UNIT 2: THEORIES OF STATE

“Political Science begins and ends with state”.

(Prof. James Wilford Garner) EVOLUTION OF THE CONCEPT
2.
OF THE STATE
PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS
The evolution of the concept of the state in political
Examine the liberal theory of State in thought reflects changing philosophical, historical, and
contemporary politics. (2023) social contexts. Brief overview is as follows:
Factors like community, culture and nation weaken Ancient Greece: For Greek idealists, the state (polis)
the hegemony of neo-liberalism today. Discuss. was a natural institution essential for social life. It
(2022) was seen as an organic and ethical entity, existing
Feminist critique of the State. Comment. (2021 & for the promotion of a good life.
2016) Medieval Europe: In medieval times, the state
Pluralist theory of the State. Comment. (2019) became closely associated with kingship, often
viewed as deriving its authority from divine right.
Critically examine the neo-liberal theory of State.
(2018 & 2017) Social Contract Theory: Social contract theorists,
such as Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and
Post-colonial theory of the state. (2020 & 2011)
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, introduced a mechanistic
Examine the conception of the State in the view of the state. It means state is a product of a
ideologies of Fascism and Marxism. (2014) social contract among individuals, created to
What is meant by ‘relative autonomy’ of State in secure their natural rights and promote common
Marxist analysis? (2012) interests.

Evaluate Marx's instrumentalist approach to the Modern Concept: In modern political thought,
State. (2010) particularly influenced by Max Weber, the state is
defined by its monopoly over the legitimate use of
physical force for maintaining order within a
territory.
1. INTRODUCTION
Post Modern Times (Post WW-II): Rise of
According to Raymond G. Gettel, “Of all social transnational or supranational system of
institutions the state has been the most universal governance like European Union. However, 2008
and most powerful. Some form of organisation and Financial Crisis and Brexit reflect reversal of trend
authority has been found wherever human life has and going back to era of Nation State.
existed, and a sanction of some kind has enforced Therefore, the concept of the state has evolved from
some sort of rules.” being seen as a natural and organic entity to a more
Thus, in the process of human development, right contractual and institutional one, reflecting changing
from ancient Greek times till present times, there ideas about the nature of political authority and
have been attempts to investigate the institution of governance.
the state. Gettel: “The state is a gradual and natural historic
Therefore, Gettel defines political science as 'the evolution. It is neither the gift of divine power nor the
science of the state’. It is study of the state in the deliberate work of man. Its beginnings are lost in that
past, present and future, of political organization shadow of past in which social institutions were
and political function, of political institutions and consciously arising, and its development has followed
political theories. the general laws of growth.”

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 1. Law is command of sovereign. He rejected both
3. CRITERIA OF STATEHOOD religious and natural laws as “law”.

The accepted criteria of statehood were laid down in 2. He also held that there can only be one sovereign.
the Montevideo Convention (1933), which provided Contribution of John Austin (Book- Lectures on
that a state must possess- Jurisprudence):
1. A permanent population “If a determinate human superior, not in the habit of
2. A defined territory, obedience to a like superior, receive habitual
obedience from the bulk of a given society, that
3. A government, and
determinate superior is sovereign in that society, and
4. Sovereignty or capacity to conduct international that society (including the superior) is a society
relations. political and independent.”
Among these, sovereignty is the most important He asserted that sovereignty lies with the state and
feature and was recognised as essential element in sovereignty is absolute, permanent, and indivisible.
Treaty of Westphalia.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE THEORY
4. THEORIES OF SOVEREIGNTY OF STATE It ended the prevailing confusion of medieval times.
Thus, it put an end to the chaos and established the
Jean Bodin defines sovereignty as “supreme power law-and-order situation.
over citizens and subjects, unrestrained by law.”
Further, the theory created a conducive environment
Sovereignty is the most distinctive feature of the
for rise of capitalism. In present times as well, the
modern state.
Monistic Theory is followed largely.
In Medieval times, there was no clarity whether
Church is sovereign, or state is sovereign.
B. PLURALISTIC THEORY OF STATE SOVERIGNTY
In Modern times, Treaty of Westphalia (1648) made
it clear that sovereignty lies with the state and state Context: Need of avoiding WW-I and WW-2 like
is a territorial entity. Thus, state remains a supreme situation as monistic nation state system is war prone
authority to make and enforce laws. because monistic state does not have regard for
The concept of sovereignty has 2 dimensions- international laws. With emergence of internation laws
Internal and External. post WW-II, there was realisation of the need to limit
power of the state and promote human rights.
Internal- Within a particular territory, state made
laws will prevail and no other institution will Thus, Pluralism is a feature of liberalism, and it stands
compete with the state. for a limited state.

