Heat Treatment
BY
BAIJ NATH/GMQC
Introduction
Heat treatment is an important operation in the manufacturing process of
machine parts and tools. It may be defined as an operation of heating and cooling
of metals in the solid state to induce certain desired properties into them. Heat
treatment can alter the mechanical properties of steel by changing the size and
shape of the grains of which it is composed, or by changing its micro constituents.
It is generally employed for the following purposes:
1. To improve machinability.
2. To change or refine grain size.
3. To relieve the stresses of the metals/alloys induced during cold or hot
working.
4. To improve mechanical properties, e.g., tensile strength, hardness,
ductility, shock resistance , corrosion etc.
5. To improve magnetic and electrical properties.
6. To increase resistance to wear, heat and corrosion.
7. To produce a hard surface on a ductile interior.
The various improvements from heat-treatment are a result of the
development of certain micro-constituents, which have desired qualities. These
micro-constituents are obtained by different rates of heating and cooling which
have been discussed under various processes of heat treatment.
The most commonly used operations of heat-treatment are:
1. Annealing.
2. Normalizing.
3. Hardening.
4. Tempering.
5. Carburising (case-hardening).
6. Cyaniding.
7. Nitriding.
8. Induction hardening.
9. Flame-hardening.
1. Annealing
It is one of the most widely used operations in heat treatment of iron and steel and
is defined (according to American Society of Material Testing) as the softening
process in which iron base alloys are heated above the transformation range, held
there for a proper time and then cooled slowly (at the rate of 30 to 150 0 C per
hour) below the transformation-range in the furnace itself.
The objects of annealing are:
1. To soften the metal so that it can be cold worked.
2. To improve machinability.
3. To refine grain size due to phase recrystallisation and produce uniformity.
4. To increase ductility of metal.
5. To prepare steel for subsequent heat-treatment.
6. To modify electrical and magnetic properties.
7. To relieve internal stresses.
8. To produce a definite micro-structure.
2. Spheroidsing
It is another process of annealing in which high carbon steels/tool steels
containing a large amount of free cementite, which makes them brittle, are heated
20 to 400 C below the lower critical temperature, held there for a considerable
period of time e.g. for 2.5 cm diameter piece the time recommended is four hours.
It is then allowed to cool very slowly at room temperature in the furnace itself.
During this period, the cementite of steel which is in combined form of
carbon becomes globular or spheroidal and these set in ferrite matrix, thus
imparting softness and ductility to steel.
3. Normalizing:
According to American Society of Material Testing, it is defined as the
process in which iron base alloys are heated 40 to 50 0 C above the upper
transformation range and held there for a specified period (to ensure that a fully
austenitic structure is produced) and followed by cooling in still air at room
temperature.
The heating of hypo-eutectoid as well as hyper-eutectoid steel is done
above the upper critical temperature. The normalized steel consists of ferrite and
pearlite for hypo-eutectoid, and pearlite and cementite for hyper-eutectoid steel.
The parts on which normalizing treatment is carried out are:
(a) Normalising is generally carried out on large castings and forgings to put
steel in the heat condition for machining or hardening. It is also applied to
low and medium carbon steel parts.
(b) It is frequently applied as the final heat-treatment process on items, which
are subjected to relatively high stresses.
The objects of normalizing are:
1. To eliminate coarse grain structure obtained during forging, rolling and
stamping and produce fine grains.
2. To increase the strength of medium carbon steel.
3. To improve the machinability of low carbon steel.
4. To improve the structure of welds (uniformity of structure).
5. To reduce internal stresses.
6. To achieve desired results in mechanical and electrical properties.
The parts subjected to normalizing treatment have higher yield strength, ultimate
tensile strength and impact strength but ductility is somewhat reduced.
4. Hardening:
According to American Society of Material Testing, it is defined as the
heat-treatment process in which steel is heated to about 20 0 C above the
transformation range, soaking at this temperature for a considerable period to
ensure thorough penetration of the temperature inside the component, followed by
continuous cooling to room temperature by quenching in water, oil or brine
solution.
The parts on which hardening process is applied.
a. As the hardness in steel is due to carbon content only, the hardening
process is carried out only on high carbon steels.
b. It is also applied on tool and structural steels.
Purpose of Hardening
1. To harden the steel to resist wear.
2. To enable steel to cut other metals.
The parts, which are subjected to hardening, are brittle, poor in ductility and
toughness, good in tensile strength and poor in impact strength, relative
elongation and reduction in area
5. Tempering:
According to American Society of Material Testing, it is defined as the reheat
process, reheating being carried out under sub-critical temperatures. Such a
reheating permits the trapped martensite to transform into troostite or sorbite
depending on the tempering temperature and relieve the internal stresses.
