin convex lens down again but with the thick convex lens (eye lens) about
1 cm behind the thin lens. Now pass the 3 beams of light through the lens, draw your
results and find the focal length of this lens. See image right
6. Repeat this process for the concave lens with the thick convex lens.

Use your knowledge and results to answer the following questions:

1. Outline the risk assessment for this experiment.

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

____________________

_________________________________________________________________________

__________

2. What is the difference in the focal length of the thick convex and the thin convex
lens? How does this relate to the lens in a human eye during the process of
accommodation?

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

3. Using images and words to show your understanding of myopia, explain which type
of lens is the best suited to correcting myopia.

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________

4. Using images and words to show your understanding of hyperopia, explain which
type of lens is the best suited to correcting hyperopia.
_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________

Correcting hyperopia
In order to correct the far-sighted eye, a device must be used to refract the light. Since the
lens can no longer change to the highly curved shape required to view nearby objects, it
needs some help. The far-sighted eye is assisted by the use of a convex lens that will
converge the light rays further.
A convex lens converges light rays and corrects the problem of hyperopia. This converging
lens will refract light before it enters the eye and therefore enable the eye to focus light onto
the retinal surface. This is explained in the diagram below.

A convex lens corrects the problem of hyperopia by focusing the image onto the retina.

Correcting myopia
The nature of the problem of nearsightedness is that the light is focused in front of the retina.
Light can be refracted artificially using a lens which diverges the light rays just enough so
that it focuses on the retina. Hence the cure for the nearsighted eye is to equip it with a
diverging lens called a concave lens. See the diagram below.

A concave lens corrects the problem of myopia. Note that the lens is still curved outwards at
the front but has a much deeper curvature at the back.
A concave lens diverges light rays. A diverging lens acts on the light rays before it reaches
the eye.
This light will be converged by the cornea and lens producing a focused image on the retina.

Activity - Permanent methods for correcting sight problems

Research into ONE type of laser eye surgery that corrects a sight problem. For the method
you need to include:

 Name of the method

 Visual impairment it treats
 How the laser surgery is perform - what happens to the eye
 How the surgery fixes the eye
 Several advantages and disadvantages of the surgery.

Complete and submit this research work via Google Classroom activity called “Permanent
methods for correcting sight problems”.

A review of osmosis, diffusion and active transport

Since particles in matter are constantly moving, materials move from where they are more
concentrated to where they are less concentrated; this is diffusion. If the diffusion of water
occurs through a selectively permeable membrane, the process is called osmosis.

However, living cells can make substances move from where they are less concentrated to
where they are more concentrated by using energy; this is called active transport. Active
transport may also involve changes in the structure of the membranes, thus permitting
materials to be moved against the concentration gradient. As you will see, all of these
processes – diffusion, osmosis and active transport – are very important in the functioning of
the kidney.

Activity - Key terms for kidneys

1. What is the function of the kidney? How does the liver function relate to the kidney?

2. Find a suitable definition for each of the following terms in relation to the kidney.

Term Definition
Reabsorption

Elimination

Filtration

3. Complete the table on the different structures of the kidney and their functions.

Part of the kidney Structure Function

Cortex

Medulla

Pelvis (not the bone)

Renal artery

Renal vein

Labelled structure of the kidney

Activity - Dissection of a mammalian kidney

Risk assessment
 You will be using sharp instruments so take care that you do not cut yourself.
 When using animal tissue you should wear gloves.
 Wear suitable covered footwear
 Dispose of all waste materials carefully wrapped in newspaper.

Materials required:
 sheep’s kidney
 Scalpel, dissection scissors, dissection needles
 cutting board or plate
 gloves
 Newspaper
  Lab coat
 Safety glasses
 Garbage bag

Method:
1. Observe the shape of the kidney.

2. Observe the protective outer layer of skin, called the capsule.

3. Identify the three tubes which enter the kidney. These are not easy to see because they
are all connected together with tissue and may have been cut off the kidney you have. Also,
there is a lot of fat where they are connected to the kidney. The three tubes are:

a) the ureter, which is the large tube in the centre

b) the renal artery, which has a thick wall

c) the renal vein, which has a thinner wall.

4. To observe the internal structure of the kidney, cut through the kidney lengthwise,
carefully cutting away from your fingers.

5. Now look inside. You will notice a funnel-shaped structure with a hole in the centre. This
hole leads into the ureter. Take an object like a dissecting needle and push it gently through
the opening. Discover where the ureter leaves the kidney.

6. Continue cutting down to open up the kidney as shown in the photograph below.

7. Find the following structures:

 the brown outer layer, or cortex. This is where the waste substances are squeezed
out through the membranes of the glomeruli into the Bowman’s capsules

 an inner pink layer of medulla. Here, water and some salts are reabsorbed into the
blood from the tubules of the nephrons

 a hollow whitish region. This is the pelvis of the kidney where large collecting tube
empty urine into the funnel-shaped beginning of the ureter.

8. Now draw a fully labelled diagram of the dissected kidney.

The functional units of the kidney – nephrons
The following diagram shows the position of tiny structures, called nephrons (nef-ron-s),
which make up the kidney.

There are around 1.2 million of these nephrons in each of your kidneys, making a surface
area of approximately 12 m² in humans. The great surface area created by so many
nephrons in the kidney makes it efficient in carrying out its two important functions. These
are:

 excretion – the elimination of harmful and unwanted products of metabolism

 osmoregulation – the control of body water and salt levels.

