Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

Module-4
Point sources and arrays: Introduction, Point Sources, Power patterns, Power
theorem, Radiation Intensity, Arrays of 2 isotropic point sources, Pattern
multiplication, Linear arrays of n Isotropic sources of equal amplitude and spacing.
(Text 3: 5.1-5.6, 5.9, 5.13)

Electric Dipole: Introduction, Short Electric dipole, Fields of a short dipole.

Radiation resistance of a short dipole. Thin linear antenna (field analysis). (Text 3:
6.1-6.5)

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 1

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

Point Source

Figure 1: Antenna and observation circle

At a sufficient distance in the far field of an antenna, the radiated fields of the
antenna are transverse and the power flow or Poynting vector is radial at the point
O at a distance R on the observation circle in figure1.

In figure 1a, the center O of the antenna coincides with the center of the
observation circle. If the center of the antenna is displaced from O, even to the
extent that O lies outside the antenna as in figure 1b, the distance d between the
two centers has a negligible effect on the field patterns at the observation circle,
provided R >> d, R >> b, and R >> λ. However, the phase patterns will generally
differ, depending on d. If d = 0, the phase shift around the observation circle is
usually a minimum. As d is increased, the observed phase shift becomes larger.

Power Patterns
Let a transmitting antenna in free space be represented by a point-source located at
the origin of the coordinates in figure 2. The radiated energy streams from the
source in radial lines. The time rate of energy flow per unit area is the Poynting
vector, or power density. In the far field of any antenna, the Poynting vector S has
only a radial component Sr with no components in either the θ or φ directions

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 2

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

(Sθ = Sφ = 0). Thus, the magnitude of the Poynting vector, or power density, is
equal to the radial component (|S| = Sr).

Figure 2: Spherical coordinates for a point source of radiation in free space

A source that radiates energy uniformly in all directions is an isotropic source.

For such a source the radial component Sr of the Poynting vector is independent of
θ and φ. A graph of Sr at a constant radius as a function of angle is a Poynting
vector, or power-density, pattern, but is usually called a power pattern. The three-
dimensional power pattern for an isotropic source is a sphere. In two dimensions
the pattern is a circle (a cross section through the sphere), as shown in figure 3.

Figure 3: Polar power pattern of isotropic source.

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 3

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

The isotropic source is convenient in theory, but it is not a physically realizable

type. In contrast to the isotropic source, we have anisotropic sources which radiate
more energy in some directions than in others. As an example, the power pattern of
such a source is shown in figure 4a where Srm is the maximum value of Sr.

If Sr is expressed in watts per square meter, the graph is an absolute power pattern.
On the other hand, if Sr is expressed in terms of its value in some reference
direction, the graph is a relative power pattern. It is customary to take the
reference direction such that Sr is a maximum. Thus, the pattern radius for relative
power is Sr/Srm where Srm is the maximum value of Sr. The maximum value of the
relative power pattern is unity, as shown in figure 4b. A pattern with a maximum
of unity is also called a normalized pattern.

Figure 4: (a) Power pattern and (b) relative power pattern for same source. Both
patterns have the same shape.

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 4

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

A Power Theorem and its Application to an Isotropic Source

If the Poynting vector is known at all points on a sphere of radius r from a point
source in a lossless medium, the total power radiated by the source is the integral
over the surface of the sphere of the radial component Sr of the average Poynting
vector. Thus,

𝑷 = ∯ 𝑺. 𝒅𝒔 = ∯ 𝑺𝒓 𝒅𝒔 − − − (𝟏)

where
P = power radiated, W
Sr = radial component of average Poynting vector, Wm−2
ds = infinitesimal element of area of sphere = r2sinθdθdφ, m2

For an isotropic source, Sr is independent of θ and φ so

𝑷 = 𝑺𝒓 ∯ 𝒅𝒔 = 𝑺𝒓 × 𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐 − − − (𝟐)