Toughness and ductility are improved at the expense of hardness and strength.
It is an operation used to modify the properties of steel hardened by quenching for
the purpose of increasing its usefulness.
The mechanical properties produced by hardening and tempering depend upon the
carbon content of the steel, the rate at which it is cooled during the hardening
process; and the tempering temperature. The troosite or sorbite structure consists
of ferrite and finely divided cementite; and is different from that produced by
mild quenching which is of a laminated form.
Tempering is divided into three classes according to the usefulness of steel
required.
1. low temperature tempering (150-200C, tempered matensite)
2. Medium temperature tempering (250-350C, troostite)
3. High temperature tempering (350-550C, sorbite)
5.1 Austempering of Steel: (T-T-T-Curve or S-Curve or Isothermal curve)
It is a type of the tempering process in which iron and its be alloys are heated
above the transformation range and then quenched in a molten salt bath at a
temperature of 250 to 500 C and is held at the quenching temperature for a time
sufficient to give complete transformation to an intermediate structure referred top
as bainite. It is then cooled to room temperature.
Advantages
1. Quenching cracks are avoided.
2. Distortion and warping are avoided.
3. A more uniform micro-structure is obtained.
4. Mechanical properties of bainite are superior to conventional hardening
micro-structure.
5.2. Martempering:
It is a type of the tempering process in which iron and its be alloys are heated
above the transformation range and then sudden quenched in a molten salt bath at
a temperature of 180 to 300 C & held at that temperature until the core and
outside temperature are equalized. The part is then removed and cooled at
moderate rate.
6. Case Hardening:
This process is used to produce a high surface hardness for wear-resistances
supported by a tough, shock-resisting core.
The objects of case hardening are :
1. To obtain a hard and wear resistant surface on machine parts with enrichment
of the surface layer with carbon to a concentration of 0.75 to 1.2%..
2. To obtain a tough core.
3. To obtain close tolerances in machining parts.
4. To obtain a higher fatigue limit and high mechanical properties in the core.
6.1 Carbonization:
In this process, the carbonaceous medium is a solid carburiser. The chief
carburisers for pack carburising are activated charcoal with grain size varying
from 3.5 to 10 mm in a diameter, semi-coke and peat coke. Carbonates are added
to the charcoal to accelerate the carburising process. Usually barium carbonate
(BaCO3) and soda-ash (Na2CO3) are added in an amount varying from 10 to
40% of the total weight of charcoal.
6.2 Nitriding
It is the process of saturating the surface of steel with N2w by holding it for a
prolonged period (upto 100 hours) at a temperature ranging from 480 to 650 C in
an atmosphere of NH3. A case of 0.7 mm takes about 100 hours.
For a steel specimen to respond to nitriding treatment, it must contain a small
amount of chromium, or both chromium and aluminium. Steel with 3% Cr
develops about 850 HV hardness and steel with 1.5% Cr and 1.5%. Al about 1100
HV. Carbon content is between core properties are attained prior to nitriding
treatment. Since no quenching is done after nitriding, finish machining operation
is done before hand.
The parts on which nitriding process is applied are :
a. Alloy steels containing Cr, Ni, Al, Mo, V. These elements may be present
one at a time or all of them be present in the steel.
b. Best steel to be nitrated is Nitre-alloy. (A trade name given to nickel-steel)
c. Plain carbon steels are seldom nitrided.
6.3 Cyaniding:
It is the process in which both carbon and nitrogen in the form of cyaniding salt
are added to the surface of low and medium carbon steel to increase its hardness
and wear resistance. This method is also effective for increasing the fatigue limit
of medium and small sized parts such as gears, shafts, wrist pins etc.
It involves the heating of parts in the molten cyanide salt bath maintained at
temperature of 800 to 850 C and then quenching the steel in oil or water bath.
The salt bath contains sodium cyanide (NaCN), soda ash (Na2CO3) and the
sodium chloride (NaCl) in the proportion varying from 25 to 40%. Cyaniding
time is determined by the depth of the hardened case required and varies from 5 to
20 minutes. The resulting case contains 0.6 to 0.8 per cent C and 0.4 to 0.5 per
cent N. The hardness obtained on the case by this process varies from 56 to 60 RC
and the depth varies from 0.075 to 2.5 mm.
6.4 Induction Hardening:
The purpose of induction or flame hardening is to obtain hand and wear resistant
surface whilst the core remains soft. The processes of induction hardening and
flame hardening differ from each other in the way of heating.
1. The time required for this heat-treatment operation is less thereby increasing
the labour productivity.
2. Deformation due to heat-treatment is considerably reduced.
3. The articles which are induction heated have no scale effect.
4. The hardening of the surface can be easily controlled by controlling the
current.