External- State will not be controlled or governed a. FEATURES OF THE PLURALISTIC THEORY
by any external authority.
Legal Fiction: The pluralistic theory calls monistic
Quote by Hugo Grotius: “Sovereignty is the supreme
theory as a legal fiction. This is because-
political power vested in him, whose acts are not
subject to any other and whose will cannot be Externally state’s choice is limited by other actors
overridden.” and its relations with them and
Internally sovereignty is limited by various
A. MONISTIC THEORY OF STATE SOVEREIGNTY organisations and associations.
Diluting the Authority: The state is not the only
Context: Medieval chaotic situation and feudalism. institution that fulfils the needs of man and hence
Contribution of Hobbes (Book- Leviathan): the state alone must not have the authority to make
laws.
For establishing clear supremacy of the state and
giving complete theory of state sovereignty, Hobbes is For example, India being a multicultural society, has
regarded as the first modern thinker. not adopted Uniform Civil Code and recognises
religion as a possible source of law.
Hobbes established that-
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 Main Function: The main function of the state is State is guardian as well as child: According to
resolution of conflicts among various competing MacIver, state is both the guardian of law and the
interests and association. child of law. By this, he means that state’s purpose is
to maintain law and order and at the same time,
Thus, the pluralist scholars wanted to dilute sovereignty
state is also under the law. State cannot exercise
of state and suggested to give importance to
arbitrary powers. State powers are limited (similar to
international laws and other institutions.
the concept of rule of law).
b. WHY IS MONISTIC THEORY NOT DESIRABLE? Meaning of General Will: According to MacIver, “the
general will is not the will of the state but will of the
It concentrates too much power in the hands of the
people for the state”. It means the concept is
states, there is a fear of state becoming autocratic
misunderstood as if state enjoys ultimate powers. It
(anti-democratic). It is threat to international peace.
is people’s wish, which is expressed through the
In context of this, Harold Laski emerged as a major critic general will. State itself has to abide by the will of the
of the Monistic Theory of state. people.

HAROLD LASKI (BOOK- AUTHORITY IN THE Laski MacIver

MODERN STATE) (A moderate pluralist) (An extreme pluralist)
Laski was a supporter of international laws, peace, and State is an association Like any other
human rights. He held Monistic Theory responsible for but also a keystone of association, state is
wars as it disregards the international laws. social architecture. Its also an association.
He opines that it is an impossible misadventure to position is more Other associations like
find and locate the sovereign in federal state. important than other kingship or church
associations.
He argues that allegiance to various associations is existed prior to the
partial and proportional to their contribution. state and they did not
depend on the state for
He even goes on to say, “it would be of lasting benefit
their existence.
to political science is the whole concept of
sovereignty were surrendered.”
c. CRITICAL EVALUATION OF PLURALIST THEORY
State is a man-made institution (and not a natural
entity). Man has created other institutions as well for Realistic explanation: In the age of federalism and
promotion of his interests. growth of multiple associations like UN, ICJ, EU, etc.,
we cannot accept the monistic view that law is just
PROBLEM IN LASKI’S IDEAS:
the command of sovereign. Thus, monistic theory is
On one hand he is sceptical with respect to the power relevant for jurists and lawyers. It is a legal fiction. On
exercised by the state. So, he wants to limit the powers. the other hand, pluralistic theory is sociological and
Hence, he says that “Since society is federal, authority political explanation.
should also be federal.”
Inconsistency in ideas: The pluralists are against the
At the same time, he realizes the importance of the monist state, but they do not eliminate the state
state and is forced to accept that the state is the (this is also the major difference in anarchists and
keystone of the social architecture. pluralists). It is said that pluralists want to keep the
cake and have it too.
R.M. MACIVER (BOOK- POLITICAL PLURALISM) Acemoglu and Robinson (Book- The Narrow
Extreme pluralists, like MacIver, do not give any primacy Corridor) argue that it is not advisable to give too
to the state. For them state is just one of the much power to the state as socio-cultural norms
associations. also keep people disciplined. They coined the term-
“shackled leviathan” to depict the state of affairs
MacIver’s Concept of Service State: MacIver wherein the power is balanced between the society
suggested that- “state commands because it and the state.
serves”. By that, he means that state deserves the
respect only when it fulfils the useful functions.