𝑷
𝑺𝒓 = − − − (𝟑)
𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐
Equation (3) indicates that the magnitude of the Poynting vector varies inversely as
the square of the distance from a point-source radiator. This is a statement of the
well-known law for the variation of power per unit area as a function of the
distance.
Radiation Intensity
The radiation intensity U is expressed in watts per unit solid angle (Wsr−1). The
radiation intensity is independent of radius. It is power per steradian

𝑷
𝑼= = 𝑺𝒓 𝒓𝟐 − − − (𝟏)
𝟒𝝅

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 5

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

Thus, the power theorem may be restated as follows: The total power radiated is
given by the integral of the radiation intensity over a solid angle of 4π steradians.

Power patterns can be expressed in terms of either the Poynting vector (power
density) or the radiation intensity. A power pattern in terms of U is the same as in
figure 4a with the maximum Poynting vector (Sm) replaced by the maximum
radiation intensity (Um) and the Poynting vector as a function of r(Sr) replaced by
the radiation intensity as a function of r(Ur ). The maximum value of Um is in the
θ = 0 direction. Relative Poynting vector (or power density) and relative radiation
intensity patterns are identical.

Applying (1) to an isotropic source gives

𝑷 = 𝟒𝝅𝑼𝟎 − − − (𝟐)
where
𝑈0 = radiation intensity of isotropic source, W sr−1.

Examples of Power Patterns

1. Source with Unidirectional Cosine Power Pattern:
A source has a cosine radiation-intensity pattern, that is, U = Um cosθ
where Um = maximum radiation intensity

The radiation intensity U has a value only in the upper hemisphere (0 ≤ θ ≤ π/2 and
0 ≤ φ ≤ 2π) and is zero in the lower hemisphere. The radiation intensity is a
maximum at θ = 0. The pattern is shown in figure 5. The space pattern is a figure
of revolution of this circle around the polar axis. Find the directivity.

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 6

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

Figure 5: Unidirectional cosine power pattern.

Solution:
Consider,

𝑷 = ∯ 𝑺𝒓 𝒅𝒔
𝝅
𝟐𝝅
𝟐
𝑷= ∫ ∫ 𝑺𝒓 𝒅𝒔
𝟎 𝟎
𝝅
𝟐𝝅
𝟐 𝑼
𝑷= ∫ ∫ ( ) (𝒓𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒅𝜽𝒅∅)
𝟎 𝟎 𝒓𝟐
𝝅
𝟐𝝅
𝟐
𝑷= ∫ ∫ (𝑼) (𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒅𝜽𝒅∅)
𝟎 𝟎
𝝅
𝟐𝝅
𝟐
𝑷= ∫ ∫ (𝑼𝒎 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽) (𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒅𝜽𝒅∅)
𝟎 𝟎
𝝅
𝟐𝝅
𝟐
𝑷 = 𝑼𝒎 ∫ 𝒅∅ ∫ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒅𝜽
𝟎 𝟎
𝝅
𝟐𝝅
𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝜽
𝑷 = 𝑼𝒎 ∫ 𝒅∅ ∫ 𝒅𝜽
𝟎 𝟎 𝟐

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 7

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

𝝅
𝑼𝒎 𝟐𝝅 𝟐
𝑷= ∫ 𝒅∅ ∫ 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝜽𝒅𝜽
𝟐 𝟎 𝟎

𝑼𝒎 𝟐𝝅
−𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝜽 𝝅/𝟐
𝑷= [∅]𝟎 [ ]
𝟐 𝟐 𝟎
𝑼𝒎
𝑷= (𝟐𝝅 − 𝟎)(𝟏 + 𝟏)
𝟒
𝑼𝒎
𝑷= 𝟒𝝅
𝟒
𝑷 = 𝝅𝑼𝒎 − − − (𝟏)
We know that,
𝑷 = 𝟒𝝅𝑼𝟎 − − − (𝟐)
and from (1)
𝝅𝑼𝒎 = 𝟒𝝅𝑼𝟎
𝑼𝒎
= 𝟒
𝑼𝟎
𝑼𝒎
∴ 𝑫= = 𝟒
𝑼𝟎
Thus, the maximum radiation intensity Um of the unidirectional cosine source (in
the direction θ=0) is 4 times the radiation intensity U0 from an isotropic source
radiating the same total power. The power patterns for the two sources are
compared in figure 6 for the same total power radiated by each.

