Motion, forces and energy

Chapter 1: Measurements and Units

1.1 Measurements techniques

There is no measurement that is 100% accurate, due to the errors that take
place no matter how careful you are while taking the measurement.

Some errors done by the experimenter while taking the measurement, such as:

Reaction time, which is the time taken by the experimenter to react to the situation
and starts taking action.

Parallax error: is the error resulting from the examiner looking at the measuring
device.

Measuring the length S0:

Metre rule
When we look from position 1, the length
1 is more than the real value.
When we look from position 2, the length
Spring is less than the real value.
S0 3 When you look from position 3, very
good approximation is made.
Looking at position 1 and 2 to find the
2 length S0 considered as parallax error.
We should look from same side of scale.
Bench
Fig. 1.1: Parallax error

Other errors come from the measuring device, such as:

Offset zero of the devices, which uses a pointer that doesn’t start from zero.

Example:

1 - Measuring the length

5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0

cm

Fig. 1.2: Off set zero in a ruler

The length of the nail here is not 8.1 cm, as the nail does not start at zero.

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2 - Measuring time

Two digital stopwatches X and Y, which record in minutes and seconds, are used to
time a race.

The readings of the two stopwatches, at the start and at the end of the race, are shown.

Stopwatch X records 40 seconds and

START START
stopwatch Y records 50 seconds. If you
Stopwatch X 00:00 00:40 didn’t notice that stopwatch Y doesn’t
END END start from zero, you may think that the

Stopwatch Y time recorded is 2 minutes and 20

01:30 02:20
seconds.
Fig. 1.3: Off set zero in a stopwatch

3 - Reading the current from an analogue ammeter.

An ammeter has a bad offset zero, if it starts before or after the zero all the time,
then each measurement taken is always less or more than the actual value.

How do we make our readings as accurate as possible?

1. Repeat the experiment few times and then take an average value.
2. Avoid parallax errors, by looking perpendicular to the scale.
3. Beware of the offset zero error.

How does repeating the experiment and taking averages help?

1. It allows you to spot the wrong reading (called anomalies) and hence eliminate it.
2. The average value is more accurate and reduces uncertainty.

Example:

A student measures the time it takes a ball to fall a height of 1m.

t1 = 4.1s Here, t4 seems too far from the other values and hence can be ignored.
t1 + t2 + t3
t2 = 3.9s The average time is tavg = 3 = 4.1 s
t3 = 4.3s
t4 = 6.2s This average value is more accurate.

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How does drawing a graph help in improving results?

1. Drawing a graph also helps to take an average value for the results by finding the
gradient or by finding the area under the graph.
2. It allows you to spot the wrong reading (called anomalies) and hence eliminate it.
3. It helps in finding relationships between quantities.

Example:

A student wishes to find the average density of a substance, he takes different samples,
records the mass and volume of each then plots them on a graph:

mass
density = gradient =
volume Gradient represents the average
of the measurements.

Up to here, we have learned that

errors will take place while taking
Mass

measurements and we also have

This value can be learned how to come around
eliminated as it is
some of these errors and reduce
far from the line
of best fit. their effect.

Volume
Fig. 1.4

Important tips to draw a good graph:

1 - Every graph should have a detailed title.

2 - Choose simple scale, that will make your graph use more than half of the grid.

3 - Show the quantity and the units on the appropriate axis.

4 - Use a pencil while drawing a graph.

5 - Plot the points neatly.

6 - If the points form a straight line, draw the best straight line through them
(using a ruler).

7 - If the points form a curve, draw a free hand curve (draw a smooth curve without
using the ruler).

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Relation between quantities:

1 - Directly proportional
Y
Two quantities are directly proportional if:

Y1 Y2
=
X1 X2
Or the graph representing the two quantities
is a straight line passing through the origin. Fig. 1.5 X

2 - Inversely proportional
Y
Two quantities are inversely proportional if:

Y1 . X1 = Y2 . X2

Or the graph representing both quantities looks

like this one: Fig. 1.6 X

3 - Linear relation
Y
One of the quantities increases, the other
increases, but not at a constant rate.
The graph representing both quantities will
be a straight line but not passing through the
origin. Fig. 1.7 X

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1.2 Physical quantities

Basic Quantities:
There are seven basic quantities we should know: length, mass, time, temperature, current,
number of moles and luminous intensity.

Basic Units
The units for these seven basic quantities are basic units.

Derived Quantities:
Any other quantity other than the seven we mentioned up is derived quantity, it is called
so because it is derived from other basic quantities.
Example: speed = distance
time , so speed is derived from distance and time.

Derived units
Same thing for derived units, i. e. any unit other than the seven above is derived one,
because it is derived from the basic ones.
Example: m/s is derived from meter and from second.

Basic quantity Basic Unit S.I. Unit

Length Meter (m) m
Mass Gram (g) kg
Time Seconds (s) s
Temperature Kelvin (K) K
Current Ampere (A) A
Number of moles Moles (mol) mol
Luminous Intensity Candela (Cd) Cd
Table 1.1

Prefixes: can be added to SI base and derived units to make larger or smaller units.

Multiplying Factor Prefix Abbreviation

10 deci d
-1

10 -2
centi c
10 milli m
-3

10-6 micro µ
10 nano n
-9

10 3
kilo k
10 6
mega M
10 giga G
9

Table 1.2

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Any prefix can be used with any unit. For example, we can use milli "m" with meters, grams,
or seconds. So mm stands for millimeter.

Scalar and Vector quantities:

Scalar quantity is the one that has magnitude (value) only, direction is not important.
Vector is the one that has magnitude and direction.

Scalar quantities Vector quantities

Length, mass, time, temperature, Displacement, velocity,
area, volume, density, distance, acceleration, any type of force,
speed, energy, work, power, momentum, moment,
pressure, frequency, wavelength,
Table 2.2

Length:

SI unit of length is meters (m).

Length is a scalar quantity.

Instruments used to measure the length:

1 - Rule (10cm to 50 cm).

2 - Meter rule (1 meter long).

3 - Measuring tape (several meters

curved length).

Fig. 1.8: Measuring tape

4- Micrometer gauge (enables us to

measure 0.01 mm).

Fig. 1.9: Micrometer

5- Vernier scale (enables us to measure

0.1 mm).
Fig. 1.10: Vernier caliper
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Motion, forces and energy

Using the rule

5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0

cm
Fig. 1.11

To find the length of this nail, look at the start of the reading and at the end.
Starts at 5.2 cm and ends at 8.1 cm. the length = 8.1 – 5.2 = 2.9 cm.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Ruler
cm

Wooden block

Beaker

Fig. 1.12 Bench

In this case, the diameter of a sphere needs to be measured. The ends are very hard to
decide using a ruler only. We use rectangular wooden blocks to locate the edge as
accurately as possible; the rule is placed on top of the blocks, start and end readings are
located.
In this case, the diameter = 8.0 – 3.5 = 4.5 cm.