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 Elitist thinkers: Scholars like Mosca, Pareto, etc. Limited Government: Locke’s state is an instrument
reject pluralism and believe that behind the façade for protecting citizens' rights, not a dominant force
of liberal democracy there lies the permanent over them, marking a significant departure from
power of “ruling elite”. Hobbes' absolute state.
Thus, even when pluralism is inconsistent it does not JOHN STUART MILL (1806-1873)
mean it is irrelevant. Consistency is not the most
Democracy and Individual Liberty: Mill advocated
important requirement of a sound theory. Pluralism is
for representative democracy as an end in itself,
more relevant because it is more realistic and more
emphasizing the harmonious development of
conducive for international peace and human rights.
individuals and the protection of individual liberty.

5. THEORIES OF STATE Representative Democracy: Mill proposed a

representative democracy to ensure individual
satisfaction and free development, while also
A. LIBERAL THEORY OF STATE regulating the limits of societal power over
individuals.
Mainstream political theory is dominated by the liberal
theory of the state. This theory emerged out of the ROUSSEAU (1712-1778)
writings of social-contract theorists such as Hobbes Direct Democracy: Rousseau championed the model
and Locke. of direct democracy and rejected the idea of
The liberal theory of the state focuses on individual transferring sovereignty through consent or elections.
freedoms, limited government, and rule of law. The In his "Social Contract," he argued that the state arises
state is a neutral arbiter among competing groups and from a collective agreement to overcome the
individuals in society. It is an ‘umpire’ or ‘referee’, obstacles to human preservation. This social contract
capable of protecting each citizen from the establishes a law-making body where individuals
encroachment of his or her fellow citizens. directly participate in governance, ensuring laws reflect
the "general will" or collective interest.
LIBERAL CONCEPTION OF THE STATE:
MACHIAVELLI TO MILL These scholars collectively shaped the liberal
Niccolo Machiavelli and Jean Bodin: Machiavelli and conception of the state, evolving from early concerns
Bodin were among the first to articulate new concerns about state foundations and functions, through
about the state, examining its origins, foundations, Hobbes' emphasis on order and absolute power, to
relationship with society, functions, and whose interests Locke's focus on natural rights and limited government,
it should represent. to Mill's advocacy for democracy and Rousseau’s idea
of direct democracy.
THOMAS HOBBES (1588-1642)
State as Solution to Human Nature: Hobbes, in his THEORIES: ORIGIN OF STATE
work "Leviathan," analysed the state as a necessary
solution to the natural condition of humans, which As far as origin of the state is concerned, there are two
he described as a "war of all against all." In the state types of theories: Social Contract Theory and
of nature, life is "nasty, brutish, and short." Evolutionary Theory.
Absolute State: Hobbes proposed the creation of an
absolute state through a social contract, where Origin of State
individuals surrender their rights to a powerful
authority to maintain order and protect property.
This state is legitimate and represents the sum total
of individual consent.
Social Contract Theory Evolutionary Theory
JOHN LOCKE (1632-1704)
State as Protector of Natural Rights: Locke rejected Hobbes MacIver
the idea of an absolute sovereign and argued that Locke Gettel
the state exists to protect the natural rights of life,
Rousseau
liberty, and property.