Figure 6: Power patterns of cosine and isotropic sources.

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 8
 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

2. Source with Bidirectional Cosine Power Pattern

A source has a cosine power pattern that is bidirectional. Find the directivity.
Solution:

With radiation in two hemispheres instead of one; the maximum radiation intensity
is half of the source with unidirectional cosine power pattern. Thus, directivity
4
𝐷= =2
2

3. Source with Sine (Doughnut) Power Pattern

A source has a radiation intensity pattern given by U = Umsinθ. The pattern is
shown in figure 6. The space pattern is a figure-of-revolution of this pattern around
the polar axis and has the form of a doughnut. Find D.
Solution:
Consider,

𝑷 = ∯ 𝑺𝒓 𝒅𝒔
𝟐𝝅 𝝅
𝑷= ∫ ∫ 𝑺𝒓 𝒅𝒔
𝟎 𝟎
𝟐𝝅 𝝅
𝑼
𝑷= ∫ ∫ ( 𝟐
) (𝒓𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒅𝜽𝒅∅)
𝟎 𝟎 𝒓
𝟐𝝅 𝝅
𝑷= ∫ ∫ (𝑼) (𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒅𝜽𝒅∅)
𝟎 𝟎
𝟐𝝅 𝝅
𝑷= ∫ ∫ (𝑼𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽) (𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒅𝜽𝒅∅)
𝟎 𝟎
𝟐𝝅 𝝅
𝑷 = 𝑼𝒎 ∫ 𝒅∅ ∫ 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽𝒅𝜽
𝟎 𝟎

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 9

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

𝟐𝝅 𝝅
𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝜽
𝑷 = 𝑼𝒎 ∫ 𝒅∅ ∫ ( ) 𝒅𝜽
𝟎 𝟎 𝟐
𝑼𝒎 𝟐𝝅 𝝅
𝑷= ∫ 𝒅∅ ∫ (𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝜽)𝒅𝜽
𝟐 𝟎 𝟎

𝑼𝒎 𝟐𝝅 𝝅
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝜽 𝝅
𝑷= [∅]𝟎 ([𝜽]𝟎 − [ ] )
𝟐 𝟐 𝟎
𝑼𝒎 𝟏
𝑷= (𝟐𝝅 − 𝟎)([𝝅 − 𝟎] − [𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝝅 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 × 𝟎])
𝟐 𝟐
𝑼𝒎
𝑷= (𝟐𝝅)([𝝅] − 𝟎)
𝟐

𝑼𝒎 𝟐
𝑷= 𝟐𝝅
𝟐
𝑷 = 𝝅𝟐 𝑼𝒎 − − − (𝟏)
We know that,
𝑷 = 𝟒𝝅𝑼𝟎 − − − (𝟐)
and from (1)
𝝅𝟐 𝑼𝒎 = 𝟒𝝅𝑼𝟎
𝑼𝒎 𝟒
=
𝑼𝟎 𝝅

𝑼𝒎
∴ 𝑫= = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟕
𝑼𝟎

4. Source with Sine-Squared (Doughnut) Power Pattern

A source has a sine-squared radiation-intensity power pattern. The radiation
intensity pattern is given by U = Um sin2θ. The power pattern is shown in
figure 7a.

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 10

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

Figure 7a: Sine-squared power pattern

Solution:

This type of pattern is produced by a short dipole coincident with the polar axis
(θ = 0) as shown in figure 7a.