Notice: every time you take a measurement of a length, take the length from different
places then find an average value to get the best reading as possible.

Measuring vertical heights

A By use of a vertical rule and with the help of a set-square:

Rule

Table

Eye

Set-square

Fig. 1.13

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1 - Make sure the rule is vertical, using a set square.

2 - Look perpendicular to the scale at the level with the edge of table to avoid parallax
error.
3 - Measure the length from different places then take an average value.

B By use of a plumb line and rule:

Plumb line is used to show
the vertical direction.

Plumb line

Table

Eye

Fig. 1.14

1 - Lower the plumb line next to the length you need to measure.
2 - Mark the length on the plumb line.
3 - Stretch the plumb line on a meter rule and find its length.

Verification of horizontal surface

Rule

Table

Eye

Set-square

Fig. 1.15

Use a meter rule with the help of a set square (to make sure the ruler is vertical) in four
different positions. If the height is the same, then the surface is horizontal.

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Level Bar

It is also called spirit level.

Level bar is a device used to show the
horizontal direction.
It consists of a small glass tube that contains
alcohol or similar liquid with an air bubble in
the middle.
If the air bubble is between the two dashed
lines, then the surface is horizontal. Fig. 1.16: Spirit level

Mass
Definition: amount of matter that resists change of motion.
Or: Mass is the measure of body’s inertia.
Mass never changes when an object is moved from one place to another.

SI unit of mass is kg.

Digital balance is the instrument used to measure mass.

Worked example

1 - What happens to the mass of an object:

A - As it falls?
Mass stays the same.
B - When taken from the Earth to the Moon?
Mass doesn’t change.
C - When taken into empty space where there is no gravity?
Mass remains constant.

2 - Sport cars are preferred to have light weight frames. Why?

Light weight means less mass. Less mass means smaller resistance to change in motion, i.e.
can easily accelerate or decelerate. Hence light weight cars have higher efficiency and less
petrol consumption (so less cost to run and environmentally friendly)

Time
SI unit of time is second.

Stopwatch is the instrument used to measure time.

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Measuring short time intervals:

Worked example
Find the period of oscillations of the pendulum in the figure:

To find the period of oscillation of a pendulum:

1 - Choose a fiducial point from which the oscillator can

be counted and timed.
2 - Take the time for 20 oscillations.
Period = time of oscillations
3- 20
4- Repeat the whole thing and take an average value.
Fig. 1.17

Volume
Volume is the amount of space occupied by an object.

SI unit of volume is m .
3

How can we measure the volume of a liquid?

Volume of liquid can be measured using a graduated cylinder.

Volume of regular shapes:

1 - Prism 2 - Cube 3 - Cylinder 4 - Sphere

r

h a
h r

w a
l a
4
V= l x w x h V= a V= πr h V= πr
3 2 3
Fig. 1.18 3

How do we measure the volume of irregular solids (like a stone)?

1 - Put some liquid into a measuring cylinder and read the level of the liquid (V1).
2 - Put the stone into the liquid.
3 - Flick the cylinder to get rid of any air bubbles.
4 - Read the new level of the liquid in the measuring cylinder (V2).
5 - Subtract the original volume of the liquid from the volume of liquid plus the stone
Vstone = V2 - V1

Note: If the solid floats, it can be weighed down with a metal. The total volume is
found, then the volume of the metal is measured in a separate experiment and then
subtracted from this total.

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1.3 Density

Density is the ratio of mass by volume.

mass
density = volume

SI unit of density is kg/m .

3

Density of water is 1 g/cm or 1000 kg/m .

3 3

1 g/cm3 = 1000 kg/m3.

Density of gases is less than that of liquids less than that of solids (with some
exceptions like liquid mercury)

Osmium is the densest material even though its mass number is not the largest, this
is because density is the amount of matter squeezed in a unit volume. Atoms of
Osmium are packed together and distance between the atoms is very small and
that’s why it is the densest.

Experiment:

Take five or six different mass objects that are made up Mass (g)
from same material.
For each one we measure its mass and volume.
We plot the points on a mass-volume graph.
We will get a straight line passing through the origin.
The gradient of the line is equal to the density.
Straight line has a constant gradient which means that the
Volume (cm )
3

density of these objects is the same. Fig. 1.19

Conclusion:
Density of the same material is the same.

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End of Chapter Questions

1 - A pendulum makes 20 complete oscillations in 25 seconds.

a - Calculate the time period of the pendulum.
b - State other things that can be made to get a more accurate reading for the period.

2 - A piece of cotton wire is wound 5 times closely around a pen.

The piece of cotton is measured using a ruler and found to be 15 cm.
a - Calculate the circumference of the pen.
b - Deduce the radius of the pen.
c - Suggest one source of error using this method of determining the circumference.
d - Suggest one improvement for this method.

3 - A student wants to find the density of a small piece of rock. He measured the mass of
the rock using digital balance and found it to be 112g.
He used the following method to find its volume in cm :
3

Rock
Fig. 1.20

a - What do we call the method used to measure its volume?

b - Calculate the volume of the rock.
c - Deduce the density of the rock in g/cm³ and kg/m³.
d - What happens to the density if another rock is used that is much larger and made
up of the same material as this one?

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Chapter 2: Motion and orces

2.1 Speed, velocity and acceleration

Distance
Distance is the length of path taken between two points.

Distance is a scalar quantity.

S.I. unit is meters.

Displacement
Displacement is the shortest path between two points, which is equal to change in
position.

Δ = -

Displacement is a vector quantity.

S.I. unit of displacement is also meters.

Speed
Speed is the distance covered per unit time.

speed = distance
time

Speed is a scalar quantity.

S.I. unit of speed is m/s.

Km/hr 3.6 m/s.

Velocity
Velocity is displacement covered per unit time.

Velocity is a vector quantity.

velocity = displacement
time

The velocity changes if:

1 - Speed changes.
2 - Speed is constant, but direction changes.

Define constant velocity

onstant velocity is the same distance covered in equal time intervals along a
straight line.

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Average speed
Definition: total distance covered divided by the total time interval.

verage speed = total distance

total time

Acceleration
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.

Acceleration = c ange of velocity = v -t u

time

where v is the final velocity, and u is the initial velocity.

S.I. unit of acceleration is m/s2.

Acceleration is a vector quantity.

Acceleration of 2 m/s means that the speed of an object increases by 2 m/s

2

every second.

Acceleration of -3 m/s2 means that the speed of an object decreases by 3 m/s

every second.

A negative acceleration is also called a deceleration or retardation.

Define constant acceleration

onstant acceleration is the same change in velocity during the same interval
of time.

Equations of motion at constant acceleration

v-u
1 - v = at + u (which is the same as a = t )

2 - s = 12 at + ut
2

1
3- s = 2 u+v t
Where is the displacement in
is the initial speed in
4 - v - u = 2as
2 2

is the final speed in

a is the acceleration in
5 - vaverage =
u+v
2 is the time in

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2.2 Motion graphs

Distance-time graphs

rise
gradient = run = distance
time and speed = distance
time so speed = gradient

General Ideas:
If the graph is straight line, then the speed must be constant.

