Faculty of Engineering and Technology

Department of Applied Science & Humanities

Subject: Calculus (03019101BS01)

Semester: 1st Sem, B. Tech
Lecture Notes: Unit-4, Vector Calculus

Module-4
Vector-valued function, velocity and acceleration, the gradient of a scalar function, directional derivatives, divergence and
curl of a vector-valued function. Parameterization of curves and surfaces, vector fields, line integrals, Green’s theorem,
surface integrals, Gauss divergence theorem and Stokes’ theorems with applications

Vector-Valued Function
A vector-valued function assigns a vector to each value of the parameter 𝑡. In 3D space, it is usually
written as:

𝑟⃗(𝑡) = 𝑥 (𝑡)𝑖̂ + 𝑦(𝑡)𝑗̂ + 𝑧(𝑡)𝑘̂

where (𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡), 𝑧(𝑡)) are scalar functions of 𝑡.

Geometrically, 𝑟⃗(𝑡) represents the position vector of a moving particle at time 𝑡.

The curve traced by 𝑟⃗(𝑡) as 𝑡 varies is called a space curve.

Note: The vector-valued function 𝑟⃗(𝑡) is said to be differentiable at t, if all functions 𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡),
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧(𝑡) are differentiable at t.

Examples:

1. The velocity of a moving fluid at any instant.

2. The gravitational force.
3. The electric and magnetic field intensity.

Scalar Point Function

If corresponding to each point P(x, y, z) of a region 𝑅 in space, there corresponds a unique scalar
function ϕ = ϕ(x, y, z) then ϕ is called a scalar point function and 𝑅 It is called a scalar field.

Examples:

1. The temperature field in a body.

2. The pressure field of the air in the Earth’s atmosphere.
3. The density of a body.
Note: A scalar field that is independent of time is called a stationary or steady-state scalar field.

Velocity
The velocity vector is the derivative of position with respect to time
𝑑𝑟⃗(𝑡) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝑣⃗ (𝑡) = = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ .
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
The direction of velocity is tangent to the path of the particle.

Speed
Speed is the magnitude of the velocity. It is a scalar quantity, defined by

𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑧 2
|𝑣⃗(𝑡)| = √( 𝑑𝑡 ) + ( 𝑑𝑡 ) + ( 𝑑𝑡 ) .

Acceleration
The acceleration vector is the derivative of velocity (or the second derivative of position):

𝑑𝑣⃗(𝑡) 𝑑2 𝑟⃗(𝑡)
𝑎⃗(𝑡) = = .
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
In components:

𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑2 𝑧
𝑎⃗(𝑡) = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ .
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2

Acceleration describes how velocity (magnitude and/or direction) changes with time.

Example:

Let 𝑟⃗(𝑡) = 𝑡 2 𝑖̂ + 𝑡 3 𝑗̂ + sin 𝑡 𝑘̂ . Find the velocity, speed and acceleration at time 𝑡 = 0.

Solution:

Given the position vector is

𝑟⃗(𝑡) = 𝑡 2 𝑖̂ + 𝑡 3 𝑗̂ + sin 𝑡 𝑘̂ .
Velocity:
𝑑𝑟⃗
𝑣⃗(𝑡) = = 2𝑡𝑖̂ + 3𝑡 2 𝑗̂ + cos 𝑡 𝑘̂.
𝑑𝑡
Speed :

|𝑣⃗(𝑡)| = 2𝑡𝑖̂ + 3𝑡 2 𝑗̂ + cos 𝑡 𝑘̂ |

= √(2𝑡)2 + (3𝑡 2 )2 + (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡)2

= √4𝑡 2 + 9𝑡 4 + cos2 𝑡

Acceleration:
𝑑𝑣⃗
𝑎⃗(𝑡) = = 2𝑖̂ + 6𝑡𝑗̂ − sin 𝑡 𝑘̂ .
𝑑𝑡
At 𝑡 = 0:

𝑣⃗ (0) = 𝑘̂ ,
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 1,
𝑎⃗(0) = 2𝑖̂.

Exercise:

1. If 𝑟⃗(𝑡) = (𝑡 2 + 1)𝑖̂ + (2𝑡 − 3)𝑗̂ + (𝑡 3 )𝑘̂ , find the velocity and acceleration at 𝑡 = 2.

Answer: 𝑣⃗(2) = 4𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ + 12𝑘̂ , 𝑎⃗(2) = 2𝑖̂ + 0𝑗̂ + 12𝑘̂.

2. For 𝑟⃗(𝑡) = cos 𝑡 𝑖̂ + sin 𝑡 𝑗̂ + 𝑡 𝑘̂ , find velocity, speed, and acceleration.

Answer: 𝑣⃗(𝑡) = − sin 𝑡 𝑖̂ + cos 𝑡 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂, |𝑣⃗(𝑡)| = √2, 𝑎⃗(𝑡) = −co s 𝑡 𝑖̂ − si n 𝑡 𝑗̂.

3. A particle moves with a position vector 𝑟⃗(𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑡 𝑖̂ + 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑗̂ + 𝑡 2 𝑘̂ . Find velocity and

acceleration at t=0.

Answer: 𝑣⃗ (0) = 𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ + 0𝑘̂ , 𝑎⃗(0) = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 2𝑘̂ .

Vector Differential Operator

The vector differential operator is denoted by ⃗∇⃗ (del or nabla) and is defined as
∂ ∂ ∂
⃗⃗=
∇ 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ .
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
Gradient of a Scalar Field
⃗⃗𝜙. It is defined by
For a given scalar function 𝜙 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) the gradient of 𝜙 is denoted by 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝜙 or ∇
∂𝜙 ∂𝜙 ∂𝜙
⃗∇⃗ϕ = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂.
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
Remark: The direction of the gradient of the scalar field 𝜙(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is the normal to the surface
ϕ(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 at (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) .

Example 1:

Find the gradient of ϕ = 3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑦 3 𝑧 2 at the point (1, −2,1).

Solution:

Given:

ϕ = 3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑦 3 𝑧 2
We are required to find the gradient of ϕ at the point (1, -2, 1).
∂𝜙 ∂𝜙 ∂𝜙
⃗∇⃗ϕ = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂.
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
Partial derivatives
∂ϕ
= 6𝑥𝑦,
∂𝑥
∂ϕ
= 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 𝑧 2 ,
∂𝑦
∂ϕ
= −2𝑦 3 𝑧.
∂𝑧
Therefore,
⃗∇⃗ϕ = 6𝑥𝑦 𝑖̂ + (3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 𝑧 2 ) 𝑗̂ + (−2𝑦 3 𝑧) 𝑘̂ .

Substituting (x, y, z) = (1, -2, 1), we have,

⃗⃗ϕ(1, −2, 1) = −12 𝑖̂ − 9 𝑗̂ + 16 𝑘̂ = (−12, −9, 16).

