 Environmental science is the study of the interaction

of humans with the natural environment.

 The environment includes all conditions that surround
living organisms:
 Climate
 Air and water quality
 Soil and landforms
 Presence of other living organisms

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 Environmental science and the
issues that it studies are complex
and interdisciplinary.
 Includes concepts and ideas
from multiple fields of study.
 Decisions have impacts in all
these fields of study.

Source: Principles of
Environmental Science,
Cunningham, 2005.

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 A community decides to use coal for
electricity, as it is the cheapest source
available. (Economics)
 The coal must be mined from under the
soil. (Geology)
 The coal must be transported to the
population center by road or rail.
(Engineering)
 When it is burned at a power plant, air
pollution is released. Some of that
pollution is converted to acid in the
atmosphere. (Chemistry)
 This falls as acid rain somewhere
downwind. (Meteorology)
 The acid stresses plants by affecting
their nutrient absorption. (Ecology)
 Laws are passed requiring the plant to
install pollution scrubbers. (Politics)
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 Resource Depletion
 A great deal of resources are needed to support the
human population (~7 billion).
 Renewable resources can be replenished within a human
lifetime.
 Timber, water.
 The supply of nonrenewable resources is replenished
extremely slowly, if at all. These can be used up.
 Coal, oil, minerals.

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 Coal is a nonrenewable resource. Over time, it will become
more difficult and expensive to extract.

 This graph represents world coal reserves as of 2008. It is

estimated we have about 250 years of the resource remaining
at current rates of use. 5
 Pollution
 Pollution is a degradation or an
undesired change in air, water,
or soil that affects the health of
living things.
 Biodegradable pollution will
break down naturally over time.
 Nondegradable pollution does
not break down.

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 Pollution, whether in air or water, can move and affect
ecosystems far away from the source.
 This map shows the areas with the highest
concentrations of air pollution.

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 Loss of Biodiversity
 The number of species on the Earth is unknown, but
estimated to be in the tens of millions.
 Biodiversity is the number of different species present in
one specific ecosystem.
 Extinction, or the complete loss of a species, is a natural
event that can be accelerated by human actions.

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 There are five known major extinction events in
Earth’s history.
 The most recent major extinction, about 65 million
years ago, caused 75% of all species to disappear from
the Earth.
 Believed to have been caused by a meteor impact.

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 Assuming no catastrophic events occur,
extinctions normally occur at a pretty
slow rate, called the background rate.
 Normal background extinction rate for
mammals is 1 every 200 years.
 Scientists believe we may be in the midst
of the next major extinction event, due to
human influences.

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 Environmental ethics is the discipline that studies the
moral relationship of human beings to the
environment.
 What is the value of the environment?
 What moral responsibility do we have in dealing with
the major environmental problems that result from our
resource consumption?
 Which needs should be given the highest priority in our
decision making?
 Two main categories of ethics have emerged in human
culture in modern history.

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 Anthropocentrism literally
means “human-centered”.
 This set of ethics protects and
promotes of human interests or
well-being at the expense of all
other factors.
 Often places an emphasis on
short-term benefits while
disregarding long-term
consequences.

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 Ecocentrists believe that
nature deserves to exist for its
own sake regardless of degree
of usefulness to humans.
 The preservation of
ecosystems or other living
things takes priority over
human needs.

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  The debate about whether to build a dam in the Hetch
Hetchy valley was one of the first big debates between
these two philosophies.

Anthropocentrists Ecocentrists
argued that San argued that
Francisco needed this violated
the water, and this the very
was by far the purpose of the
most viable Federal Parks
option. were to be
preserved
ecosystems –
untouched by
human hands.

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 The dam was eventually constructed.
 The justification for building it was
best stated by Gifford Pinochet, the
first man in charge of the U.S. Forest
Service.
"Where conflicting interests must be
reconciled, the question shall always be
answered from the standpoint of the
greatest good of the greatest number in
the long run.“
 This philosophy, called resource
conservationism, was also advocated
by Teddy Roosevelt.