1 - No motion
d
Distance is not changing, gradient is zero, so
speed is zero.

Fig. 2.1 t

2 - Constant speed
d
Distance-time graph is a straight line, so the A

gradient is constant and thus the speed is

constant. B

Line A is steeper than line B, so speed of A is

Fig. 2.2 t
more than speed of B

3 - Increasing speed (accelerating) d

Gradient increases, gradient is equal to the
speed, so speed increases.

Fig. 2.3 t

4 -Decreasing speed (decelerating) d

Gradient decreases, gradient is equal to the
speed, so speed decreases.

Fig. 2.4 t

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Speed-time graphs
rise v v
gradient = run = t and acc = t so acc = gradient

On a speed-time graph, the gradient of the line is equal to the acceleration.

On a speed-time graph, the area under the line is numerically equal to the distance
travelled.

1 - Uniform speed
v
Speed is constant, gradient is zero, so
acceleration is zero.

a = ar a = l h xw h

Fig. 2.5 t

2 - Uniform acceleration
v
Speed is increasing uniformly.

Gradient is constant, so acceleration is

constant.

ase eig t
istance = area = 2
Fig. 2.6 t

3 - Increasing acceleration v
Speed is increasing at an increasing rate.

Gradient is increasing, so acceleration is increasing.

Acceleration at any point is equal to the gradient of

the tangent at any point. Fig. 2.7 t

4 -Decreasing acceleration v
Speed is increasing at a decreasing rate.

Gradient is decreasing, so acceleration is

decreasing.
Fig. 2.8 t

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2.3 Weight and free fall

Weight

Weight is the gravitational pull exerted by the Earth on any object that has mass.

h = a = ra a al l r h
=m g

Gravitational field strength is the force per unit mass.

g=
m

Gravitational field strength is always equivalent to acceleration of free fall.

Example: g = 9.8 g

Weight is always directed vertically downward towards the center of Earth.

Weight varies slightly from one place to another on the Earth’s surface and this is due
to difference in the gravitational field strength. This variation is less than 1 .

Free fall

Definition: Free fall is the falling of any object under the effect of its weight only,
i.e. the only force acting on the object is its weight (no air resistance or drag).

The acceleration of free fall is equal to the gravitational field strength (g) and it is
constant during the fall of the object and independent of the object’s mass.

Moving away from the earth’s surface and out into space, free fall acceleration (g)
decreases.

Worked Example:

Elephant Feather u 0
A light feather and an elephant are
released from rest and from the same
height (assuming there is no air resistance).

Which one reaches the arth 1st and which

one reaches the surface of arth with a
greater speed
Ground line Fig. 2.9

Since there is no air resistance, then elephant and the feather are falling under the
effect of their weight only, which means it is the case of free fall, which means they both
have the sane acceleration.
So their speed increases at the same rate. Thus, they reach the Earth’s surface at the
same speed and at the same time.
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xperiment to find the free fall acceleration g

Electromagnet Starting the timer

This experiment
cuts off current
determines g by finding to electromagnet
Steel
the time a ball-bearing ball-
bearing
takes to fall from rest
through a measured Electronic timer
h Small permanent
distance. The apparatus magnet holds the
Hinge plate against the
is shown alongside: contact at A
Timer stops
when connection
A at A is broken

Metal plate
E l e c t r o n i c t i m e r

Fig. 2.10

Small metallic ball is used to reduce air resistance.

Measure h from the ball bearing to the metal plate.

Record the time measured by the electronic timer.

g can be found using the following equation:

= 1 at + ut
2

u = 0 so the equation becomes:

1
= gt
2
2

2
g= t2

Precautions:

Avoid parallax error while reading the height by making sure your eye is
perpendicular to the scale on the rule.

Avoid off set zero.

Repeat the measurements and take an average value to reduce the uncertainty.

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Moving ball in case of free fall

We Assume in this example that g = 10 m/s2, there V-0

is no air resistance and the positive direction is
downward.
V - 10m s

How much is the acceleration of the ball at the

maximum height? V 10m s
V - 20m s
Its acceleration is a g 10 m s2.
(The acceleration at any point during its motion in
V 20m s
case of free is 10 m s )
2

V - 30m s
In which direction is the acceleration while the ball
is moving up and while it is moving down? ustify. V 30m s
Fig. 2.11
Acceleration is always down as the net force
(weight) is downward.

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2.4 Forces

Force is a mechanical action (pull or push) exerted by an object on another.

Force is a vector quantity. It is represented by an arrow.

S.I. unit of force is Newton (N).

Spring balance or dynamometer is the instrument used to measure forces.

Effects of a force:
1 - Change the speed of an object.
2 - Change the velocity of an object, i.e. change the direction of motion.
3 - Change the shape of an object.
4 - Cause an object to rotate (turning effect).

Characteristics of a force:
1 - Point of application.
2 - Line of action.
3 - Direction.
4 - Magnitude.

Classification of forces:
1 - Field forces: forces that can act without the objects being in contact.
- They are called also forces acting from a distance.
- There are three forces that are field forces and the rest are contact force
- These forces are: gravitational force, electric force and magnetic force.
2 - Contact forces: forces where the objects must be in contact for the force to
exist.
Example: Reaction force, friction force, tension, buoyant force .

Common forces
1 - Weight
Weight is the gravitational pull exerted by the Earth on any other object.
h = a x ra a al l r h

gravitational field strength, g = 10 N/kg .

g
is the free fall acceleration, g = 10 m/s2.

Weight is a field force, i.e. it acts from a distance without the object being in contact
with the Earth’s surface.

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Question

Draw the weight of the box in each of the following cases:

Fig. 2.12

2 - Reaction force
Also called normal reaction or normal contact force.

Reaction force is the force exerted by a surface on any other object that is in contact
with that surface.

It is always perpendicular to the surface that’s why it is called normal reaction.

3 - Tension
Tension is the force of pull supplied by strings, ropes, cables, chains,

It is always directed along the rope and away from the object.

Question

Draw the forces acting on the box in each of the following cases:

Fig. 2.13

4 - Thrust
The forward force exerted by air and gases Lift
on an object.
Weight
Example: aircraft, rocket, Drag

Thrust
Fig. 2.14: ocket

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5 - Upthrust or Buoyant force

Upthrust
The upward force exerted on an object
submerged in a fluid or floating on its
surface.
Weight
Direction is always vertically upward.
Fig. 2.15: Ob etc in beaker of water

6 - Resistive forces
There are different types of resistive forces.
a - Friction: resistive force that opposes the sliding of one object on another.
b - Air resistance (or drag): is the resistive force opposing the motion of an
object in a fluid.

Worked example

A - How can we reduce friction forces?

1 - Polishing the surface.