∇

Example 2:
2
⃗⃗𝑒 𝑟 where 𝑟 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 .
Evaluate ∇

Solution:

We know that
2 2 2
∂(𝑒 𝑟 ) ∂(𝑒 𝑟 ) ∂(𝑒 𝑟 )
⃗∇⃗𝑒 𝑟2 = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂.
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
Partial differentiations are,
2 2 2 +𝑧 2 )
∂𝑒 𝑟 ∂𝑒 (𝑥 +𝑦 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2 ) 2
= = 2𝑥𝑒 (𝑥 = 2𝑥𝑒 𝑟 ,
∂𝑥 ∂𝑥
 2
∂𝑒 𝑟 2
= 2𝑦𝑒 𝑟 ,
∂𝑦
2
∂𝑒 𝑟 2
= 2𝑧𝑒 𝑟 .
∂𝑧
Thus,
2 2 2
∂(𝑒 𝑟 ) ∂(𝑒 𝑟 ) ∂(𝑒 𝑟 )
⃗∇⃗𝑒 𝑟2 = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂.
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
Therefore,
⃗∇⃗𝑒 𝑟2 = 2𝑒 𝑟2 (𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂ ).

Example 3:

Find a unit normal vector to the surface 𝒙𝟑 + 𝒚𝟑 + 𝟑𝒙𝒚𝒛 = 𝟑 at the point (𝟏, 𝟐, −𝟏)

Solution:

Let ϕ(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 + 3𝑥𝑦𝑧 − 3

∂𝜙 ∂𝜙 ∂𝜙
⃗⃗𝜙 =
∇ 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧

= 𝑖̂(3𝑥 2 + 3𝑦𝑧) + 𝑗̂(3𝑦 2 + 3𝑥𝑧) + 𝑘̂ (3𝑥𝑦).

At the point (1, 2, −1),

⃗∇⃗𝜙 = −3𝑖̂ + 9𝑗̂ + 6𝑘̂.

Therefore the unit vector is

⃗⃗𝜙
∇ −3𝑖̂ + 9𝑗̂ + 6𝑘̂
𝑛̂ = = .
⃗⃗𝜙|
|∇ √126

Exercise:
1. Find a unit normal vector to the surface 𝑥 2 𝑦 + 3𝑥𝑧 2 = 8 at (1,0,2).
1
Ans: 𝑛̂ = 17 (12 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 12 𝑘̂).
2. Find the unit normal to the surface 𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑥𝑦𝑧 at (1, −2,1).
1
Ans: 𝑛̂ = − (𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ ).
√3
Directional Derivative
The directional derivative of a scalar point function ϕ(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) in the direction of the vector 𝑎⃗ ( 𝑎̂ is
the unit vector along ) is

⃗⃗ϕ ⋅ â.
Da⃗⃗ ϕ = ∇

Now by the definition of dot product, we have

⃗⃗ϕ| |𝑎̂| cos θ = |∇
|Da⃗⃗ ϕ| = |∇ ⃗⃗ϕ| cos θ,

⃗⃗ϕ and the direction vector 𝑎̂.

where θ is the angle between the gradient vector ∇

Since cos θ has its maximum value 1 when θ = 0, the maximum value of the directional derivative is

⃗⃗ϕ|.
(Da⃗⃗ ϕ)𝑚𝑎𝑥 = |∇

⃗⃗ϕ, and its

Hence, the directional derivative of ϕ is maximum in the direction of the gradient vector ∇
maximum value equals the magnitude of the gradient.

Example 1:

Find the directional derivative of ϕ = 𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑦𝑧 3 at the point (1, −2,1) in the direction of the vector
𝑎⃗ = 2𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ + 2𝑘̂ .
Solution:

The gradient of ϕ is,

∂ϕ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ
⃗⃗ϕ =
∇ 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧

= 2𝑥𝑦𝑖̂ + (𝑥 2 + 𝑧 3 )𝑗̂ + 3𝑦𝑧 2 𝑘̂ .

At the point (1,-2,1),
⃗⃗ϕ = (−4, 2, −6).
∇

The unit vector in the direction of 𝑎⃗ is

𝑎⃗ 2𝑖̂ − 1𝑗̂ + 2𝑘̂

𝑎̂ = = .
|𝒂
⃗⃗| √(2)2 + (−1)2 + (2)2

Therefore,
1
̂ = (2, −1, 2).
𝒂
3
⃗⃗ is
Hence, the directional derivative of ϕ in the direction of 𝒂
1
𝐷𝒂⃗⃗ ϕ = ⃗∇⃗ϕ ⋅ 𝑎̂ = (−4, 2, −6) ⋅ (2, −1, 2)
3
 1 22
= [−8 − 2 − 12] = − .
3 3
Therefore,

22
𝐷𝒂⃗⃗ ϕ(1, −2,1) = − .
3

Example 2:

Find the directional derivative of ϕ = 6𝑥 2 𝑦 + 24𝑦 2 𝑧 − 8𝑧 2 𝑥 at (1,1,1) in the direction of 𝑣⃗ = 2𝑖̂ −

2𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ . Hence, find the maximum value.

Solution:

⃗∇⃗ϕ = (12𝑥𝑦 − 8𝑧 2 )𝑖̂ + (6𝑥 2 + 48𝑦𝑧)𝑗̂ + (24𝑦 2 − 16𝑧𝑥)𝑘̂ .

At (1,1,1),

⃗⃗ϕ = 4𝑖̂ + 54𝑗̂ + 8𝑘̂ .

∇
⃗⃗𝜙 ||.
Maximum value of the directional derivative = || ∇

⃗⃗ϕ|| = √42 + 542 + 82 = √16 + 2916 + 64 = √2996.

||∇
Therefore

max 𝐷 ϕ = √2996 ≈ 54.74.

Exercise:

1. Find the directional derivative of 𝜙 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑦𝑧 3 at 𝑃(2, −1,1) in the direction of

11
PQ, where 𝑄 = (3,1,3). ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ϕ(2, −1,1) = − .
Ans: 𝐷𝑃𝑄 3

2. Find the directional derivative of ϕ = 𝑥𝑦𝑧 in the direction of the outer upward normal to the
27
surface 𝑧 = 𝑥𝑦 at (3,1,3). Ans: 𝐷𝑛̂ ϕ(3,1,3) = − .
√11

3. Find the directional derivative of ϕ = 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦𝑧 + 𝑧𝑥 at (1,2,0) in the direction of 𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ +

10
2𝑘̂ . Ans: 𝐷𝑎̂ ϕ(1,2,0) = . 3

Vector Field
A vector-valued function is a function whose output is a vector. It may depend on one or more scalar
variables. A vector field is a vector-valued function of position, i.e., it assigns a vector to every point in
space.

If each point (x, y, z) has a vector

𝐹⃗ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝐹1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑖̂ + 𝐹2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑗̂ + 𝐹3 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑘̂

then 𝐹⃗ is called a vector field.

Remark: Every vector field is a type of vector-valued function, but not every vector-valued function is
a vector field. Only those defined over spatial coordinates (x, y, z) represent vector fields.

Differentiable vector field

𝐹⃗ : 𝐷 → 𝑅𝟛 is called differentiable if each of its component functions is differentiable.

That is, if

𝐹⃗ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝐹1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝑖̂ + 𝐹2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝑗̂ + 𝐹3 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝑘̂,

then 𝐹⃗ is differentiable if 𝐹1 , 𝐹2 , and, 𝐹1 are differentiable functions on D.

Divergence of a Vector Field

Let 𝐹⃗ = 𝐹1 𝑖̂ + 𝐹2 𝑗̂ + 𝐹3 𝑘̂ . Then
∂𝐹1 ∂𝐹2 ∂𝐹3
div 𝐹⃗ = ∇
⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝐹⃗ = + + .
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧

Note: If ⃗∇⃗ ⋅ 𝐹⃗ = 0, then 𝐹⃗ is called 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑙 or incompressible.

𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞 𝟏:

If 𝐹⃗ = 𝑥 2 𝑧𝑖̂ − 2𝑦 3 𝑧 3 𝑗̂ + 𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧𝑘̂ , find the divergence at (1, −1,1).

Solution:

We have

𝐹⃗ = 𝐹1 𝑖̂ + 𝐹2 𝑗̂ + 𝐹3 𝑘̂

with

𝐹1 = 𝑥 2 𝑧, 𝐹2 = −2𝑦 3 𝑧 3 , 𝐹3 = 𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧.
The divergence is
∂𝐹1 ∂𝐹2 ∂𝐹3
⃗∇⃗ ⋅ 𝐹⃗ = + + .
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
∂𝐹1 ∂ ∂𝐹2 ∂ ∂𝐹3 ∂
Now, ∂𝑥
= ∂𝑥 (𝑥 2 𝑧) = 2𝑥𝑧, ∂𝑦
= ∂𝑦 (−2𝑦 3 𝑧 3 ) = −6𝑦 2 𝑧 3 , ∂𝑧
= ∂𝑧 (𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧) = 𝑥𝑦 2 .

Thus,

⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝐹⃗ = 2𝑥𝑧 − 6𝑦 2 𝑧 3 + 𝑥𝑦 2 .
∇

At the point (1,-1,1): ⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝐹⃗ = 2(1)(1) − 6(1)(1) + 1(1) = 2 − 6 + 1 = −3.

∇
Hence
⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝐹⃗ = −3.
∇

Example 2:

Show that 𝐴⃗ = 3𝑦 4 𝑧 2 𝑖̂ + 4𝑥 3 𝑧 2 𝑗̂ − 3𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑘̂ is solenoidal.

Solution:

We have

𝐴1 = 3𝑦 4 𝑧 2 , 𝐴2 = 4𝑥 3 𝑧 2 , 𝐴3 = −3𝑥 2 𝑦 2 .
Now,
∂𝐴1 ∂𝐴2 ∂𝐴3
⃗∇⃗ ⋅ 𝐴⃗ = + + .
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
∂𝐴1 ∂𝐴2 ∂𝐴3
∂𝑥
= 0, ∂𝑦
= 0, ∂𝑧
= 0.

Hence,

⃗∇⃗ ⋅ 𝐴⃗ = 0.

𝐴⃗ is solenoidal.

Examples for Practice:

1. Determine the constant a such that 𝐴⃗ = (𝑎𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑦𝑧)𝑖̂ + (𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑥𝑧 2 )𝑗̂ + (2𝑥𝑦𝑧 − 2𝑥 2 𝑦 2 )𝑘̂
is solenoidal. Ans: 𝑎 = −2.
2. Find div 𝐹⃗ , where 𝐹⃗ = ∇
⃗⃗(𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 − 3𝑥𝑦𝑧).
3 3 3
Ans: div 𝐹⃗ = 6(𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧).
3. If 𝐹⃗ = 𝑥𝑦 𝑖̂ + 2𝑥 𝑦𝑧𝑗̂ − 3𝑦𝑧 𝑘̂, find ∇
2 2 2 ⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝐹 at (1, −1,1). Ans: (∇⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝐹⃗ )
(1,−1,1)
= 9.
4. If 𝐹⃗ = (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥𝑧)𝑖̂ + (𝑥𝑧 − 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦𝑧)𝑗̂ − (𝑧 2 + 𝑥 2 )𝑘̂, then find ∇
⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝐹⃗ .
Ans: ∇⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝐹⃗ = 𝑥 + 𝑧.
5. If 𝐹⃗ = sin 𝑥 𝑖̂ + cos 𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑧 𝑘̂ , compute ∇
2 ⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝐹 at (π/2,0,1). Ans: (∇⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝐹⃗ ) π = 2.
( ,0,1)
2

Curl
Let 𝐹⃗ = 𝐹1 𝑖̂ + 𝐹2 𝑗̂ + 𝐹3 𝑘̂ . Then

𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
⃗⃗ × 𝐹⃗ = 𝑑𝑒𝑡 𝜕
curl 𝐹⃗ = ∇
𝜕 𝜕
.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
( 𝐹1 𝐹2 𝐹3 )

Note: If ⃗∇⃗ × 𝐹⃗ = ⃗0⃗, then 𝐹⃗ is call 𝒊𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 or conservative.

Example 1:

If 𝐹⃗ = 𝑥𝑧 3 𝑖̂ − 2𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧𝑗̂ + 2𝑦𝑧 4 𝑘̂ , then find curl at (1, −1,1).

Solution:

We have

𝐹1 = 𝑥𝑧 3 , 𝐹2 = −2𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧, 𝐹3 = 2𝑦𝑧 4 .

The curl of the function 𝐹⃗ is defined by

î ĵ k̂ 𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐹⃗ = 𝑑𝑒𝑡 = 𝑑𝑒𝑡
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
3
( F1 F2 F3 ) (𝑥𝑧 −2𝑥 𝑦𝑧 2𝑦𝑧 4 )
2

Expanding,

𝜕(2𝑦𝑧 4 ) 𝜕(−2𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧) 𝜕(2𝑦𝑧 4 ) 𝜕(𝑥𝑧 3 ) 𝜕(−2𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧) 𝜕(𝑥𝑧 3 )

⃗⃗ × 𝐹⃗ = 𝑖̂ (
∇ − ) − 𝑗̂ ( − ) + 𝑘̂ ( − )
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Now compute each term

∂ ∂ ∂
(2𝑦𝑧 4 ) = 2𝑧 4 , (−2𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧) = −2𝑥 2 𝑦, (2𝑦𝑧 4 ) = 0,
∂𝑦 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑥
∂ ∂ ∂
(𝑥𝑧 3 ) = 3𝑥𝑧 2 , (−2𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧) = −4𝑥𝑦𝑧, (𝑥𝑧 3 ) = 0.
∂𝑧 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦
Thus,

Curl 𝐹⃗ = ⃗∇⃗ × 𝐹⃗ = 𝑖̂(2𝑧 4 + 2𝑥 2 𝑦) + 𝑗̂(3𝑥𝑧 2 ) + 𝑘̂ (−4𝑥𝑦𝑧).

Hence, Curl 𝐹⃗ (1, −1,1) = 3𝑗̂ + 4𝑘̂ .

Example 2:

Show that 𝑟⃗ = 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂ is irrotational.

Solution:

We have

𝐹1 = 𝑥, 𝐹2 = 𝑦, 𝐹3 = 𝑧.
Now,

𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
⃗∇⃗ × 𝑟⃗ = 𝑑𝑒𝑡 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
(𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 )
∂𝑧 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑥
= 𝑖̂ ( − ) − 𝑗̂ ( − ) + 𝑘̂ ( − ) = ⃗0⃗
∂𝑦 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦
Hence,
 ⃗⃗ × 𝑟⃗ = ⃗0⃗.
∇

Therefore, 𝑟⃗ is irrotational.

Example 3:

Find the curl of 𝐴⃗ = 𝑒 𝑥𝑦𝑧 (𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂) at (1,2,3).

Solution:

𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
curl of 𝐴⃗ = ∇
⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗ = 𝑑𝑒𝑡 ( )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑥𝑦𝑧 𝑥𝑦𝑧 𝑥𝑦𝑧
𝑒 𝑒 𝑒
= 𝑒 𝑥𝑦𝑧 [𝑥(𝑧 − 𝑦)𝑖̂ − 𝑦(𝑧 − 𝑥)𝑗̂ + 𝑧(𝑦 − 𝑥)𝑘̂].