The kidneys also have some role in regulating blood pH by the secretion of H+ ions into the
nephron by active transport.

An individual nephron is shown below, where the parts are named and the complex blood
capillary network associated with each nephron is shown. The Bowman’s capsule and the
proximal and distal tubules are found in the cortex, which is the outer dark brown-coloured
layer of the kidney. The loop of Henle and the collecting tubule (or collecting duct) protrude
down into the medulla, which is the lighter-coloured part towards the centre of the kidney.
 Images: A mammalian nephron.

Each part of the nephron has an important role in the filtration of blood and the
osmoregulation of the animal.

Parts of the Nephron

Renal artery – brings blood containing small particles, including nitrogenous wastes
(especially urea), water, salts, glucose and amino acids to the kidney

Glomerulus (glo-meh-rul-es) – blood passing through the glomerulus is under high

pressure. Substances are forced out of the blood in this knot of capillaries into Bowman’s
capsule. The process is largely governed by the size of the pores in the membranes of the
capillaries and Bowman’s capsule, which let small molecules and ions through but prevent
the movement of larger molecules (such as large proteins) and blood cells.

Bowman’s capsule – a cup-shaped structure surrounding the glomerulus that collects

materials forced out of the blood

Proximal tubule, loop of Henle and distal tubule – these structures are joined together,
making a long, very thin tube. As the substances filtered from the blood travel through this
tube, useful substances are reabsorbed back into the blood in the capillaries surrounding the
tube. This involves active transport. Most of the glucose and amino acids are reabsorbed in
this way. Water and salts are reabsorbed in these parts of the nephron. The process of
reabsorption involves both the movement of materials, especially ions, by active transport
and the movement of water by osmosis.

Collecting tubule (or collecting duct) – materials remaining after reabsorption are the
wastes that move into the collecting tubule. As these wastes move through the tubule, more
water is taken back into the bloodstream from the tubule. The waste in the collecting tubule
is urine, which is passed down into the pelvis of the kidney

Renal vein – capillaries that surround the proximal tubule, loop of Henle and distal tubule
join together into the renal vein. This blood vessel carries blood that has been cleaned by
the nephron back into the body’s circulation.

So, in summary, osmoregulation and excretion by nephrons in the kidney are accomplished
by the production and elimination of urine. Urine is produced by:
 filtration of many substances, both wastes and useful ones, from the blood (at the
glomerulus/Bowman’s capsule)
 reabsorption of useful substances into the blood (at the tubules and loop of Henle).

Diffusion, osmosis and active transport in a nephron

Substances move from the blood into the Bowman’s capsule because of the high pressure
of the blood through the glomerulus. But why do substances move from the tubules back into
the blood?

Some substances can move by diffusion, because there is a lower concentration of them in
the blood and a higher concentration in the tubule. However, once the concentration
difference between the blood and various parts of the nephron is balanced, energy must be
used to move useful substances, such as glucose and amino acids, back into the blood.
Since active transport is used, the body can determine the amount of each substance that is
reabsorbed. For example, all glucose will be reabsorbed but only some salt. In this way, the
amount of substances including salt and water reabsorbed is precisely controlled to balance
water and salt intake and losses, so that the composition of blood and fluid surrounding cells
is maintained at a constant level. This process is controlled by the endocrine system.

A summary of filtration and reabsorption in a nephron

The following table summarises the functioning of the kidney by indicating the general
composition of the fluid which enters Bowman’s capsule (sometimes called the filtrate) and
the fluid which eventually
drains out of the collecting tubules into the renal pelvis (the urine). This shows that, for the
most part, active transport is used to pump useful materials back into the bloodstream,
rather than specifically pumping undesirable substances into the nephron.

Material Bowman’s capsule Renal pelvis

(filtrate) Urine
nitrogenous wastes (mainly yes yes
urea)

glucose yes no

amino acids yes no

salts (ions) yes variable amount

water yes variable amount

large proteins no no

blood cells no no

Activity - Label the nephron

On the nephron below, label where:
 where filtration and reabsorption occur
 some substances that are reabsorbed from the tubules into the blood
 the wastes that leave the collecting tubule as urine.

Loss of kidney function

In people who have impaired kidney function, waste products can be removed from their
blood using a process called renal dialysis. The blood of the patient is passed through a coil
separated by a membrane from a salt (saline) solution which has the same concentration as
the blood (called a dialysing solution).

The dialysis membrane is permeable to water and to nitrogenous and other waste products
of metabolism, especially urea. For 4–5 hours about three times a week, the blood of the
patient is circulated through the haemodialysis machine depicted in the diagram.
Dialysis can also be carried out within the body by a process known as peritoneal dialysis. In
this instance, a saline solution is passed into the body cavity (peritoneum) of the patient by a
catheter (fine tube). Wastes diffuse from the body fluids and pass through the membrane
that lines the peritoneum into the saline solution, which is then drained out by another
catheter. This process avoids the necessity to circulate the blood from the patient’s body,
with the possible risk of blood clotting and infection.

Activity - Research loss of kidney function

Research the following information on kidney transplants.
 What is meant by a kidney transplant
 Describe the technology used during a kidney transplant and why it is used.
 Who would have a kidney transplant?
 What are immunosuppressants? How do they relate to a patient who has had
a kidney transplant?
 3 to 4 advantages of this process
 3 to 4 disadvantages of this process
 Pictures and graphic
You need to choose the best method for displaying this work - paragraph, images, table,
poster or a combination of these methods. Complete and submit this research work via
Google Classroom activity called “Kidney”.