Consider,
𝟐𝝅 𝝅
𝑷= ∫ ∫ (𝑼) (𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒅𝜽𝒅∅)
𝟎 𝟎
𝟐𝝅 𝝅
𝑷= ∫ ∫ (𝑼𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽) (𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒅𝜽𝒅∅)
𝟎 𝟎
𝟐𝝅 𝝅
𝑷 = 𝑼𝒎 ∫ 𝒅∅ ∫ 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟑 𝜽𝒅𝜽
𝟎 𝟎
𝟐𝝅 𝝅
𝟑𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟑𝜽
𝑷 = 𝑼𝒎 ∫ 𝒅∅ ∫ ( ) 𝒅𝜽
𝟎 𝟎 𝟒
𝑼𝒎 𝟐𝝅 𝝅
𝑷= ∫ 𝒅∅ ∫ (𝟑𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟑𝜽)𝒅𝜽
𝟒 𝟎 𝟎

𝑼𝒎 𝟐𝝅 𝝅
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟑𝜽 𝝅
𝑷= [∅]𝟎 (𝟑[−𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽]𝟎 − [− ] )
𝟒 𝟑 𝟎

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 11

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

𝑼𝒎 𝟏
𝑷= (𝟐𝝅 − 𝟎)(𝟑[−𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝅 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟎] − [−𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟑𝝅 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟎])
𝟒 𝟑
𝑼𝒎 𝟏
𝑷= (𝟐𝝅)(𝟑[𝟏 + 𝟏] − [𝟏 + 𝟏])
𝟒 𝟑
𝑼𝒎 𝟐
𝑷= (𝟐𝝅)(𝟔 − )
𝟒 𝟑
𝑼𝒎 𝟏𝟔
𝑷= (𝟐𝝅)( )
𝟒 𝟑
𝟖𝝅𝑼𝒎
𝑷= − − − −(𝟏)
𝟑
We know that,
𝑷 = 𝟒𝝅𝑼𝟎 − − − (𝟐)
and from (1)
𝟖𝝅𝑼𝒎
= 𝟒𝝅𝑼𝟎
𝟑
𝑼𝒎 𝟑
=
𝑼𝟎 𝟐

𝑼𝒎
∴ 𝑫= = 𝟏. 𝟓
𝑼𝟎

5. Source with Unidirectional Cosine-Squared Power Pattern

A source with a unidirectional cosine-squared radiation-intensity pattern is
given by U = Um cos2θ. The radiation intensity has a value only in the upper
hemisphere as in figure 7b. The three-dimensional or space pattern is a figure-
of-revolution of this pattern around the polar (θ = 0) axis. Find the directivity.

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 12

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

Figure 7b: unidirectional cosine-squared power pattern.

Solution:

Consider,
𝟐𝝅 𝝅/𝟐
𝑷= ∫ ∫ (𝑼) (𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒅𝜽𝒅∅)
𝟎 𝟎
𝟐𝝅 𝝅/𝟐
𝑷= ∫ ∫ (𝑼𝒎 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝜽) (𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒅𝜽𝒅∅)
𝟎 𝟎
𝟐𝝅 𝝅/𝟐
𝑷 = 𝑼𝒎 ∫ 𝒅∅ ∫ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝜽𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒅𝜽
𝟎 𝟎

Consider the second integral,

𝝅/𝟐
∫ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝜽𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒅𝜽
𝟎

Let 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 = 𝒙
−𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒅𝜽 = 𝒅𝒙
For 𝜽 = 𝟎, 𝒙 = 𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝜽 = 𝝅/𝟐, 𝒙 = 𝟎
𝟎
∴ ∫ 𝒙𝟐 (−𝒅𝒙)
𝟏