At (1,2,3),

⃗∇⃗ × 𝐴⃗ = 𝑒 6 (𝑖̂ − 4𝑗̂ + 3𝑘̂ ).

Examples for Practice:

1. If 𝐹⃗ = 𝑥𝑦 2 𝑖̂ + 2𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧𝑗̂ − 3𝑦𝑧 2 𝑘̂, find ∇

⃗⃗ × 𝐹⃗ 𝑎𝑡 (1, −1,1). Ans: −𝑖̂ − 2𝑘̂ .
2. If 𝐹⃗ = (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥𝑧)𝑖̂ + (𝑥𝑧 − 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦𝑧)𝑗̂ − (𝑧 2 + 𝑥 2 )𝑘̂, then find ∇
⃗⃗ × 𝐹⃗.

Ans: (−𝑥 − 𝑦) 𝑖̂ + 4𝑥 𝑗̂ + (𝑦 + 𝑧) 𝑘̂.

3. Find div(grad ϕ) and curl(grad ϕ) at (1,1,1) for ϕ = 𝑥 2 𝑦 3 𝑧 4 .

Ans: div(grad 𝜙)(1,1,1) = 20, curl(grad 𝜙)(1,1,1) = ⃗0⃗.

Parametrisation of Curves and Surfaces:

A parametrisation expresses a curve or a surface in terms of one or more parameters. A vector-valued
function of a single parameter t can represent a curve in space:

𝑟⃗(𝑡) = 𝑥 (𝑡)𝑖̂ + 𝑦(𝑡)𝑗̂ + 𝑧(𝑡)𝑘̂, 𝑡 ∈ 𝐼,

where ( 𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡), 𝑧(𝑡) ) are continuous functions defining the coordinates of the curve.

A surface in space can be represented by a vector-valued function of two parameters 𝑢 and 𝑣:

𝑟⃗(𝑢, 𝑣) = 𝑥 (𝑢, 𝑣)𝑖̂ + 𝑦(𝑢, 𝑣)𝑗̂ + 𝑧(𝑢, 𝑣)𝑘̂, (𝑢, 𝑣) ∈ 𝐷,

where ( 𝑥(𝑢, 𝑣), 𝑦(𝑢, 𝑣), 𝑧(𝑢, 𝑣) ) define the coordinates of each point on the surface.
Example 1:

Find the parametrisation of the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 9 in the 𝑥𝑦-plane.

Solution:

Let the parameter be 𝑡 (angle in radians).

𝑥 = 3 cos 𝑡 , 𝑦 = 3 sin 𝑡 , 𝑧=0

Hence, the vector form of the curve is

𝑟⃗(𝑡) = 3 cos 𝑡 𝑖̂ + 3 sin 𝑡 𝑗̂ + 0 𝑘̂, 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2π.

Example 2:

Find the parametrisation of the line joining the points A(1,2,3) and B(4,5,6).

Solution:

Let 𝑡 vary from 0 to 1. The vector equation of a line joining two points is

𝑟⃗(𝑡) = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑟𝐴 + 𝑡 (⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑟𝐴 )
𝑟𝐵 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑟𝐴 = 𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ + 3𝑘̂ and ⃗⃗⃗⃗

Substituting ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑟𝐵 = 4𝑖̂ + 5𝑗̂ + 6𝑘̂, we get

𝑟⃗(𝑡) = (1 + 3𝑡)𝑖̂ + (2 + 3𝑡)𝑗̂ + (3 + 3𝑡)𝑘̂ , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 1.

Example 3:

Find a parametrisation of the cylinder 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 9.

Solution:

Let the height along the 𝑧-axis be the parameter 𝑣, and let the circular cross-section be described by
the angle 𝑢,

𝑥 = 3 cos 𝑢 , 𝑦 = 3 sin 𝑢 , 𝑧 = 𝑣.

Hence, the vector form of the surface is

𝑟⃗(𝑢, 𝑣) = 3 cos 𝑢 𝑖̂ + 3 sin 𝑢 𝑗̂ + 𝑣 𝑘̂,

Where, 0 ≤ 𝑢 < 2π and 𝑣 ∈ 𝑅.

Exercise:

1. Find a parametrisation of the sphere 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 9.

Ans: 𝑟⃗(θ, ϕ) = 3 sin θ cos ϕ 𝑖̂ + 3 sin 𝜃 sin 𝜙 𝑗̂ + 3 cos 𝜃 𝑘̂

2. Find the parametrisation of the plane 𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 6.

Ans:: ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑟(𝑠, 𝑡) = (6 − 2𝑠 − 3𝑡)𝑖̂ + 𝑠𝑗̂ + 𝑡𝑘̂
Line Integral
Definition:

Let 𝐹⃗ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝐹1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝑖̂ + 𝐹2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝑗̂ + 𝐹3 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝑘̂ be a vector field defined on a smooth

curve 𝐶. Suppose the curve 𝐶 is parametrised by

𝑟⃗(𝑡) = 𝑥 (𝑡) 𝑖̂ + 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑗̂ + 𝑧(𝑡) 𝑘̂, 𝑎 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑏.

Then the line integral of 𝐹⃗ along 𝐶 is defined as

𝑏 𝑑𝑟 𝑏 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
∫𝐶 𝐹⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ∫𝑎 𝐹⃗ (𝑟⃗(𝑡)) ⋅ 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ∫𝑎 (𝐹1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝑑𝑡
+ 𝐹2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
𝑑𝑡
+ 𝐹3 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
𝑑𝑡
)𝑑𝑡.

A line integral is a generalisation of a definite integral along a curve C in space.

If C is a closed curve, the symbol is replaced by ∮𝐶 𝐹⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑟⃗ .

Example 1:

If ⃗F⃗ = 3𝑥𝑦𝑖̂ − 𝑦 2 𝑗̂, evaluate ∫𝐶 𝐹⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑟⃗, where 𝐶: 𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 from (0,0) to (1,2).

Solution:
⃗F⃗ = 3xyî − y 2 ĵ, C: y = 2x 2 , (0,0) to (1,2).

Parametrise the curve by 𝑥 = 𝑡, 𝑦 = 2𝑡 2 , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 1, then

𝑑𝑟⃗ = (𝑖̂ + 4𝑡𝑗̂)𝑑𝑡,

Along the curve,

𝐹⃗ (𝑡) = 6𝑡 3 𝑖̂ − 4𝑡 4 𝑗̂.
Therefore

𝐹⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑟⃗ = (6𝑡 3 − 16𝑡 5 ) 𝑑𝑡.

Hence
1
3 8 1 7
∫ 𝐹⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ∫ (6𝑡 3 − 16𝑡 5 ) 𝑑𝑡 = [ 𝑡 4 − 𝑡 6 ] = − .
𝐶 0 2 3 0 6

Example 2:

Find the work done when a force 𝐹⃗ = (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 𝑥)𝑖̂ − (2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦)𝑗̂, moves a particle from (0,0) to
(1,1) along 𝑦 2 = 𝑥.
Solution:

We have 𝐹⃗ = (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 𝑥)𝑖̂ − (2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦)𝑗̂, 𝐶: 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 from (0,0) to (1,1).