2 - Using lubricants like oil or grease.
3 - Rolling the ob ect over the surface or by using bearings.
4 - Streamlining the ob ect.
5 - Using air cushion.
6 - Using magnetic levitation.

B - What are the disadvantages of friction?

1 - Unwanted heating effect.

2 - Slows down many processes.
3 - Reduces efficiency in machines.
4 - Causes some unwanted sound, like in highway sounds and in machines.

Question

Draw the friction forces acting on the moving object in each of the following cases

V
V

Fig. 2.16

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esultant force or unbalanced force or net force

A resultant force is the vector sum of two or more forces.

Remember that this force is a virtual one and it doesn’t exist, it is the representation
of all the forces together.

There are 3 different cases for finding the resultant force:

1 - Resultant of para e forces

If the forces have same direction, we add them up to get the resultant force.
If the forces are in opposite directions, we subtract them to get the resultant force.

2 - Resultant of perpendicu ar forces

Use Pythagorean theorem to find the magnitude of the resultant force.

Worked example

An object is acted upon by a 4N force right and by a 3N force north.

Find the resultant force acting on the object and find its direction.

3N
3N
nt
lta
su
Re

4N
Fig. 2.17

et orce = √ 32 + 42 =

3 - Resultant of two forces at any angle.

We use the parallelogram method.

1 - Select an appropriate scale (e.g., 1 cm = 10 N)
2 - Draw and label 1st force to scale and in the proper direction originating from the
object (treat object as a point).
3 - Draw and label 2 force to the SAME scale and in the proper direction
nd

originating also from the object ( hence both forces are drawn at a
common point).

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4 - Complete the diagram to form a parallelogram. This is done by drawing 2 lines

where each of them is parallel and equal to one of the forces.
5 - Draw the diagonal from the common point to the opposite vertex. This is the
resultant force; label it Fnet.
6 - Measure the length (in cm) of the resultant force by using a ruler.
7 - Use the scale to find the actual magnitude of the net force (by converting the
magnitude from cm to N).
F1

F2 R F2 R

P F1 P

Fig. 2.18

Worked example

Find the resultant of V1 V2

R
V2
V1

Fig. 2.19

Find Fnet = ??

F1 110N F2 110N

Fig. 2.20

Since these forces are balanced, the ob ect will stay at rest, we say that the ob ect is in
equilibrium (Net force 0), thus there is no acceleration.
Application of balanced forces is Newton’s 1 Law.
st

Newton’s 1st Law:

Object at rest stays at rest, object was moving, it will continue moving at constant velocity,
unless it experiences an unbalanced force.

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What if the forces are not balanced?

Application of unbalanced forces is Newton’s 2nd Law.

Newton’s 2 Law:
nd

Acceleration is equal to the rate of change of momentum.

p
net = t

It can be written also as

net = m a

Where is the unbalanced force in e ton

m is the mass of the object in
And a is the acceleration of the object in m s2

ree-Bod ia rams
F.B.D. are simple diagrams to show all the forces acting on an object.
The body is free because the diagram shows it without its surroundings. It is commonly
represented by a dot or a box, where force vectors are all drawn from there.

Action and reaction

A single force can’t exist by itself. Forces are always pushes or pulls between two
objects. So, they always occur in pairs.

Application of pairs of forces is Newton’s 3rd Law.

Newton’s 3rd Law:

For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Since these forces are equal and opposite: Why don’t they cancel each other?
orce to cance each other the must be actin on the same ob ect
Action and reaction act on different bodies and thus the don t cance each other

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Worked example

Draw the action and the reaction between

Moon
the Earth and the Moon.

Fg
Fg

Earth

Fig. 2.21

Properties of action and reaction

Action and reaction have:
1 - Same magnitude (value).
2 - Same line of action.
Similarities
3 - Same nature of force.
4 - They act for the same time.

5 - Opposite directions.
Differences
6 - Act on different objects.

Examples from real life: bird, balloon, fish

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2.5 Terminal Velocity

When you drop an object in a fluid (liquid or gas), the fluid Drag
will exert a force on the object opposite to its motion. This
force is called A (or air resistance in case of air).

From where does this force come from?

hi e the ob ect is mo in in a f uid the ob ect is pushin
on the in isib e partic es of the f uid that are er sma
Accordin to e ton s 3rd a the f uid partic es e ert an
e ua and opposite force on the ob ect ca ed the dra
his force ra is a a s opposite to motion
mg
Fig. 2.22

Example: skydiver

1 - When the speed is zero, drag = zero (Object is not pushing on air particles).
Initially a = 9.8 m/s (case of free fall, as the only force acting on the object is its
2

weight).

2 - As speed continues to increase, it starts hitting Drag

the air molecules, the air molecules start
hitting back at the object harder and harder,
so drag increases.

What happens to the net force?

et force decreases as dra increases

What happens to the acceleration?

mg
net = m a so as net force decreases
Fig. 2.23: Sky diver
acce eration decreases
Drag
3 - As the speed continues to increase, drag
increases until it balances the weight.
Drag = weight
So, the skydiver is now in equilibrium.

What happens to the net force?

et force is ero

mg
Fig. 2.24: Sky diver
02 Unit 1
 Motion, forces and energy

What happens to the acceleration?

Acce eration is a so ero

The skydiver now moves with constant maximum velocity called terminal velocity.

Define terminal velocit.

Terminal velocity is the maximum constant velocity an object can reach while
moving in a fluid, when its drag balances the weight (acceleration becomes zero).

4 - As he opens the parachute, drag increases

and it becomes greater than the weight.

What happens to the net force?

Drag
et force is no up ards opposite to
motion

What happens to the acceleration?

he s di er dece erates as the net force

is opposite to motion

mg
Fig. 2.25: Sky diver parachute

5 - Speed starts to decrease, drag decreases

until the drag again balances the weight.
Drag = weight
Fnet = 0 and acceleration = 0
Drag
The sky diver reaches 2 terminal velocity.
nd

6 - The sky diver lands, and his speed becomes

zero.

mg
Fig. 2.26: Sky diver parachute

Unit 1 01
Motion, forces and energy

Velocity-time graph for a parachutist falling in air

Parachute
opens here.
actors upon hich termina
D
Drag e ocit depend:
1 terminal
st

speed 1 - Surface frontal area.

Drag W 2 - Weight of the object.

D
2 terminal
nd W
speed
W
0
Time where 1 Time where 2
st nd

0 terminal speed terminal speed Parachutist touches

Fig. 2.27 is reached is reached ground here.

ow do these factors affect the motion before and after opening the parachute

1 - Surface area
Before opening the parachute (during the first stage
of the motion) The larger the area, the sooner the r al 2

drag balances the weight and the smaller the 1 st

W
terminal speed reached. r al 1

After opening the parachute (during the 2nd stage of W

motion) The larger the area, the more the drag, so it
will take more time for the drag as it decreases to 0
1 2

balance the weight, and thus the 2nd terminal speed 0

reached will be less. Fig. 2.28

2 - Weight
Before opening the parachute The larger the weight,
a
the more the time needed for the drag to balance
the weight, so it accelerates for a longer time and thus Wheavy
h
the 1st terminal speed reached is larger.