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 13

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

𝟏 𝟏
𝟐 (𝒅𝒙)
𝒙𝟑 𝟏 𝟏
=∫ 𝒙 = [ ] = (𝟏 − 𝟎) =
𝟎 𝟑 𝟎 𝟑 𝟑
𝟐𝝅
𝟏
𝑷 = 𝑼𝒎 ∫ 𝒅∅ ( )
𝟎 𝟑
𝟏
𝑷 = 𝑼𝒎 [∅]𝟐𝝅
𝟎 ( )
𝟑
𝟏
𝑷 = 𝑼𝒎 (𝟐𝝅 − 𝟎) ( )
𝟑
𝟐𝝅𝑼𝒎
𝑷= − − − (𝟏)
𝟑
We know that,
𝑷 = 𝟒𝝅𝑼𝟎 − − − (𝟐)
and from (1)
𝟐𝝅𝑼𝒎
= 𝟒𝝅𝑼𝟎
𝟑
𝑼𝒎
= 𝟔
𝑼𝟎

𝑼𝒎
∴ 𝑫= = 𝟔
𝑼𝟎

Thus, the maximum power per unit solid angle (at θ = 0) from the source with the
cosine-squared power pattern is six times the power per unit solid angle from an
isotropic source radiating the same power.
Directivities are summarized in Table 1.
Pattern Directivity
Unidirectional cosine 4
Bidirectional cosine 2
Sine doughnut 1.27
Sine-squared doughnut 1.5
Unidirectional cosine squared 6

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 14

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

Problems
1. Source with Unidirectional (Cosine)n Power Pattern
A source with a unidirectional cosine-squared radiation-intensity pattern is given
by U = Um cosnθ. Find the directivity.
𝟐𝝅 𝝅/𝟐
𝑷= ∫ ∫ (𝑼) (𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒅𝜽𝒅∅)
𝟎 𝟎
𝟐𝝅 𝝅/𝟐
𝑷= ∫ ∫ (𝑼𝒎 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏 𝜽) (𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒅𝜽𝒅∅)
𝟎 𝟎
𝟐𝝅 𝝅/𝟐
𝑷 = 𝑼𝒎 ∫ 𝒅∅ ∫ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏 𝜽𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒅𝜽
𝟎 𝟎

Consider the second integral,

𝝅/𝟐
∫ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏 𝜽𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒅𝜽
𝟎

Let 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 = 𝒙
−𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒅𝜽 = 𝒅𝒙
For 𝜽 = 𝟎, 𝒙 = 𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝜽 = 𝝅/𝟐, 𝒙 = 𝟎
𝟎
∴ ∫ 𝒙𝒏 (−𝒅𝒙)
𝟏

𝟏 𝟏
𝒏 (𝒅𝒙)
𝒙𝒏+𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
=∫ 𝒙 =[ ] = (𝟏 − 𝟎) =
𝟎 𝒏+𝟏 𝟎 𝒏+𝟏 𝒏+𝟏
𝟐𝝅
𝟏
𝑷 = 𝑼𝒎 ∫ 𝒅∅ ( )
𝟎 𝒏+𝟏
𝟏
𝑷 = 𝑼𝒎 [∅]𝟐𝝅
𝟎 ( )
𝒏+𝟏
𝟏
𝑷 = 𝑼𝒎 (𝟐𝝅 − 𝟎) ( )
𝒏+𝟏
Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 15
 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

𝟐𝝅𝑼𝒎
𝑷= − − − (𝟏)
𝒏+𝟏
We know that,
𝑷 = 𝟒𝝅𝑼𝟎 − − − (𝟐)
and from (1)
𝟐𝝅𝑼𝒎
= 𝟒𝝅𝑼𝟎
𝒏+𝟏
𝑼𝒎
= 𝟐(𝒏 + 𝟏)
𝑼𝟎

𝑼𝒎
∴ 𝑫=
= 𝟐(𝒏 + 𝟏)
𝑼𝟎
2. Find the exact and approximate directivity for the given pattern
(i) 𝑼 = 𝑼𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝝓𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝟎<𝜽<𝝅 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟎 < 𝝓 < 𝝅
Solution:
𝝅 𝝅
𝑷= ∫ ∫ (𝑼) (𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒅𝜽𝒅∅)
𝟎 𝟎
𝝅 𝝅
𝑷= ∫ ∫ (𝑼𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝝓𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽) (𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒅𝜽𝒅∅)
𝟎 𝟎
𝝅 𝝅
𝑷 = 𝑼𝒎 ∫ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝓𝒅∅ ∫ 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽𝒅𝜽𝟐
𝟎 𝟎
𝝅 𝝅
𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝝓 𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝜽
𝑷 = 𝑼𝒎 ∫ ( ) 𝒅∅ ∫ ( ) 𝒅𝜽
𝟎 𝟐 𝟎 𝟐
𝑼𝒎 𝝅 𝝅
𝑷= ∫ (𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝝓)𝒅∅ ∫ (𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝜽)𝒅𝜽
𝟒 𝟎 𝟎