Let 𝑦 = 𝑡, 𝑥 = 𝑡 2 , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 1. Then 𝑟⃗(𝑡) = 𝑡 2 𝑖̂ + 𝑡𝑗̂.

Therefore,

𝑑𝑟⃗ = (2𝑡𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂) 𝑑𝑡.

Along the the given curve

𝐹⃗ (𝑡) = (𝑡 4 )𝑖̂ − (2𝑡 3 + 𝑡)𝑗̂.

Therefore

𝐹⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ((𝑡 4 )(2𝑡)) + ((−2𝑡 3 − 𝑡)(1))

= 2𝑡 5 − 2𝑡 3 − 𝑡.

The line integral is,

1
∫ 𝐹⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ∫ 2𝑡 5 − 2𝑡 3 − 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐶 0
1
𝑡6 𝑡4 𝑡2
=[ − − ]
3 2 2 0

2
=− .
3
1. Evaluate the line integral ∫𝐶 𝐹⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑟⃗, where 𝐹⃗ = (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑖̂ + (𝑥 − 𝑦)𝑗̂, and 𝐶 is the curve 𝑦 =
𝑥 2 from (0,0) to (1,1). 𝐴𝑛𝑠: 1
⃗ 2 2
2. Find the work done by the force 𝐹 = (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑖̂ + (𝑦 + 𝑥)𝑗̂, in moving a particle along the
straight line joining (0,0) to (1,2). Ans: 5
⃗ ⃗
3. Evaluate the line integral ∫𝐶 𝐹 ⋅ 𝑑𝑟⃗, where 𝐹 = 𝑦𝑖̂ + 𝑥𝑗̂, and C is the upper half of the circle
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1 from (-1,0) to (1,0). Ans: 0
⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 2 2
4. Compute the line integral ∫𝐶 𝐹 ⋅ 𝑑𝑟⃗, where 𝐹 = (𝑥 − 𝑦)𝑖̂ + (𝑦 + 𝑥)𝑗̂, and C is the
11
parabola 𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 from (0,0) to (1,2). Ans: 3
.

Surface Integral
Definition:

An integral evaluated over a surface 𝑆 is called a surface integral. It represents the flux of a vector
field 𝐹⃗ through the surface 𝑆. If 𝑛̂ is the unit outward normal to the surface at a point 𝑃 ∈ 𝑆, then
the normal component of 𝐹⃗ at 𝑃 is 𝐹⃗ ⋅ 𝑛̂. 𝑇he surface integral of 𝐹⃗ over 𝑆 is defined ∬ 𝐹⃗ ⋅ 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑠,
𝑆

where 𝑑𝑠 denotes an infinitesimal area element of the surface.

EVALUATION OF SURFACE INTEGRAL
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
If 𝑅1 be the projection of S on the xy-plane, 𝑘̂ is the unit vector normal the 𝑥𝑦-plane then 𝑑𝑠 = ̂|
|𝑛̂ ⋅ 𝑘

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
∴ ∬𝐹⃗ ⋅ 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑠 = ∬ 𝐹⃗ ⋅ 𝑛̂ .
𝑆 𝑅1 |𝑛̂ ⋅ 𝑘̂ |
𝑑z 𝑑𝑦
If 𝑅2 be the projection of S on the yz-plane, 𝑖̂ is the unit vector normal the 𝑦𝑧-plane then 𝑑𝑠 = |𝑛̂⋅ 𝑖̂ |

𝑑z 𝑑𝑦
∴ ∬𝐹⃗ ⋅ 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑠 = ∬ 𝐹⃗ ⋅ 𝑛̂
𝑆 𝑅1 |𝑛̂ ⋅ 𝑖̂|
𝑑𝑥 𝑑z
If 𝑅3 be the projection of S on the xz-plane, 𝑗̂ is the unit vector normal the 𝑥𝑧-plane then 𝑑𝑠 = |𝑛̂⋅ 𝑗̂ |

𝑑𝑥 𝑑z
∴ ∬𝐹⃗ ⋅ 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑠 = ∬ 𝐹⃗ ⋅ 𝑛̂
𝑆 𝑅1 |𝑛̂ ⋅ 𝑗̂|

Example 1:

Evaluate ∬𝑆 𝐹⃗ ⋅ 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑠 if 𝐹⃗ = (𝑥 + 𝑦 2 )𝑖̂ − 2𝑥𝑗̂ + 2𝑦𝑧𝑘̂ and S is the surface of the plane 2𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑧 =

6 in the first octant.
Solution:

Given 𝐹⃗ = (𝑥 + 𝑦 2 )𝑖̂ − 2𝑥𝑗̂ + 2𝑦𝑧𝑘̂

Let 𝜑 = 2𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑧 − 6

⃗⃗𝜑 = 𝑖̂ 𝜕𝜑 + 𝑗̂ 𝜕𝜑 + 𝑘̂ 𝜕𝜑 = 2𝑖̂ + 1𝑗̂ + 2𝑘̂

∇
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

⃗⃗𝜑
∇ 2𝑖̂ + 1𝑗̂ + 2𝑘̂
𝑛̂ = =
⃗⃗𝜑|
|∇ 3

2𝑖̂ + 1𝑗̂ + 2𝑘̂

𝐹⃗ ∙ 𝑛̂ = [(𝑥 + 𝑦 2 )𝑖̂ − 2𝑥𝑗̂ + 2𝑦𝑧𝑘̂ ] ∙
3
1
= [2(𝑥 + 𝑦 2 ) − 2𝑥 + 4𝑦𝑧]
3
2
= [𝑦 2 + 2𝑦𝑧]
3
2
= 𝑦[𝑦 + 2𝑧]
3
2
= 𝑦[𝑦 + 6 − 2𝑥 − 𝑦][∵ 2𝑧 = 6 − 2𝑥 − 𝑦]
3
2
= 𝑦[6 − 2𝑥]
3
4
= 𝑦[3 − 𝑥]
3
Let R be the projection of S on the 𝑥𝑦–plane
 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
∴ 𝑑𝑠 =
|𝑛̂ ∙ 𝑘̂ |

2𝑖̂ + 1𝑗̂ + 2𝑘̂ 2

𝑛̂ ∙ 𝑘̂ = ( ) ∙ 𝑘̂ =
3 3

Now we have
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
∬𝐹⃗ ⋅ 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑠 = ∬𝐹⃗ ⋅ 𝑛̂
𝑆 𝑆 |𝑛̂ ∙ 𝑘̂|

4 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
=∬ 𝑦[3 − 𝑥] ∙
𝑅3
2
( )
3

= 2 ∬ 𝑦[3 − 𝑥] 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑅

6−𝑦
In 𝑅1 (2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 6), 𝑥 varies from 0 to 2
and 𝑦 varies from 0 to 6
6−𝑦
6
2
= 2∫ ∫ 𝑦(3 − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
0 0

6−𝑦
6
𝑥2 2
= 2 ∫ [3𝑥 − ] 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
0 2 0
6
1 1
= 2 ∫ [ (18𝑦 − 3𝑦 2 ) − (6 − 𝑦)2 𝑦]𝑑𝑦
0 2 8

2 18𝑦 2 3𝑦 3 (6 − 𝑦)3
= [ − − ]
2 2 3 8(3)(−1)
1 1
= [9(6)2 − (6)3 + (0)] − [0 − 0 + . 62 ]
12 12
= 81 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠.
Example 2:

Evaluate ∬𝑆 𝟔𝒙𝒚 𝒅𝒔 where 𝑆 is the portion of the plane 𝒙 + 𝒚 + 𝒛 = 𝟏 that lies in front of yz plane.