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a. SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY Class Perspective on State: According to the Class
Social-contract theory has been used not only to Theory, the state arises when society splits into two
explain why orderly and civilized existence is impossible antagonistic classes: one owning the means of
in the absence of government, but also to advance a production and the other living on its labour. The
theory of the nature of state power. emergence of private property creates this division.
Those who own the means of production gain the
Origin of State: The theory argues that the state is result
power to dominate the other class, not just
of the voluntary agreement between the citizens i.e.,
economically but in all aspects of life.
state is a man-made institution.
Lack of independent existence: For Marx, state is an
Purpose of state: The state acts in the interests of all
institution of superstructure, and it is conditioned by the
and represents what can be called the ‘common good’
substructure or base i.e., economic structure of society.
or ‘public interest’. Thus, state is an instrument of utility.
Thus, it does not have any independent existence as it is
Opposition to Idealistic and Divine Theories: controlled by the capitalist class.
The Social Contract Theory counters the Idealistic Thus, in Marxism, the state is an instrument in the hands
Theory which suggests that state is natural (organic of dominant class and perpetuates the exploitation of
theory of state) and state is priority over man. the working or dependent class.
(Aristotle- Man is by nature a political animal.)
It also opposes Theory of Divine Origin of State (i.e., Engels- “The state is, as a rule, the state of the most
state is representative of God). powerful, economically dominant class which,
through the medium of the state, becomes also the
b. EVOLUTIONARY THEORY
politically dominant class and thus acquires new
MacIver and Gettel (also known as pluralists) try to limit
means of holding down and exploiting the
the powers of the state. MacIver argues that state has
oppressed class.”
been the result of multiple associations like kingship,
village, church, etc.
(Note: The theory has been discussed in detail earlier in DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES ON STATE WITHIN
this chapter.) MARXISM:
FUNCTIONS OF STATE
Perspectives on State
Classical Liberals (Adam Smith and Bentham) and
Neoliberals (Hayek, Nozick and Friedman) support a
minimal or night-watchman state.
Modern or Social Liberals: They are also called as Instrumentalist Structuralist
supporters of welfare state. Perspective Perspective

Laski: He suggests that state should make an

Theories of Theory of
arrangement for social and economic rights.
Deelopment and Overdeveloped
TH Green: State should provide positive liberty (i.e., Underdevelopment State
capacity building of the people).
They also include Contemporary Positive Liberals a. INSTRUMENTALIST PERSPECTIVE
MacPherson, Rawls, Amartya Sen, Dworkin. They
favoured affirmative action policies. Instrumentalist Theory of the State: In his work The
State in Capitalist Society (1969), Ralph Miliband
(Note: Details are provided in Justice Unit.)
studied the post-capitalist societies and argued that
the state is invariably an instrument of class power. He
B. MARXIST THEORY OF STATE
argues for the unity between state power and class
ORIGIN: Frederick Engels (Book- The Origin of the power (similar to Classical Marxist Position).
Family, Private Property and State) mentions that the Marxist notion: According to Marx, the class which
state is neither a natural organisation (organic theory) controls the base or basic structure controls the
nor a manifestation of will of the people (mechanistic elements of superstructure. Thus, state acts as an
theory). Marx and Engels provide a class perspective instrument of the bourgeoise class.
on the state.
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Perpetuation of Class Character: Miliband contends NICOS POULANTZAS (BOOK- POLITICAL POWER
that the class character of the capitalist state is AND SOCIAL CLASSES, 1973
perpetuated by several factors:
Structuralist Theory of the State: Poulantzas'
The middle or upper-class background of state structuralist theory of the state distinguishes between
officials. the position of the capitalist class and state power. He
The economic power of the capitalist class. argues for the relative autonomy of the state,
suggesting that class domination does not
The inherent desire of politicians and bureaucrats to
automatically translate into state power, and the state
maintain the existing economic system on which
cannot simply be regarded as an instrument of a class.
their own positions depend.
Legitimacy of the State: Poulantzas believes the state
Lenin (Book- The State and Revolution (1917):
enhances its legitimacy by invoking the authority of "the
"According to Marx, the State is an organ of class rule,
people," while the capitalist class boosts its legitimacy
an organ for the oppression of one class by another, it is
by distancing itself from state repression.
the creation of 'order', which legalizes and perpetuates
this oppression by moderating the conflict between the Role and Function of the State: The state's relative
classes." autonomy helps improve its economic performance
and promotes capitalist interests. He views the state as
b. STRUCTURALIST PERSPECTIVE
an arena of class struggle, rejecting Miliband's concept
It is also known as Relative Autonomy Theory of state. It of the unity of class and state power.
believes that superstructure in itself is a structure, and
its role cannot be ignored. ALTHUSSER’S CONTRIBUTION
The origin of this concept can be traced to the work of Althusser provides a multi-structural perspective
Marx (The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte). In (presence of multiple structures) and believes that
this book, Marx gives the concept of Bonapartist State power belongs to the state.
(state is not an instrument, rather there can be a
situation where state becomes more powerful and acts The state acts through two institutions or apparatuses
as an equilibrium maker/ relatively neutral arbiter i.e., ideological state apparatus and coercive state
between the classes). apparatus.