Wlight
After opening the parachute The larger the weight,
the drag will balance the weight sooner, so 2nd
0
terminal speed is reached before and with a larger 1 2
0
value.
Fig. 2.29

02 Unit 1
 Motion, forces and energy

2.6 Circular motion

What does a force acting perpendicular to the motion
of an object moving at a constant speed cause?
V
When the unbalanced force acts on the ob ect at
right angle to its motion, the ob ect starts to move
in a circular path.
Thread
The unbalanced force is always directed towards
the center of the circle. This is why the force is
Fig. 2.30
called centripetal force.

Is the object accelerating in this case while moving at constant speed? If yes how?

Velocity is a vector quantity, i.e. speed and direction.

Speed is constant but direction in case of circular motion is always changing, so the
velocity is changing and thus the ob ect is accelerating.

In which direction is the acceleration?

Acceleration is always along the direction of the net force.

So, acceleration is towards the center of circular motion.

In which direction will the object move if the thread is

removed or cut? V
V
When the force causing the circular motion is
removed, the ob ect continues in a straight-line
Thread
tangent to the circle at that point.

Fig. 2.31
xamples of centripetal forces

1 - Satellite Moon orbiting the Earth.

Earth
Type of force: The centripetal force is the
Fg
gravitational pull exerted by the Earth on
Moon
the Moon.

Fig. 2.32

Unit 1 01
Motion, forces and energy

2 - Stone tied to a rope whirled in a circle.

V

Type of force: the centripetal force is the

tension force.
Thread

Fig. 2.33

3 - Car going around a circular motion.

Type of force: the centripetal force is the

friction force.
Static
Frictional
Force
Fig. 2.34

4 - Roller coaster

Type of force: the centripetal force is the Centripetal

Force
push of the tracks on the wheels (reaction
Fig. 2.35
force).

5 - Electrons orbiting the nucleus.

Nucleaus
Type of force: the centripetal force is the
electrostatic attraction force between the + F
-
Electron
negatively charged electrons and the
positive nucleus. Fig. 2.36

Factors affecting the centripetal force:

1 - Mass: The more the mass, the greater the centripetal force needed to keep the
object moving in a circular motion.

2 - Speed: The more the speed, the greater the centripetal force needed to keep the
object moving in a circular motion.

3 - Radius: The larger the radius, the smaller the centripetal force needed to keep the
object moving in a circular motion.
02 Unit 1
 Motion, forces and energy

End of Chapter Questions

1 - A car moves from A to B in the first part of a journey along a straight line covering a
distance of 100 m in 10 seconds, and then goes back from B to A in 30 seconds.
a - Calculate the average speed for the whole journey.
b - Calculate the velocity for the whole journey.

2 - The following graph represents the motion of a car with time.

Speed (m s)

10

Fig. 2.37 Time s

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

a - Describe the motion of the car during the 8 seconds.

b - Calculate the acceleration of the car during the first second.
c - Calculate its deceleration the last 2 seconds.
d - Calculate the total distance travelled by the car.
Calculate its average speed.

3 - A 3 kg mass was weighed on a planet and found to have a weight of 11.3 N. Which
planet was it weighed on, knowing that gEarth= 10 N/kg, g upitar = 24.8 N/kg and
gMars = 3. 5 N/kg?

Unit 1 01
Motion, forces and energy

1 - An object falls from rest, reaches the ground after 3.5 seconds with a maximum speed,
and then comes to rest upon impact.
a - Draw a speed time graph for the object.
b - Calculate the height fallen by the object.

02 Unit 1
 Motion, forces and energy

5 - Draw the forces acting on the box in the

following figure.

Fig. 2.38

6 - The following figure shows the

Direction of motion
forces acting on a car of mass
1500 kg travelling along a
Total frictional Driving force
horizontal road. force 1000 N 4000 N

Calculate the acceleration of

the car Fig. 2.39

7 - A car is travelling at constant

Reaction force
velocity.
a - Calculate the mass of the car.
b - What is the acceleration of the Friction
14000 N Driving force
car?
c - Deduce the value of the
reaction force and the driving Fig. 2.40

force. Weight 12000 N

- Which diagram shows the magnitude and direction of the resultant R of two forces F1
and F2?
A B C D
F1 F1 F1 F1

F2 F2 F2 F2 Fig. 2.41

Unit 1 01
Motion, forces and energy

Chapter 3: urnin Effect of a force

3.1 Moment

We talked before about the effects of a force, and we said that force has a turning
effect.
What does that mean?
It means that a force can cause an object to rotate about a fixed position or fixed
line. This is defined as the moment.

Moment is the product of force by the perpendicular distance from the pivot to the
force.
= d
Where F is the force applied
d is called the moment arm or lever arm
Also the perpendical distance from the support to the force is called moment arm.

S.I. unit of moment is N.m.

Moment is a vector quantity; it has magnitude and direction.

Direction is either clockwise or anticlockwise.

Meaning of moment: it gives us an idea about ability of a force to rotate an object

about a fixed position or fixed axis.

Question

Draw the moment arm in each of the following examples.

Pivot Pivot

F F
Fig. 3.1

02 Unit 1
 Motion, forces and energy

Moment of any force that is along the support (pivot) is equal to zero, because the
moment arm is zero.

Example:

Pivot

F1 F3

F2
Fig. 3.2

The fixed point is often called pivot or fulcrum.

nife-edge or fulcrum Hinges (like door)

Fig. 3.3

Equilibrium

Conditions for equilibrium:

1 - Resultant forces = zero
2 - Resultant moment = zero
Or total clockwise moment = total anticlockwise moment.

Unit 1 01
Motion, forces and energy

3.2 Center of gravity and Stability

e er of r y
Center of gravity is the point where all the weight of an object may be considered to
act.

The line of action of the weight must pass through center of gravity.

Finding the center of gravity

1 - For regular shapes (geometric shapes): the center of gravity is always the geometric
center of the object.

pe :

A - Uniform rod

The midpoint of the rod is its center of

gravity.
Fig. 3.4

B - Circular sheet
-
We draw two chords. Then we draw two - r
perpendicular bisectors of these chords. The
intersection of these perpendicular bisectors is r
the center of gravity of the circle which is the
center of the circle itself. Fig. 3.5

C - Rectangular shape or square

The intersection of diagonals is the center

of gravity.
Fig. 3.6

- Triangle
-
The intersection of medians is the center of
gravity of the triangle.
-
Fig. 3.7

02 Unit 1
 Motion, forces and energy

2 - Center of gravity of irregular shapes

Loosely support the laminar (sheet) at one Piece

of wood
corner.