5. The depth of hardness can be easily controlled by varying the frequency of
supply voltage.
6.5 Flame Hardening:
This process is just like induction hardening with the difference that the heating of
the specimen is carried out by flame instead of by induction effect. It is also based
on rapid heating and quenching. The rapid quenching is achieved by sprays of
water, connections of which are integral with the heating device. The heating is
generally accomplished by means of oxy-acetylene flame. Heating is carried out
for sufficient time so as to raise the temperature of the surface of the specimen
above the critical temperature. As soon as this temperature is reached, spraying is
started. Generally in mass production work, progressive surface hardening is
carried out in which the flame and spraying equipment arranged suitably move
together with respect to the work piece.
Main defects in steel due to heat treatment :
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Composition & uses of various alloys:
[Link]. Alloys Composition in % Uses
1 Admiralty 70copper, 30Zinc Steam condenser Tube
Brass
2. Alnico 50iron, 20nickel, For making permanent
20aluminium magnets
, 10cobalt
3. Aluminum 94.8copper, Coins,
Bronze 5.2aluminium frames, jewellery
4. Babbitt 87.75 Sn, 4 Cu, 8 Sb, Bearing lining
metal 0.25 Bi
5. Bell Metal 66 7 Cu, 33.3 Sn Bells
6. Brass Copper and zinc in Household utensile and other
varying proportions articles.
Generally the ratio is
2:1
7. Bronze 90 Copper, 10 tin Utensils (Kansi), statutes.
8. Cast brass Copper zinc in varying Bearings, hydraulic fittings.
proportions.
9. Constant an 50 Copper, 50 Nickel Standard resistance
10. Coronite 65 nickel, 20 iron, 15 Annealing pots, diesel engine
chromium valves, oilburners.
11. Cupronickel 75 copper, 25 nickel Coins, refle bullets, condenser
tubes.
12. Delta metal 55 copper, 41 zinc, 2 Marineengine parts, screw
lead, 2 iron propellers, chemical
ghydraulic, mining plants,
sanitary fittings.
13. Duralumin 65 aluminium, 34 Light structures, extruded
copper, 0.5 manganese sections, sheets.
0.5 magnesium.
14. Engineers 88 copper, 10 tin, 2 zinc Engine parts, steam fittings
bronze hydraulic machineries.
15. Eliver 50 iorn, 36 nickel, 12 Standard tuning forks,
chromium 1 chronometer balance springs.
manganese,1 carbon
16. Fusible 50 bishmuth, 25 lead 25 Fusible plug for steam boilers.
metal tin,
17. Gun metal 90 copper 10 zinc. Small valves, fittings for wter
services.
18. German 50 copper, 30 zinc, 20 Ornamental work or motor
silver nickel cars, shop and house fittings.
19. Invar 64 iron, 36 nickel. Surveying tapes, piston struts,
compensation collars.
20. Manganese 60 copper, 35 zinc, 5 Under water shafts and fittings
bronze manganese status, parts of fine
machineries.
21. Manganin 84 copper, 12 Thermocouple junction m etal.
manganese, 4 nickel.
22. Magnalium 94.7 aluminium, 5.30 Machined article, balances
magnesium
23. Muntaz 60 copper, 40 zinc Hot working, by rolling:
metal stamping and extruding.
24. Monel 67 nickel, 28 copper and Valve parts for super heated
metal the remaining carbon, steam, turbine, blades, pumps
iron and manganese and condenser tubes.
25. Nictrome 80 nickel, 20 chromium Heating elements for domestic
and industrial electrical
appliances.
26. Nicheloy 94 aluminium, 5 copper, Air ships.
1 nickel
27. Ordinary 95 copper, 5 tin Gears worms, bushes, pump
bronze bodies.
28. Perminvar 45 nickel, 30 copper, 25 Transformer core, magnetic
cobalt. shield
29. Pewter 80 tin 20 lead Drinking vessels, domestic
appliances.
30. Phosphor 90 copper, 9.7 tin, 0.3 Bearings, worms wheels rods,
bronze phosphorous sheets,
31. Standard 70 copper, 30 zinc Rolling into sheets or drawing
brass into tubes for locomotive,
cartridge, pump lines.
32. Silver oid 55 copper, 45 nickel Decorative work in connection
with shop iron hotel entrances
etc.
33. Silicon 97.22 copper, 2.26 tin, Aerial wires.
bronze 0.52 silicon
34. Solder 66 lead, 34 tin Soldering and timing purposes.
35. T. alloy 92.5 aluminium 4 I.C. engine piston.
copper 2 nickel, 15
magnesium
36. Tungsten High speed tools.
37. Type metal 79.75, 20.25 antimony Printing types.
38. White metal 80 lead, 20 bismuth Bearings linings.