NEO-MARXIST VIEW ON STATE RALPH MILIBAND AND NICOS POULANTZAS:

Antonio Gramsci, a DEBATE
State
neo-Marxist, (Integral
introduced the Civil Society
State) Context: After facing challenges from Marxism,
concept of the (education, church, capitalist states adopted a more humane approach
media etc.)
state's relative and evolved into welfare states. Miliband and
autonomy in the Economic Structure
Poulantzas studied these post-capitalist states to
Marxism. He introduced a clear distinction between understand their nature and determine whether they
distinguished between two levels of superstructure: act in the interest of the poor.
political society (which includes coercive structures Miliband’s conclusion: Miliband arrived at the
and uses force for domination), and civil society, conclusion that the state still is an instrument of
(which includes legitimating structures like family, capitalist class as economic power remains
school and church and it relies on consent). concentrated in the hands of few.
These institutions instil respect to ruling class, creating Reasons:
hegemony and legitimizing bourgeois rule. The
Miliband found that state and bureaucracy are
stability of capitalist society depends on the
dominated by the economically dominant class.
effectiveness of civil society. Coercion by political
society is only necessary when civil society fails to He calls Managerial Revolution as a myth because
prevent dissent. managerial class is primarily from capitalist or
upper class as management education is
unaffordable for the poor people.

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 Core (Metropolis, Rich State): Advanced industrial
THE MANAGERIAL REVOLUTION (CONCEPT GIVEN BY economies of the North that benefit from global
JAMES BURNHAM): As per the theory, there has been capitalism.
a shift of power from capitalists into hands of
managers. Managers can be from any background, Periphery (Satellite, Poor State): Developing
even from working class. countries of the South that are dependent on and
exploited by core countries.
Oxfam Report and Thomas Picketty’s Capital in 21st
Century highlight the glaring inequalities in the Lack of Autonomy in Developing States: From this
society. perspective, states in developing countries are not truly
autonomous or sovereign. Instead, they function as
puppet regimes serving the interests of the capitalist
POULANTZAS’ OBSERVATIONS:
class in core countries.
His arguments are based on the theory of Relative
Autonomy. He calls the post-capitalist states as An example is the Saudi Monarchy, which is seen as a
relatively autonomous as the state acts in the interests client regime of the USA, prioritizing American interests
of both poor and rich (capitalists). over its own people’s needs.