Solution:
We are looking for a portion of the plane ABC that lies in front of the yz – plane, therefore, we write
equation of the surface in the form 𝒙 = 𝒇(𝒚, 𝒛).

For the points on the surface, we have 𝒙 = 𝟏 − 𝒚 − 𝒛

∬6𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑠 = ∬6(1 − 𝑦 − 𝑧)𝑦√3

𝑆 𝑆

1 1−𝑦

= 6√3 ∫ ∫ (1 − 𝑦 − 𝑧)𝑦𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦
0 0
 1
1 2 1−𝑦 2
= 6√3 ∫ [𝑦𝑧 − 𝑦 𝑧 − 𝑦𝑧 ] 𝑑𝑦
2 0
0

1 1 1 1 √3
= 6√3 [4 𝑦 2 − 3 𝑦 3 + 8 𝑦 4 ] = 4
.
0

Example 3:
̂ and S is the part of the plane 𝟐𝐱 + 𝟑𝐲 + 𝟔𝐳 =
Evaluate ∬𝑆 𝐹⃗ ⋅ 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑠, where ⃗𝑭⃗ = 𝟏𝟖𝐳𝐢̂ − 𝟏𝟐𝐣̂ + 𝟑𝐲𝐤
𝟏𝟐 in the first octant.

Solution:

The given surface is the plane 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 6𝑧 = 12 in the first octant.

Let ϕ = 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 6𝑧 − 12

⃗∇⃗ ϕ
n̂ =
|∇ ⃗⃗ϕ|

2î + 3ĵ + 6k̂

=
√4 + 9 + 36
2î + 3ĵ + 6k̂
=
7
Let R be the projection of the plane 2x + 3y + 6z = 12 on the xy-plane, which is a triangle OAB
bounded by the lines y = 0, x = 0 and 2x + 3y = 12
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 7
𝑑𝑆 = = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
|𝑛̂. 𝑘̂ | 6
12−2𝑥
Along the vertical strip PQ, y varies from 0 to and in the region R, x varies from 0 to 6
3

2î + 3ĵ + 6k̂ 7

∬𝐹⃗ ⋅ 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑠, = ∬ (18zî − 12ĵ + 3yk̂). ( ) dxdy
𝑆 𝑅 7 6
1
= 6 ∬𝑅(36z − 36 + 18y)dxdy
12−2x−3y
= 3 ∬R [2 ( ) − 2 + y] dxdy
6
12−2x
6
= ∫0 ∫0 3 (6 − 2x)dydx
12−2x
6 3
= 2 ∫0 (3 − x)[y]0
6 12−2𝑥
= 2 ∫0 (3 − 𝑥) ( 3
) 𝑑𝑥
4 6
= 3 ∫0 (x 2 − 9x + 18)dx = 24.
Exercise:

1. Evaluate ∬𝑆 𝐹⃗ ⋅ 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑠, if 𝐹⃗ = (𝑥 + 𝑦 2 )𝑖̂ − 2𝑥𝑗̂ + 2𝑦𝑧𝑘̂ and 𝑆 is the surface 2𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 6 in

the first octant. Ans: 81 units.
2. ∬𝑆 𝐹⃗ ⋅ 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆, where 𝐹⃗ = (2𝑥 + 3𝑦) 𝑖̂ − 𝑦 𝑗̂ + 4𝑧 𝑘̂ and 𝑆 is the portion of the plan 𝑥 + 2𝑦 +
3𝑧 = 6 in the first octant. Ans: 39 units.

VOLUME INTEGRAL:
A volume integral of a scalar or vector function over a three-dimensional region 𝑉 is defined as

∭ φ 𝑑𝑣 = ∭ φ(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧,
𝑉 𝑉

where 𝑉 denotes the volume in 3-dimensional space, φ(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is a scalar (or vector) function
defined on 𝑉, and 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 is the elementary volume element.

For a scalar field 𝐹, the volume integral represents the total quantity of 𝐹 within 𝑉: ∭𝑉 𝐹 𝑑𝑣.

Example 1:

If 𝜑 = 45𝑥 2 𝑦 then evaluate ∭𝑣 𝜑𝑑𝑣 where v denote the closed region bounded by the planes 4𝑥 +
2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 8, 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0, 𝑧 = 0.

Solution:
2 4−2x 8−4x−2y
∭v 𝜑𝑑𝑣 = ∫0 ∫0 ∫0 45 x 2 y dx dy dz
2 4−2x 2
= 45 ∫0 ∫0 x y (8 − 4x − 2y)dy dx
2 1 2
= 45 ∫0 3
x (4 − 2x)3 dx = 128.

Example 2:

Evaluate the volume integral

𝐼 = ∭ (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 ) 𝑑𝑉,
𝑉

where V is the solid ball bounded by the sphere 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑎2 .

Solution:

Use spherical coordinates

 𝑥 = 𝑟 sin θ cos ϕ , 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin θ sin ϕ , 𝑧 = 𝑟 cos θ,
with 0 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 𝑎, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π, 0 ≤ ϕ < 2π. The Jacobian is 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑟 2 sin θ 𝑑𝑟 𝑑θ 𝑑.

Since 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑟 2 , the integral becomes

2π π 𝑎
𝐼=∫ ∫ ∫ 𝑟 2 (𝑟 2 sin θ) 𝑑𝑟 𝑑θ dϕ
0 0 0
2π π 𝑎
=∫ 𝑑ϕ ∫ sin θ 𝑑θ ∫ 𝑟 4 𝑑𝑟
0 0 0
π
𝑎5
= (2π) (∫ sin θ 𝑑θ) ( )
0 5

𝑎5
= 2π ⋅ 2 ⋅
5
4π𝑎5
= .
5
Exercise:
1 𝑥 𝑥+𝑦 1 3 1 3
1. Evaluate ∫0 ∫0 ∫0 𝑒 2𝑥+2𝑦+2𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥. Ans: 64 𝑒 8 − 32 𝑒 4 + 8 𝑒 2 − 64.
2. Evaluate 𝐼 = ∭𝑉(𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧) 𝑑𝑉, where 𝑉 does the cube bound the region 0 ≤ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ≤ 1.
3
Ans:2.

GREEN’S THEOREM
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
Statement: If 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦), 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦), , be continuous everywhere in a region R of 𝑥𝑦 plane bounded
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
by a closed curve c, then
𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
∮𝑐(𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦) = ∬𝑅 ( 𝜕𝑥 − 𝜕𝑦
) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦.

Example 1:

Verify Green’s Theorem for ∮𝑐 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦 = ∬𝑅[(x 2 − 2xy)dx + (x 2 y + 3)dy] where C is the
boundary of the region bounded by the parabola y = x 2 and the line y = x.

Solution:

The points of intersection of the parabola y = x 2 and the line y =

x are obtained as x = x 2 , x = 0,1 and y = 0,1

Hence, O(0,0) and B(1,1) are the points of intersection.