From that corner hang a plumb line. Nail

D1
Using the plumb line, mark the vertical line
D1D2 along the weight on the card. Hole in
wood
Repeat the same steps from different points D2
(holes on the card). Thin
String
We notice that the two lines (or more)
Weight
intersect at one point, which is the center of
the gravity of the object. Fig. 3.8

Note
We have to hang the laminar card from at least two corners to locate its center
of gravity.

Stability
Factors affecting stability of an object:

1 - Base: the wider the base the more stable the object is.

2 - Moment arm: the closer the center of gravity to the base, the more stable the
object is (so smaller moment arm and thus less ability to topple)

Worked example

Which object is more stable? Explain.

Fig. 3.9

The 2 Image is more stable than the first, because it has wider base, and the center of
nd

gravity is closer to the base.

When does an object topple (fall)?

It starts to topple as soon as its center of gravity passes over the edge.

Unit 1 01
Motion, forces and energy

Worked example

Which object is more likely to topple?

Fig. 3.10

The 2nd figure is more likely to topple, as the center of gravity falls outside edges of the
box or as the line of action of the weight falls outside the base of the box, so there will be
a net moment acting on the box causing it to topple.

Note that the center of gravity always moves towards the added mass.

Example
b ect

Fig. 3.11

Worked example

Which one is more likely to topple?

Fig. 3.12: lasses of Wine Pivot Pivot

The 2 one is more likely to topple because it has larger moment arm, or we can say that
nd

it is less stable because its center of gravity is further away from the base.

Question:

Which one is more likely to topple?

Fig. 3.13: lasses of water

02 Unit 1
 Motion, forces and energy

End of Chapter Questions

1 - The two forces are equal on the plank in each of the following cases.
Which plank turns? ustify.

a-

Pivot
Fig. 3.14 F F

b-
F

Pivot
Fig. 3.15 F
c-
F

Pivot
Fig. 3.16 F

2 - The diagram shows a tower crane used to lift heavy weights from one place to another.

Axis of rotation

6m
8m
Counterweight
20,000 N

Load

W
Fig. 3.17: Tower crane
Unit 1 01
Motion, forces and energy

a - Calculate the mass of load that is needed to balance the tower crane.
b - Calculate the reaction force exerted by the axis of rotation on the crane.

3 - The adjacent figure shows an empty glass placed on an inclined surface. The glass is
stable. Which point is the center of gravity of the glass?

Fig. 3.18

4 -The following figure shows four objects with same mass. The center of gravity has been
marked with dot. Which object is the most stable? ustify

line
add this
Fig. 3.19

5 - The following figure shows spanner used to tighten a nut.

cm
25

200 N 15 cm

Fig. 3.20 20 cm

a - Calculate the moment applied to the nut.

b - What can be done to exert a smaller force to undo the nut?

02 Unit 1
 Motion, forces and energy

Chapter 4: Momentum

Momentum

Momentum is the product of mass by velocity.

Momentum = mass x velocity.

S.I. unit of momentum is kg.m/s or N.s.

Momentum is a vector quantity.

Direction of momentum is always the same as the direction of velocity.

Question

What is the momentum of a body of mass 500g moving at 36 km/hr due North?

Change of momentum
p = mv mu
Question

A ball of mass 200g moving at speed

of 3 m/s strikes a wall and rebounds at
3.0 m s
a speed of 1 m/s. Wall
Find the change of momentum of the
tennis ball. 1.0 m s

Fig. 4.1

Newton’s 2 law can be written in another way in terms of momentum:

nd

Net force is equal to the rate of change of momentum.

p mv - mu
= =
net
t t

This law leads to an important equation, the impulse:

mpulse = . t = mv - mu

S.I. unit of impulse is N.s (or kg.m/s).

The longer the time for which the force acts, the smaller the force needed for a given
change in momentum.

Unit 1 01
Motion, forces and energy

Worked example

Explain in terms of momentum how the crumble zone in cars is safer for passengers.

The presence of crumble one causes the car to collapse upon accidents with other cars,
which increases the time of collision with the other car.
According to Newton’s 2nd Law the net force is proportional to the change in momentum
and inversely proportional to the time of collision. Since time of collision increases and
change of momentum is still the same, so net force on the car is less, so also the force on
passenger is less and thus it is more safe and less dangerouss.

Other examples: air bag, crumble zone in trains, trampoline

Law of conservation of momentum

In the absence of any external forces, the total momentum before a collision is equal
to the total momentum after a collision.

Law of conservation of momentum is applicable in collisions and explosion.

Explosion doesn’t have to be real explosion. In momentum when we say explosion it

means total momentum before an event is zero.

Remember in an explosion the total momentum before the explosion is equal to zero,
because the object was at rest. Hence, after an explosion two objects should be
moving in opposite directions so that their momentum cancels out.

Example

1 - Recoil of cannon or a rifle.

The total momentum before the explosion is equal to zero, because the rifle and the
bullet were at rest.

So, after the collision the total momentum should be also equal to zero.

The bullet moves with a certain momentum, so the rifle must move in the opposite
direction with an equal momentum so that their momentum cancels out.

This is why the rifle recoils back.

2 - Persons skiing and pushing each other on ice.

02 Unit 1
 Motion, forces and energy

End of Chapter Questions

1 - A ball of mass m, moving with speed v, strikes a wall, and rebounds back with the same
speed v (assuming no loss of K.E.).
Calculate the change in momentum during the collision in terms of m and v.

2 - A 200g object moving at speed of 5 m/s. A force F acts on it for 4 seconds to stop it.
Calculate the magnitude of F.

3 - A 100g ball is dropped from a height of 0.8 m. (Assume there is no air resistance in the
question)
a - Calculate the speed of the ball just before it hits the ground.
b - ust after the collision the ball is reflected upward with a speed of 2 m/s.
Calculate the change of momentum of the ball due to the collision.
c - Calculate the force exerted by the floor on the ball if the time of collision is 0.2
seconds.

4 - In a billiard game, a cue ball of mass 100g is moving with speed of 2 m/s, collides with a
stationary blue ball of mass 80g. After the collision the cue ball continues moving with
a speed of 1.6 m/s. Find the speed of the blue ball after the collision.

5 - A 3000 kg truck travelling east at 20 m/s, collides head on with a 2000 kg car traveling
west at speed of 15 m/s. Determine the speed and direction of both vehicles if they
couple together after the collision and move as one object.

6 - A 200g puck is moving at speed of 4m/s on frictionless air table, collides with a heavier
puck of mass 500g that is at rest. After the collision the small puck recoils with a speed
of 2m/s. What is the speed of the large puck after the collision?

Unit 1 01
Motion, forces and energy

5 oo e s a

Elastic body: one that changes shape when a force is applied and returns
back to its original shape when the force is removed.
Example: spring, rubber, trampoline

Experiment of Hooke’s Law

Experiment: investigate the relationship between a load applied to a spring and the
extension produced by the spring.

Procedure:
Hang the spring freely.

Locate the position of the pointer, this is

called the initial length or unloaded length
(l0).