𝑼𝒎 𝝅
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝝓 𝝅 𝝅
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝜽 𝝅
𝑷= ([𝝓]𝟎 − [ ] ) ([𝜽]𝟎 − [ ] )
𝟒 𝟐 𝟎 𝟐 𝟎
𝑼𝒎 𝟏 𝟏
𝑷= ([𝝅 − 𝟎] − [𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝝅 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 × 𝟎])([𝝅 − 𝟎] − [𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝝅 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 × 𝟎])
𝟒 𝟐 𝟐

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 16

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

𝑼𝒎
𝑷= ([𝝅] − 𝟎)([𝝅] − 𝟎)
𝟒

𝑼𝒎 𝟐
𝑷= 𝝅
𝟒
𝝅𝟐 𝑼𝒎
𝑷= − − − (𝟏)
𝟒
We know that,
𝑷 = 𝟒𝝅𝑼𝟎 − − − (𝟐)
and from (1)
𝝅𝟐 𝑼𝒎
= 𝟒𝝅𝑼𝟎
𝟒
𝑼𝒎 𝟏𝟔
=
𝑼𝟎 𝝅
Therefore, the exact directivity is
𝑼𝒎
= 𝟓. 𝟎𝟗 𝑫=
𝑼𝟎
Solution for approximate directivity is as follows:

For θ plane
𝑼𝒎
𝑼=
𝟐
𝑼𝒎
𝒊. 𝒆. 𝑼𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 =
𝟐
𝟏
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 =
𝟐
𝟏
𝜽 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏
𝟐
𝜽 = 𝟑𝟎°
𝜽𝑯𝑷 = 𝟐(𝟗𝟎° − 𝟑𝟎°)
𝜽𝑯𝑷 = 𝟐(𝟔𝟎°)
𝜽𝑯𝑷 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎°

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 17

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

Similarly
For ϕ plane
𝑼𝒎
𝑼=
𝟐
𝑼𝒎
𝒊. 𝒆. 𝑼𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝝓 =
𝟐
𝟏
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝝓 =
𝟐
𝟏
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝓 =
√𝟐
−𝟏
𝟏
𝝓 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏
√𝟐
𝝓 = 𝟒𝟓°
𝝓𝑯𝑷 = 𝟐(𝟗𝟎° − 𝟒𝟓°)
𝝓𝑯𝑷 = 𝟐(𝟒𝟓°)
𝝓𝑯𝑷 = 𝟗𝟎°
We know that,
𝟒𝟏𝟐𝟓𝟑∎
𝑫≅
𝜽𝑯𝑷 𝝓𝑯𝑷

𝟒𝟏𝟐𝟓𝟑∎
≅
(𝟏𝟐𝟎°)(𝟗𝟎°)
𝑫 ≅ 𝟑. 𝟖𝟏

(ii) 𝑼 = 𝑼𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝝓𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽 𝟎<𝜽<𝝅 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟎 < 𝝓 < 𝝅

Solution:
𝝅 𝝅
𝑷= ∫ ∫ (𝑼) (𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒅𝜽𝒅∅)
𝟎 𝟎

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 18

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

𝝅 𝝅
𝑷= ∫ ∫ (𝑼𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝝓𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽) (𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒅𝜽𝒅∅)
𝟎 𝟎
𝝅 𝝅
𝑷 = 𝑼𝒎 ∫ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝓𝒅∅ ∫ 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟑 𝜽𝒅𝜽
𝟐
𝟎 𝟎
𝝅 𝝅
𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝝓 𝟑𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟑𝜽
𝑷 = 𝑼𝒎 ∫ ( ) 𝒅∅ ∫ ( ) 𝒅𝜽
𝟎 𝟐 𝟎 𝟒