M = x 2 − 2xy, N = x 2 y + 3
∂M ∂N
= −2x, = 2xy
∂y ∂x
∮C(𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦) = ∮𝑂𝐴𝐵(𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦) + ∮𝐵𝑂(𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦)

Along OAB: y = x 2 , dy = 2xdx

x varies from 0 to 1

∮ (𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦) = ∮ [(x 2 − 2xy)dx + (x 2 y + 3)dy]

𝑂𝐴𝐵 𝑂𝐴𝐵
1
= ∫0 [(x 2 − 2x. x 2 )dx + (x 2 . x 2 + 3). 2x dx]
1 19
= ∫0 (x 2 − 2x 3 + 2x 5 + 6x)dx =
6

Along BO: y = x, dy = dx

x varies from x = 1 to 0

∮ (𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦) = ∮ [(x 2 − 2xy)dx + (x 2 y + 3)dy]

𝐵𝑂 𝐵𝑂
0 35
= ∫1 [(x 2 − 2x 2 )dx + (x 3 + 3)dx] = −
12

19 35 1
Substituting in (1), ∮𝐶(𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦) = − =
6 12 4

Let R be the region bounded by the line y = x and the parabola y = x 2

Along the vertical strip AA’, y varies from x 2 to x and in the region R, x varies from 0 to 1
1 x
𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
∬( − ) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = ∫ ∫ (2xy + 2x)dy dx
𝑅 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 0 x2

1 x
= ∫0 |xy 2 + 2xy|
x2
1 1
= ∫0 (x 3 + 2x 2 − x 5 − 2x 3 )dx = 4

We have,
𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀 1
∮(𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦) = ∬ ( − ) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 =
𝐶 𝑅 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 4

Hence, Green’s theorem is verified.

Example 2:

Using Green’s Theorem, evaluate ∮𝐶(3x 2 − 8y 2 )dx + (4y − 6xy)dy where 𝐶 is the boundary of the
region bounded by y 2 = x and y = x 2 .
Solution:

y 2 = x and y = x 2 are two parabolas intersecting at (0,0) and (1,1)

Here, M = 3x 2 − 8y 2 , N = 4y − 6xy
∂M ∂N
= −16y, = −6y
∂y ∂x
𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
∮𝐶(𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦) = ∬𝑅 ( 𝜕𝑥 − 𝜕𝑦 ) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦

1 √x
= ∫ ∫ 10y dy dx
0 x2

1
= ∫0 5(y 2 )√x
x2
dx
1 3
= 5 ∫0 (x − x 4 )dx =
2

Example 3:
y x
Evaluate ∮C [− x2 +y2 dx + x2 +y2 dy], where C = C1 ∪ C2 , with C1 : x 2 + y 2 =
1 and C2 : x = ±2, y = ±2.

Solution:
y x
Here, M = − x2+y2 , N = x2 +y2

∂M y2 −x2 ∂N y2 −x2
∂x
= (x2+y2)2 , ∂x
= (x2+y2)2

Which are continuous on the region R bounded by C.

𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
∮(𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦) = ∬ ( − ) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝑐 𝑅 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

y x y2 − x2 y2 − x2
∮ [− dx + dy] = ∬ ( − ) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 0
C x2 + y2 x2 + y2 2 2 2
𝑅 (x + y ) (x 2 + y 2 )2

Example 4:

State Green’s Theorem and use it to find the work done by ⃗F⃗ = (4x − 2y)⃗i + (2x − 4y)⃗j in moving a
particle once clockwise around the circle (x − 2)2 + (y − 2)2 = 4

Solution:

⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 . dr⃗ = (4x − 2y)dx + (2x − 4y)dy

= Mdx + Ndy
M = 4x − 2y, N = 2x − 4y
∂M ∂N
∂y
= −2, ∂x
=2
 𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
By Green’s Theorem, ∮C ⃗F⃗. 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ∬𝑅 ( − ) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

= ∬𝑅(2 + 2)𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 4 ∬𝑅 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 4(4π)

= 16π (𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒)

But the motion is clockwise, i.e., the negative orientation.

Therefore,

⃗⃗. 𝑑𝑟⃗ = −16π.

∮F
C

Exercise:
1. Evaluate using Green's Theorem:

∮ (𝑦 2 + 3𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + (2𝑥𝑦 + 4𝑦) 𝑑𝑦,

𝐶

where 𝐶 is the boundary of the region enclosed by 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 and 𝑦 = 4.

Ans: 0

2. Use Green's Theorem to find the area enclosed by the curve

𝑥 = 𝑎 cos3 𝑡 , 𝑦 = 𝑎 sin3 𝑡 , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2π.

3π𝑎 2
Ans: 8

3. Verify Green's Theorem for

𝐹 = (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 )𝑖̂ + 2𝑥𝑦 𝑗̂
2
around the triangle with vertices (0,0), (1,0), (0,1). Ans: 3

4. Apply Green's Theorem to evaluate

∮ (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦,
𝐶

where 𝐶 is the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4 oriented counterclockwise. Ans: 0

5. Use Green's Theorem to find the work done by the force field

𝐹 = (2𝑥 − 𝑦)𝑖 + (𝑥 + 3𝑦)𝑗

𝑥2 𝑦2
in moving a particle once around the ellipse 4
+ 9
= 1 counterclockwise. Ans: 12π
DIVERGENCE THEOREM: (Convert surface integral to
volume integral)
Statement: If 𝐹̅ be a vector point function having continuous partial derivatives in the region
bounded by a closed surface 𝑆, then

∬𝑠𝐹⃗ . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑠 = ∭𝑣𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐹⃗ 𝑑𝑣.

Example 1:

Find the flux of 𝐹⃗ = 𝑦𝑧ĵ + 𝑧 2 k̂ outward through the surface 𝑆 cut from the cylinder 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 1, 𝑧 ≥
0 by the plane 𝑥 = 0 & 𝑥 = 1.

Solution:

Let g(x, y, z) = y 2 + z 2 . The gradient of the fuction is

⃗⃗g = 2yĵ + 2zk̂.
∇

The outward normal field on S is calculated from the gradient of g(x, y, z) =

y 2 + z 2 to be

⃗⃗g
∇ 2yĵ + 2zk̂
n̂ = =
⃗⃗g| √4y 2 + 4z 2
|∇

2yĵ + 2zk̂
= = yĵ + zk̂.
2√1
So projecting the surface onto the 𝑥𝑦-plane gives
⃗∇⃗g
dS = dx dy
⃗⃗g. k̂|
|∇
2 1
= dx dy = dx dy.
|2z| z
Since z ≥ 0 on 𝑆
⃗F⃗. n̂ = (yzĵ + z 2 k̂). (yĵ + zk̂)

= y2z + z3

= z(y 2 + z 2 ) = z
Therefore, the flux F outward through S is
 1 1
∬𝐹⃗ . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑠 == ∫ ∫ 1 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑠 𝑥=0 y=−1

= 2.