For instance, in response to labour movements and The Instrumentalist Approach highlights the
protests, states have enacted laws like minimum wage persistence of colonial structures in a neocolonial
and collective bargaining rights, even when these guise. This exploitation and dependency contribute to
measures conflict with business interests. the continuing poverty and underdevelopment in these
regions, challenging the notion of true sovereignty and
The competitive party system demands that the independence.
political programs of political parties must cater to the
needs of all the classes in order to remain in power. NOAM CHOMSKY’S CONTRIBUTION
However, Poulantzas call the state as relatively American intellectual Noam Chomsky extends this
autonomous because the in the crisis situations the analysis by highlighting that the state in the USA acts
state supports only the dominant class. as an instrument of its capitalist class. The state in USA
had gone to war (e.g., Vietnam, Iraq, Afghanistan) to
c. THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT AND protect capitalist interests. This dynamic reinforces the
UNDERDEVELOPMENT subservient position of states in the Global South,
The Instrumentalist Approach, developed by Latin perpetuating poverty and dependency.
American and African Marxist scholars such as A.G.
Frank and Samir Amin. It offers a critical analysis of the
C. THEORY OF POST-COLONIAL STATE
ongoing effects of colonialism in Third World countries,
which have transitioned into a state of neocolonialism.
This approach suggests that despite political WHAT ARE POST-COLONIAL STATES?
independence, these countries remain economically These are the states which had colonial past and they
and politically controlled by Western powers. continue to inherit the colonial legacy such as
Exploitation by MNCs: Multinational corporations from administrative structures, legal frameworks, etc. Such
Western countries exploit the resources and labour of states are known as Countries of the South or Third
Third World nations, continuing the colonial pattern of World Countries or Developing Countries.
wealth extraction. Ex- India, Pakistan, Myanmar, South Africa, etc.
Development of Underdevelopment: The flow of wealth
from poor to rich countries persists, exacerbating Frantz Fanon: "The history of all developing
poverty and underdevelopment in the Global South. countries, which have put an end to colonization, is a
Thus, instead of progressing, these countries history of decolonization."
experience increasing poverty.
Class Division of States: Scholars argue that capitalism KEY FEATURES OF POST-COLONIAL STATES:
as a global system creates a hierarchy among nations, Post-colonial states often see the persistence of
similar to class divisions within societies. States are power structures established during colonial rule.
categorized into:

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 State formation in post-colonial societies is Middle East Region through the American Lens:
complex, involving struggles for independence, new American media coverage of the Middle East often
border formations, and the integration of diverse emphasizes conflict, terrorism, and veiled women,
ethnic groups. (ex- Sri Lanka) reinforcing Orientalist stereotypes. These portrayals
shape public opinion and influence foreign policy.
Many post-colonial states face economic
challenges due to colonial-era resource
exploitation. Gayatri Spivak and subjugation of the Subaltern:
Gayatri Spivak built on Foucault's notion of
Neocolonial economic arrangements
epistemic violence, highlighting how non-Western
(Neocolonialism) often involve control over
perspectives have been marginalized through
resources by powerful countries or corporations.
dominant Western Knowledge System. She focused
Post-colonial states often face developmental on women, arguing that colonialism erased their
challenges related to infrastructure, education, cultural identities, preventing them from
healthcare, etc. authentically expressing their experiences and
understandings of the world.
a. EDWARD SAID'S CONCEPT OF ORIENTALISM
Edward Said's "Orientalism" (1978) explains how b. NATURE OF POST-COLONIAL STATE:
Western societies have depicted the Orient (East) in a VARIOUS PERSPECTIVES
biased way to justify their rule and dominance. He
1. Nature of State from Western Perspective
argues that Orientalism created a distorted and
negative image of the Orient, portraying it as The nature of state can be understood through the
backward and irrational, which made Western approaches like-
imperialism and colonialism seem necessary and Political Development Approach
beneficial. This biased view was spread through
Western literature, art, media, and scholarship, making Political Modernization Approach
the West appear superior and rational. Important Works:
Said showed that these cultural representations were Fred W. Riggs- Concept of Prismatic Societies
manipulated to maintain Western hegemony over
Gunnar Myrdal- Concept of soft state
Eastern societies. Through his analysis, Said highlights
the power dynamics in knowledge production and FRED W. RIGGS' "PRISMATIC SOCIETY MODEL"
questions the neutrality of Western academic and
cultural discourse. To conclude, Riggs gave his new theory entitled in a
book- “Prismatic Society-Revisited” in 1973.