Load slightly; find the new length of the

spring (l). m
Eye
Extension = new length – initial length.
Set-square
Remove the load and add a heavier one.

Repeat and tabulate.

Fig. 5.1

Data:

Extension (cm) 0 1 2 3 5
Load (N) 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 1 1.4

Table 5.1

Plot a graph for the extension versus load and another one for the length versus load.

Conclusion
ooke’s Law : =

Statement the extension in a spring is proportional to the applied force up to the

limit of proportionality.

02 Unit 1
 Motion, forces and energy

Extension cm Load

E
E

L
L

0 Load 0 Extension cm
Fig. 5.2
force
gradient = e tension = constant gradient = e tension = constant
force
force
= e force
tension
= e tension
So
= gradient = constant
1
= gradient = constant

Analysis

Between O L (where L is called the limit of proportionality)

The extension is proportional to the force and the spring obeys Hooke’s law.
The graph is a straight line which means that the gradient is constant.

Between L and E (where E is called the Elastic limit)

The spring is still elastic but doesn’t obey Hooke’s law, i.e. an addition of a
smaller force produces more extension, but removing the force, the spring still
returns to it’s original shape.

Length-force graph
Length (cm)

lengt = l0 +

Where l is the extension

Fig. 5.3 0 Load (N)

Experimental precaution:

Use of horizontal aid when measuring the

length of the spring to avoid parallax error (something to show horizontal line).

Wait for the spring to stop moving before measuring the length.

Unit 1 01
Motion, forces and energy

Start with the smallest load, and when you increase load, remove the previous one,
then check if the spring returns to its original length, to ensure that the elastic limit is
not reached.

Repeat the experiment and take average value.

3 - Stiffness constant (k): for a spring of large value Extension cm

of K, it needs a large force to stretch it or

B
compress it.

To know which spring is stiffer from a graph, it A

can be done in two methods:

a - Gradient of B is greater than that of A.
1
But = gradient 0 Load N
So, kA is greater than kB.
b - For the same extension, spring A needs Fig. 5.3

more force than spring B.

So, A is stiffer than B.

Note that if the graph was Force extension graph, the spring with the greater
gradient is the one with greater stiffness constant, because in that case the
gradient is equal to stiffness constant.

ote that the wor done in extending a spring is given by

1
= 2 orce e tension
or
1
= 2 e2

Adding springs

Usually in IGCSE we consider identical

springs in two cases: Series and parallel.

Consider the following spring in both

cases:
K = 10 N/cm Mass = 2 kg

Find the extension of this spring.

L
20
= = 10 = 2 cm Fig. 5.4

02 Unit 1
 Motion, forces and energy

1 - Springs in series

Each spring of these two is identical to the

one up and the mass is the same also 2 kg.
So, each one extends by the same extension
as the one found up.
Find the new total extension.
= 2 + 2 = 4 cm
Find the new spring constant for the two
springs considered as one spring.
=
20
= 4 = cm L
Fig. 5.5

Conclusion
The stiffness of a compound spring in series made of two identical springs is
half the stiffness of one of the springs: = 2

2 - Springs in Parallel

The springs here share the same load (2kg), so

as if each spring is loaded by 1 kg.
Take each spring alone and find the extension.
10
= = 10 = 1 cm
Find the new spring constant for the two
springs considered as one spring.
20
= = 1 = 20 cm
L
Fig. 5.6

Conclusion
The spring constant of a compound spring in parallel made of two identical
springs is stiffer by double the value of one of them: = 2

Unit 1 01
Motion, forces and energy

End of Chapter Questions

1 - A force of 15 N, extends a spring by 5 cm. Calculate the stiffness of the spring.

2 - Calculate the force needed to stretch a 20 cm long spring to a length of 24 cm if its

spring constant is 250 N/m.

3 - The adjacent figure shows the force Force N

extension graph of a spring.

2.0
a - State Hooke’s Law
b - Mark the point P on the graph at the 1.6
limit of proportionality.
1.2
c - Calculate the stiffness constant of
the spring. 0.8

0.4
Extension cm

2 4 6 8 10
Fig. 5.7

02 Unit 1
 Motion, forces and energy

Chapter 6: ressure

6.1 Pressure on a surface

Pressure is the force per unit area.

P =
Where P is the pressure exerted by an object on a surface.
F is the force perpendicular to the unit area in Newton (N).
A is the area of contact between the object and the surface in m2.

S.I. unit of pressure is Pascal (Pa = N/m ).

2

One Pascal is the pressure exerted by 1N force applied perpendicular on an area

of 1 m .
2

Pascal =
m2
Pressure and area are inversely proportional, the larger the area the smaller the
pressure and vice versa.

Worked example

A car driver fears that the wheels of his car will sink on part of the road that is sandy. He
suggests that some passengers and their luggage should be removed from the car to
prevent the wheels from sinking in the sand. One of the passengers suggest that the
wheels should be flattened by letting some air out

Comment on each.

P F A
Driver: He aims to reduce the force and hence reducing the pressure on the sand and
thus preventing sinking.
Passenger: He aims to increase the area of contact between the wheels and the
ground, hence reducing the pressure on the sand and prevent sinking also.

Question

Who is more likely to damage a wooden floor? ustify.

a - 2000 Kg elephant having a total foot area of 0.4 m .
2

b - 60 Kg lady wearing high heels with a total foot area of 20 cm .

2

Unit 1 01
Motion, forces and energy

6.2 Pressure in liquids

The pressure due to a liquid is given by

Pli uid = d g
Where d is the density of the liquid in
kg/m3. h
g is the gravitational field strength in
N/Kg.
h is the height of the liquid from the
surface in m. Fig. 6.1: Po

Note: the pressure due to a liquid in a column is independent of the area

of the base.

Pressure of a liquid depends on:

1 - Density of the liquid. As the density of the liquid increases the pressure increases.
2 - The vertical depth of the liquid. Pressure increases with depth.

Worked example

At which point A, B, C or D is the pressure due

to liquid the most?

Since the density of the liquid is the same,

all the points are at the same depth and g
is the same, then the pressure is the same
A B C D
on every base (at each point).

Fig. 6.2: o i ati g ve el

02 Unit 1
 Motion, forces and energy

6.3 Pressure in gases (Atmospheric pressure)

The atmosphere (air around us) has pressure. This pressure comes from the mobility
of particles and from the weight of air (because gases have mass, so they have
weight).
Example: Liquid remains in the straw and doesn’t fall down when we close its upper
part.

Atmospheric pressure act in all directions.

Atmospheric pressure decreases with height above sea level (because there is less
air, so less weight).

Application: altimeter (the instrument used in aircraft for example to measure

altitudes).

Atmospheric pressure varies slightly depending on the weather.

Example: Rain clouds form in large areas of lower pressure).

At sea level, atmospheric pressure is about 100 kPa = 105 Pa.