𝑼𝒎 𝝅 𝝅
𝑷= ∫ (𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝝓)𝒅∅ ∫ (𝟑𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟑𝜽)𝒅𝜽
𝟖 𝟎 𝟎

𝑼𝒎 𝝅
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝝓 𝝅 𝝅
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟑𝜽 𝝅
𝑷= ([𝝓]𝟎 − [ ] ) (𝟑[−𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽]𝟎 − [− ] )
𝟖 𝟐 𝟎 𝟑 𝟎

𝑼𝒎 𝟏
𝑷= ([𝝅 − 𝟎] − [𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝝅 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 × 𝟎])(𝟑[−𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝅 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟎]
𝟖 𝟐
𝟏
− [−𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟑𝝅 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟎])
𝟑

𝑼𝒎 𝟏
𝑷= (𝝅 − 𝟎) (𝟑[𝟏 + 𝟏] − [𝟏 + 𝟏])
𝟖 𝟑
𝑼𝒎 𝟐
𝑷= (𝝅) (𝟔 − )
𝟖 𝟑
𝑼𝒎 𝟏𝟔
𝑷= (𝝅) ( )
𝟖 𝟑
𝟐𝝅𝑼𝒎
𝑷= − − − (𝟏)
𝟑
We know that,
𝑷 = 𝟒𝝅𝑼𝟎 − − − (𝟐)
and from (1)

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 19

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

𝟐𝝅𝑼𝒎
= 𝟒𝝅𝑼𝟎
𝟑
𝑼𝒎
= 𝟔
𝑼𝟎
Therefore, the exact directivity is
𝑼𝒎
= 𝟔 𝑫=
𝑼𝟎
Solution for approximate directivity is as follows:

For θ plane
𝑼𝒎
𝑼=
𝟐
𝑼𝒎
𝒊. 𝒆. 𝑼𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽 =
𝟐
𝟏
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽 =
𝟐
𝟏
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 =
√𝟐
−𝟏
𝟏
𝜽 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏
√𝟐
𝜽 = 𝟒𝟓°
𝜽𝑯𝑷 = 𝟐(𝟗𝟎° − 𝟒𝟓°)
𝜽𝑯𝑷 = 𝟐(𝟒𝟓°)
𝜽𝑯𝑷 = 𝟗𝟎°
Similarly
For ϕ plane
𝑼𝒎
𝑼=
𝟐
𝑼𝒎
𝒊. 𝒆. 𝑼𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝝓 =
𝟐
𝟏
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝝓 =
𝟐

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 20

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

𝟏
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝓 =
√𝟐
−𝟏
𝟏
𝝓 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏
√𝟐
𝝓 = 𝟒𝟓°
𝝓𝑯𝑷 = 𝟐(𝟗𝟎° − 𝟒𝟓°)
𝝓𝑯𝑷 = 𝟐(𝟒𝟓°)
𝝓𝑯𝑷 = 𝟗𝟎°
We know that,
𝟒𝟏𝟐𝟓𝟑∎
𝑫≅
𝜽𝑯𝑷 𝝓𝑯𝑷

𝟒𝟏𝟐𝟓𝟑∎
≅
(𝟗𝟎°)(𝟗𝟎°)
𝑫 ≅ 𝟓. 𝟎𝟗
(ii) 𝑼 = 𝑼𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟑 𝝓𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽 𝟎<𝜽<𝝅 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟎 < 𝝓 < 𝝅

𝝅 𝝅
𝑷= ∫ ∫ (𝑼) (𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒅𝜽𝒅∅)
𝟎 𝟎
𝝅 𝝅
𝑷= ∫ ∫ (𝑼𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟑 𝝓𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽) (𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒅𝜽𝒅∅)
𝟎 𝟎
𝝅 𝝅
𝑷 = 𝑼𝒎 ∫ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝓𝒅𝝓 ∫ 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟑 𝜽𝒅𝜽 𝟑
𝟎 𝟎