Edward Said: "Every single empire in its official Overview: This model offers a detailed framework for
discourse has said that it is not like all the others that understanding the diverse and intricate nature of
its circumstances are special, that it has a mission to societies and governments in developing countries.
enlighten, civilize, bring order and democracy, and Fred W. Riggs' "Prismatic Society Model" describes
that it uses force only as a last resort." developing countries as diverse, transitioning from
Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak: She emphasized that underdeveloped to developed, with features of both
Orientalist narratives frequently marginalized and traditional and modern societies. This complexity leads
silenced the voices of the very people they aimed to to governance challenges due to misaligned
represent. Spivak famously posed the question, "Can administrative structures.
the subaltern speak?" Riggs call the post-colonial societies as prismatic
Franz Fanon (Book- The Wretched of the Earth): (India) and developed societies (USA) as diffracted
"When a colonialist speaks of the 'development' of societies.
the 'backward' countries, what he means is that the
exploitation of [those countries] has reached new
heights now."

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 Fused-Prismatic-Diffracted Model Gandhian Legacy of Disobedience: The Gandhian
(Fred W. Riggs) tradition of civil disobedience has influenced India's
political culture, leading to a scenario where even
leaders do not strictly adhere to laws. This results in a
culture of lawlessness and weakens state authority.
Cultural Factors: Indian society often respects muscle
power over law-abiding behaviour. Law-abiding
individuals are sometimes seen as weak, further
undermining respect for the rule of law.
Fused Prismatic Diffracted
ascription attainment achievement Myrdal's concept of a soft state explains why India
particularism selectivism universalism struggles with effective governance and poverty
functional diffusion poly-functionalism functional specificity alleviation. Addressing issues of corruption, cultural
FEATURES OF PRISMATIC SOCIETIES attitudes towards law, and leadership behaviour is
crucial for improving the state's capacity to enforce
Heterogeneity: In this system, various patterns, rules,
laws and implement policies effectively.
systems, and viewpoints coexist. The society is a mix of
fused and diffracted elements. HAMZA ALWI’S CONCEPT OF OVERDEVELOPED
Formalism: There is a significant gap between theory STATE
and practice, highlighting the difference between what Concept: The Theory of Overdeveloped State, from a
is formally prescribed and what is effectively practiced. Marxist perspective, suggests that post-colonial states
like those in South Asia have a state structure more
Overlapping Structures: Differentiated and
developed than their basic economic structures.
undifferentiated structures coexist, leading to
overlapping administrative behaviours from both types Reasons: This is because these states inherited a
of societies. modern state system from their colonial masters,
leading to a powerful, centralized authority within the
Besides this many other features are also presented like
territory of the state.
polynormativism, polyfunctionalism,
polycommunalism, bazaar-canteen model, authority Historical Conditions: Unlike Western states where the
v/s control, political instability, etc. bourgeoisie controls the state, in overdeveloped states,
the state itself controls the bourgeoisie. This is due to
This model is crucial for comprehending the unique
historical conditions such as colonialism and the
governance challenges in these societies, stressing the
continuation of colonial legacies, which gave the state
need for flexible administrative systems to effectively
overwhelming power.
address their diverse needs.
Role of Freedom Movement: The state's dominance is
GUNNAR MYRDAL’S CONCEPT OF SOFT STATE
further reinforced by its role in the independence
Gunnar Myrdal introduced the concept of the "Soft movement and its adoption of a state-led
State" in his book "Asian Drama," using India as a developmental model, concentrating economic power
primary example. Myrdal questioned whether the within the state.
Indian state would be successful in its poverty
alleviation programs and concluded that it would not, As a result of all this, the state emerges as the most
primarily because India exemplifies a soft state. powerful institution, leading to what is termed as a
Military-Bureaucratic Oligarchy, as seen in Pakistan.
Meaning of Soft State: A soft state is characterized by
the inability to properly implement laws and maintain While the post-colonial state is not completely
order. This results in poor governance and ineffective autonomous, it acts on behalf of three classes:
policy execution. indigenous feudal class, indigenous bourgeoisie class,
and metropolitan bourgeoisie (capitalist class of
REASONS FOR INDIA BEING A SOFT STATE Western countries).
Corruption: Widespread corruption in the political
system and bureaucracy hinders the proper
implementation of laws. Corruption is partly a legacy of
colonial rule, perpetuating inefficiencies.