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 The focus of the resource conservationists was to protect
open land.
 The National Parks system, and the National Forest
system were both created during this time.

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 Increased travel and communication enables people to
know about daily events in places unknown in
previous generations.
 Global environmentalism explores issues and
problems over the entire world, not just within the local
community.

Live streaming footage of

the Deepwater Horizon oil
spill in 2010 was watched
worldwide.

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 A great deal of progress has been made since the birth
of modern environmentalism, but many debates still
rage on.
 An ecologist named Garrett Hardin wrote an essay
called “The Tragedy of the Commons”, describing the
source of environmental problems as a conflict:
 Short-term interests of individuals
versus…
Long-term interests of civilization and the Earth itself

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 A small village consists mostly of
farmers that raise and sell sheep at a
nearby city.
 The only place for the sheep to
graze is a commons in the center of
the village.
 A commons is an area that belongs
to no individual; it is shared by the
entire society.
 Likely outcome: Villagers obtain as
many sheep as possible, allow to
graze in the commons.
 Maximize short-term financial gain.
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 What if the commons was instead divided into
sections that was owned by each villager?
 Because the land is owned, individuals are much
more likely to plan and use it for the long-term.

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 The Tragedy of the Commons describes the likeliness
of a commons area being exploited for short-term
economic gain.
 Modern examples include the atmosphere and oceans.

Zadar, Croatia
Norilsk, Russia Source: Agence France-Presse
Source: [Link]
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 Economics has a huge influence in environmental
decision-making.
 One of the most basic principles of economics is
supply and demand.
 The greater the demand for a limited resource, the higher
the price.

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 Another important economic idea is the cost/benefit
analysis. This questions whether the benefit of doing
something justifies the economic cost.

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 In December of 1984, a pesticide
factory located near the town of
Bhopal, India leaked a large amount of
toxic chemicals into the air.
 The chemicals resulted in an
immediate death toll of about 3,000
people, with 8,000 more dying of long-
term health ailments.
 A total of 558,125 injuries were reported
to the Indian government.
 A settlement of $470 million was
reached by Union Carbide and the
Indian government.

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 The settlement was not sufficient to treat all of the long-
term health issues stemming from the disaster.
 The site itself was also not remediated.
 In 1999, Union Carbide was purchased by Dow Chemical.
 To properly compensate and treat all individuals affected
by this disaster, Dow Chemical would have to pay billions
of dollars in settlements.
 Dow Chemical has a yearly profit of over $2 billion, with
total assets worth nearly $70 billion.

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 One of the factors that led to the
Bhopal disaster and lack of cleanup
is that at the time, India was a
developing country.
 Developing countries have lower
incomes, shorter life spans, and
rapid population growth.
 Developing countries,
overpopulated and desperate for
economic gain, tend to have less
regulations on their industries and
fewer environmental protections.
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 Developed countries on average
have higher incomes, longer life
spans, and slower growth rate.
 These countries are more
economically stable, educated,
and have more environmental
protections.

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 Developed countries, while smaller in size and growth,
consume resources at a greater rate.
 About 20% of the world’s population uses 75% of its
resources.

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 Many products used in developed countries are produced
in developing countries.
 Working conditions and pay in these countries is often at
levels that would be unacceptable elsewhere.

A collapsed garment factory in Savar, Bangladesh. Source: AP

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 An ecological footprint is one measurement of a person’s
resource use.
 Includes the amount of space needed to support each
person in a nation, including forests, farms, cities, etc.
 Developed countries have a much larger footprint,
reflecting a much larger use of resources.

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 Sustainability is when human needs are met so
that the population can survive indefinitely.
 “Meeting the needs of the
present without
compromising the ability of
future generations to meet
their own needs.”
 Brundtland Commission, 1987

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 The Earth is a closed system,
meaning nothing enters or
leaves the Earth in large
quantities is heat.
 Resources are limited, but the
population continues to
increase.
 Wastes do not go away.

“We travel together, passengers

on a little ship, dependent on its
vulnerable reserves of air and “Earthrise” taken by
soil.” Apollo 8 crew, 1968.

- Adlai Stevenson
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