Example 2:

Find the flux of 𝐹⃗ = 4𝑥𝑧î − 𝑦 2 ĵ + 𝑦𝑧k̂ outward through the surface of the cube cut from the first
octant by the planes 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 1, 𝑧 = 1

Solution:

⃗⃗ = 4xzî − y 2 ĵ + yzk̂
Here F
∂ ∂ ∂
⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗F⃗ =
∇ (4xz) + (−y 2 ) + (yz) = 4z − 2y + y
∂x ∂y ∂z
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐹⃗ = 4z − y
∴∇
Over the interior of the cube:

Flux = ∬ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑛̂ ds

= ∬ ⃗∇⃗ ∙ 𝐹⃗ dV

1 1 1
= ∫ ∫ ∫ (4z − y) dxdydz
0 0 0
1 1
= ∫ ∫ (4𝑧 − 𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
0 0

1
1 21
= ∫ [4𝑧𝑦 − 𝑦 ] 𝑑𝑧
0 2 𝑦=0

1
1
= ∫ (4𝑧 − ) 𝑑𝑧
0 2

1 1
= [2𝑧 2 − 𝑧]
2 0
1
=2−
2
3
= .
2
Exercise:

1. ⃗⃗ = (x + y)î + yzĵ + zk̂, through the surface of the cube

Evaluate ∭𝑣𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐹⃗ 𝑑𝑣, where F
5
0 ≤ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ≤ 1. Ans: 2
 2. Find the flux of 𝐹⃗ = 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂ outward through the sphere 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑎2 .

Ans: 4π𝑎3 .

⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐹⃗ dV for 𝐹⃗ = 𝑦𝑖̂ + 𝑧𝑗̂ + 𝑥𝑘̂ through the unit cube 0 ≤ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ≤ 1.

3. Evaluate ∬ ∇

Ans: 0.

4. Evaluate ∬ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑛̂ ds, where 𝐹⃗ = 𝑥 2 𝑖̂ + 𝑦 2 𝑗̂ + 𝑧 2 𝑘̂ , through the sphere 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑅2 .

Ans: 0.

STOKE’S THEOREM:
If s is an open two-sided surface bounded by a closed non-intersecting curve, and if a vector
function 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) has continuous first partial derivatives in a domain in a space containing s. Then

∮ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ∬(𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐹⃗ ) . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑠 = ∬(𝛻⃗⃗ × 𝐹⃗ ) 𝑑𝑠

𝑐 𝑠 𝑠

^
Where c is described in a positive (anti-clockwise) direction and n is a unit positive (outward drawn)
normal to s.

Example 1:

Verify Stokes’ theorem for ⃗A⃗ = (2x − y)î − yz 2 ĵ − y 2 zk̂, where 𝑆 is the upper half surface of the
sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1 and C is its boundary.

Solution:

The boundary 𝐶 of 𝑆 is a circle in the xy-plane of radius unity and centre at the origin. Let 𝑥 =
cos 𝑡, 𝑦 = sin 𝑡, 𝑧 = 0, 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋 be the parametric equations of C

⃗⃗. dr⃗ = ∮ [(2x − y)dx − yz 2 dy − y 2 zdz]

Then, ∮𝐶 A 𝐶
2π
= ∫0 (2 cos t − sin t)(− sin t)dt
2π
= ∫0 (−2 sin t cos t + sin2 t)dt = π

i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
⃗⃗ × A
Also, ∇ ⃗⃗ = |
∂x ∂y ∂z
| = k̂
2x − y −yz 2 2
−y z

curl ⃗A⃗ ⋅ n̂ = k̂ ⋅ k̂ = 1

∬𝑠(𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐴⃗) . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆 = ∬R 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 where 𝑅 is the projection of S on the xy-plane

 1 √1−x2
=∫ ∫ dy dx
−1 −√1−x2

1
= ∫ 2√1 − x 2 dx
−1
1
= 4 ∫0 √1 − x 2 dx = π

Hence, Stoke’s Theorem is verified.

Example 2:

⃗⃗ × F
Evaluate ∬R(∇ ⃗⃗). dS taken over the portion of the surface x 2 + y 2 − 2ax + az = 0 and the
bounding curve in the plane z=0 and ⃗F⃗ = (y 2 + z 2 − x 2 )î + (z 2 + x 2 − y 2 )ĵ + (x 2 + y 2 − z 2 )k̂

Solution:

The given surface meets the plane z = 0 in the circle x 2 + y 2 − 2ax = 0, z = 0

⃗⃗ = (y 2 + z 2 − x 2 )î + (z 2 + x 2 − y 2 )ĵ + (x 2 + y 2 − z 2 )k̂

F

î ĵ 𝑘̂
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
⃗⃗ × F
∇ ⃗⃗ = | |
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑦 2 + 𝑧 − 𝑥2
2
𝑧2 + 𝑥 − 𝑦2
2
𝑥2 + 𝑦 − 𝑧22

= (2𝑦 − 2𝑧)î + (2𝑧 − 2𝑥 )ĵ + (2𝑥 − 2𝑦)𝑘̂

The surface integral of ⃗∇⃗ × ⃗F⃗ over the given surface is the same as the surface integral of ⃗∇⃗ × ⃗F⃗over
the area of the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑎𝑥 = 0, 𝑧 = 0

𝑑𝑆⃗ = 𝑛̂𝑑𝑆 = 𝑘̂𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦

2𝑎 √2𝑎𝑥−𝑥 2
⃗⃗ × F
∬ (∇ ⃗⃗). dS = ∫ ∫ (2𝑥 − 2𝑦)𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
R 0 −√2𝑎𝑥−𝑥 2

2𝑎 √2𝑎𝑥−𝑥 2 2𝑎 √2𝑎𝑥−𝑥 2
=∫ ∫ 2𝑥𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ ∫ 2𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
0 −√2𝑎𝑥−𝑥 2 0 −√2𝑎𝑥−𝑥 2

2𝑎 √2𝑎𝑥−𝑥 2
= 2 ∫0 ∫0 2𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥

2𝑎 2𝑎
2
= 4 ∫ [𝑦]√2𝑎𝑥−𝑥
0 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 4 ∫ √2𝑎𝑥 − 𝑥 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥
0 0
 2𝑎
= 4 ∫ 𝑥√𝑎2 − (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 𝑑𝑥.
0

Let

𝑥−𝑎
𝑡= , 𝑥 = 𝑎(1 + 𝑡), 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑑𝑡.
𝑎
Whern(𝑥: 0 → 2𝑎), 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 (𝑡: −1 → 1).

Also

√𝑎2 − (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 = 𝑎 √1 − 𝑡 2 .

Thus,
1
𝐼 = 4 ∫ 𝑎 (1 + 𝑡) ⋅ 𝑎√1 − 𝑡 2 ⋅ 𝑎 𝑑𝑡
−1
1
= 4𝑎3 ∫ (1 + 𝑡)√1 − 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡.
−1
1 1
3∫ √1 − 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 + 4𝑎 3 ∫ 𝑡√1 − 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡.
= 4𝑎
−1 −1
1
= 4𝑎3 ∫ √1 − 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 = 2𝑎3 π.
−1

Exercise:

1. Verify the Stokes’ theorem for 𝐹⃗ = (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )𝑖̂ + 2𝑥𝑦𝑗̂ in the rectangular region in the 𝑥𝑦-
plane given by (0,0), (𝑎, 0), (0, 𝑏), (𝑎, 𝑏). Ans: 0.
2. Verify the Stokes’ theorem for 𝐹⃗ = (2𝑥 − 𝑦)𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑧 2 𝑗̂ − 𝑦 2 𝑧𝑘̂ over the upper half of the
surface of 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 1 bounded by its projection on the 𝑥𝑦 −plane.
Ans: 𝜋.
⃗ ̂
3. Verify Stokes’ theorem for the vector field 𝐹 = 𝑦𝑖̂ + 𝑧𝑗̂ + 𝑥𝑘 where 𝑆 is the surface of the
triangle in the plane 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 1 bounded by the coordinate axes.
3
Ans:−
2