Unit 1 01
Motion, forces and energy

6.4 Pascal Principle

Statement:
A liquid transmits entirely and in all F1 F2
the directions the variation in
pressure throughout the fluid.

Application:
Hydraulic Press P1 = P2 A1 A2

1
= 2 Fig. 6.3: ra li Pre
1 2

02 Unit 1
 Motion, forces and energy

End of Chapter Questions

1 - A block has a volume of 0.3 m3 and made from a material of density 1200 kg/ m3.
a - What is the mass of the block?
b - What is the weight of the block?
c - What is the value of the force the block exerts on the ground?
d - The area of the box in contact with the ground is 0.2 m2.
Calculate the pressure exerted on the ground.

2 - A car has a mass of 1800 kg. The contact surface area of each tire with the floor is 300
cm . Find the pressure exerted by the car on the floor.
2

Unit 1 01
Motion, forces and energy

Chapter 7: Ener or and po er

7.1 Work and energy

Work
Work is the product of force by the distance moved along the direction of force.
or done = force distance
Note that the distance moved must be along the direction of force applied.

S.I. unit of work is oules ( = N.m).

Work is scalar quantity.

Work is done when a force causes displacement.

If the force is perpendicular to the displacement, no work is done as the force doesn’t
cause any displacement.

Does a centripetal force cause any work?

No, because this force is perpendicular to motion.

Energy
Energy is the ability to do work.

Energy is a scalar quantity.

S.I. unit of energy is oules.

Forms of energy

There are many forms of

Example: Kinetic energy, potential energy, chemical, electric, nuclear, heat, light,
sound

inetic Energy
Kinetic energy is the energy an object possesses due to its motion.

. . = 12 m v
2

SI unit of kinetic energy and any other form is oules ( ).

02 Unit 1
 Motion, forces and energy

Work-kinetic energy theorem

Work done on an object is equal to the change in K.E.
or done = c ange in . .
1 1
. d = 2 mv - 2 mu
2 2

Potential energy
Potential energy is the energy stored due to its position or state or shape.

There are different forms of potential energy:

a - Gravitational potential energy is the energy stored in an object due to its
position.

S.I. unit of P.E. is oules ( ).

Remember that GPE varies with height and not horizontally.

b - Elastic potential energy is the energy stored due to change in shape or size of an
elastic object.
Example: stretched or compressed spring.

Work is also equal to change in potential energy.

or done = c ange in P. .
.d = m g
Example: A 40 kg child climbs a staircase of 20 steps, each is 15 cm high.
a - Calculate the change in GPE.
b - How much work did the child do?

Energy Transformations

Energy transformation is when energy changes from one form to another.

Law of Conservation of Energy

nergy is never created nor destroyed it can be transformed from one form to
another.

Example:
A stone of mass 200 g is released from rest, 5m above floor level.
Find its speed when it reaches the floor

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Motion, forces and energy

7.2 Energy Resources

Renewable sources: energy sources that can be replenished.

Example: Solar, wind, water (hydroelectric, tidal, waves), biomass and geothermal.
Advantages of renewable sources:
1 - No radioactive wastes.
2 - No greenhouse gases (except biomass)
3 - No acid rains.

Non-renewable sources: energy sources that vanish with time and found on Earth
with limited quantities.
Example: Fossil fuel (coal, crude oil and Natural gas)
Nuclear energy (nuclear fission, nuclear fusion and nuclear decay)

Advantages of non-renewable sources:

1 - They are efficient sources of energy.
2 - They are reliable.
3 - Longer operating life (like nuclear)

Disadvantages of fossil fuels:

1 - They will vanish after some time.
2 - Burning fossil fuel produces carbon dioxide and other gases that contribute to
global warming.
3 - Cause acid rain.

Disadvantages of nuclear fuels:

1 - Nuclear sources produce radioactive waste that stay radioactive for millions of
years.
2 - Accidents t nuclear power stations are fatal and may have long term
consequences.
3 - High decommissioning cost.

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 Motion, forces and energy

7.3 Power and efficiency

Power
Power is the rate of transfer of energy.
Or power is the rate at which work is done.
nergy transformed Po er done
Po er = time ta en or Po er = time ta en

or Po er = force velocity

S.I. unit of power is watt (w)

oules
att = second
Power is a scalar quantity.

Efficiency
useful energy output useful po er output
eff = total energy input or eff = total po er input

Efficiency has no unit.

Worked example

A boy exerts 20N to drag a box along a

ramp which is 10m long. The box has a
mass of 2kg. 10 m
Find the efficiency in raising the box
(i.e. in storing GPE)
6m
useful energy output
eff = total energy input

P needed to move it up m g
eff = or done y t e oy
= d Fig. 7.1

eff = = 0

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Motion, forces and energy

7.4 Thinking, braking and stopping distance

The stopping distance depends on two factors:

1 - Thinking distance
When a driver sees something suddenly, it takes time to react, this time is called the
reaction time.
Thinking distance is the distance travelled during thinking and before applying the
brakes.
2 - Braking distance
The braking distance is the distance covered once the brakes are applied and
until the car stops.
stopping distance = t in ing distance + ra ing distance

Factors affecting stopping distance

Thinking distance is affected by:

Speed

Tiredness

Alcohol and drugs

Distractions (Levels of Concentration like using phones, looking at something

outside, )

Braking distance is affected by:

Speed

Mass of the vehicle

Poor road conditions (icy, wet)

Car conditions (bald tires, poor brakes, number of passengers )

The stopping distance is much further for faster speeds, which is why you should:
Keep your distance from the car in front, especially if the road conditions are poor.

Keep to the speed limit.

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End of Chapter Questions

1 - A 60 kg man moves with a speed of .2 Km/h. Find his K.E.

2 - An object of mass m with speed v has a K.E. of 100 . If the speed is doubled and mass is
tripled, what is the new K.E?

3 - Energy transformations
a - What are the useful energy changes in hydroelectric power station?
b - What are the useful energy changes in wave power station?
c - What are the useful energy changes in tidal power station?
d - What are the useful energy changes that take place in a coal-fired power station?
e - What are the useful energy changes that take place when electric energy is
obtained from nuclear fission?

4 - A man pushes a 200N box up a plank of length

2m
2m onto a truck that is 0.6 m above the surface
of the road.
0.6 m

Fig. 7.2

5 - A football player throws a ball of mass 250 g vertically up transferring 12.5 of kinetic
energy to it. Neglect air resistance.
a - Calculate the initial speed of the ball.
b - Calculate the maximum height reached by the ball assuming there is no air
resistance.
c - If a ball of larger mass was given the same initial kinetic energy, what happens to
the maximum height reached by it?

6 - A power station uses 3000 joules of energy to generate electric energy, and 2100 joules
of this energy is wasted as heat.
Calculate the efficiency of the power station.

7 - Friction brings a 5kg moving object from 20 m/s to rest.

a - How much work is done by friction?
b - Deduce the friction force exerted if the distance covered is 200m.

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