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c. SIGNIFICANCE OF POST COLONIAL THEORY Robin Morgan's assertion, "We can't destroy the
OF STATE inequities between men and women until we destroy
marriage," reflects the critique of traditional institutions
The post-colonial theories exposed and challenged
that perpetuate women's economic and social
global exploitation and inequality; critiquing
subjugation, notably through unpaid domestic labour.
Eurocentric views applied to postcolonial states. They
emphasized cooperation among third world countries Friedrich Engels, a key figure in Marxist thought, argued
and the need to preserve postcolonial state in "The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the
sovereignty against metropolitan capital. State" that the end of capitalism would bring about the
end of women's exploitation within the economic
d. CRITICISM OF POST-COLONIAL THEORY system.
Critics argue that postcolonial theory is more of an
c. RADICAL FEMINISM (DISTRUSTFUL OF THE
analysis than a comprehensive theory of the state,
SYSTEM)
often lacking concrete prescriptions.
Radical feminists see the state itself as inherently
It avoids engaging with theoretical constructs like the
patriarchal, reflecting male dominance in society.
origin of the state, its ideal form, legitimacy, and citizen
obligations. Carole Hanisch's famous slogan "the personal is
political” highlights how societal norms and power
Its focus on third world states limits its universal
dynamics within families and relationships contribute
applicability, and its emphasis on "otherness" and
to broader gender inequality.
identity may hinder understanding compared to
Western theories. Catherine MacKinnon (a radical feminist) views the
state as inherently patriarchal. MacKinnon argues
e. CONCLUSION “there is no feminist theory of the state” because it
Despite the limitations, post-colonial theory, offers simply reinforces existing power structures. Analysing
valuable insights into third-world nations, their rape laws in the US, she sees them favouring men due
socioeconomic structures, and impacts of to low conviction rates. This reinforces her view of the
globalization. It enriches political theory by integrating state as "male." Thus, she proposes dismantling
post-colonial states into mainstream discourse. patriarchy (starting with ending heterosexual
marriages) to achieve true gender equality.
D. FEMINIST THEROY OF STATE d. POSTMODERN FEMINIST PERSPECTIVE
Deconstructs traditional notions of gender, arguing that
Feminist thought offers a diverse range of perspectives gender identity is fluid and constructed through social
on the state's role. These are discussed below: and cultural practices.

a. LIBERAL FEMINISM (TRUSTING THE SYSTEM) Judith Butler’s idea that "Identity is performatively
constituted," highlights the challenge to fixed gender
These feminists, like John Stuart Mill (On the Subjection
identities and promotes inclusivity and diversity.
of Women) and Mary Wollstonecraft (A Vindication of
the Rights of Woman), believe the state can be a force Thus, though feminist perspectives on the state vary,
for good. but they share a common focus on understanding the
power dynamics in the society, particularly how
They advocate for political rights for women (suffrage)
patriarchy impacts women and transgender
and increased participation in government (holding
individuals.
office).
b. MARXIST FEMINISM (SCEPTICAL OF THE
SYSTEM)
Marxist feminists view the state as an instrument of the
capitalist class that also exploits women. They believe
that dismantling capitalism, not relying on the state, is
key to women's liberation.

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