We know that
𝝅
𝟒
∫ 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟑 𝝓𝒅𝝓 =
𝟎 𝟑
and

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 21

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

𝝅
𝟒
∫ 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟑 𝜽𝒅𝜽 =
𝟎 𝟑
𝟒 𝟒
𝑷 = 𝑼𝒎 ( ) ( )
𝟑 𝟑

𝟏𝟔𝑼𝒎
𝑷= − − − −(𝟏)
𝟗

We know that,
𝑷 = 𝟒𝝅𝑼𝟎 − − − (𝟐)
and from (1)
𝟏𝟔𝑼𝒎
= 𝟒𝝅𝑼𝟎
𝟗
𝑼𝒎
= 𝟕. 𝟎𝟔
𝑼𝟎
Therefore, the exact directivity is
𝑼𝒎
= 𝟕. 𝟎𝟔 𝑫=
𝑼𝟎
Solution for approximate directivity is as follows:

For θ plane
𝑼𝒎
𝑼=
𝟐
𝑼𝒎
𝒊. 𝒆. 𝑼𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽 =
𝟐
𝟏
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽 =
𝟐
𝟏
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 =
√𝟐
−𝟏
𝟏
𝜽 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏
√𝟐
𝜽 = 𝟒𝟓°
Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 22
 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

𝜽𝑯𝑷 = 𝟐(𝟗𝟎° − 𝟒𝟓°)

𝜽𝑯𝑷 = 𝟐(𝟒𝟓°)
𝜽𝑯𝑷 = 𝟗𝟎°
Similarly
For ϕ plane
𝑼𝒎
𝑼=
𝟐
𝑼𝒎
𝒊. 𝒆. 𝑼𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟑 𝝓 =
𝟐
𝟏
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟑 𝝓 =
𝟐
𝟏
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝓 = 𝟑
√𝟐
−𝟏
𝟏
𝝓 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟑
√𝟐
𝝓 = 𝟓𝟐. 𝟓𝟑°
𝝓𝑯𝑷 = 𝟐(𝟗𝟎° − 𝟓𝟐. 𝟓𝟑°)
𝝓𝑯𝑷 = 𝟐(𝟑𝟕. 𝟒𝟔°)
𝝓𝑯𝑷 = 𝟕𝟒. 𝟗𝟑°
We know that,
𝟒𝟏𝟐𝟓𝟑∎
𝑫≅
𝜽𝑯𝑷 𝝓𝑯𝑷

𝟒𝟏𝟐𝟓𝟑∎
≅
(𝟗𝟎°)(𝟕𝟒. 𝟗𝟑°)
𝑫 ≅ 𝟔. 𝟏𝟏

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 23

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

Arrays of Two Isotropic Point Sources

Case 1. Two Isotropic Point Sources of Same Amplitude and Phase
Consider two isotropic point sources having equal amplitudes and oscillating in the
same phase. Let the two point sources, 1 and 2, be separated by a distance d and
located symmetrically with respect to the origin of the coordinates as shown in
figure 9a.

Figure 9 (a) Relation to coordinate system of two isotropic point sources separated
by a distance d. (b) Vector addition of the fields from two isotropic point sources
of equal amplitude and same phase located as in (a).

The angle ϕ is measured counterclockwise from the positive x axis. The origin of
the coordinates is taken as the reference for phase. Then at a distant point in the
direction ϕ the field from source 1 is retarded by 𝟏/𝟐 𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅, while the field from
source 2 is advanced by 𝟏/𝟐 𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅, where dr is the distance between the sources
expressed in radians; that is
𝟐𝝅𝒅
𝒅𝒓 = = 𝜷𝒅 − − − (𝟏)
𝝀

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 24

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

The total field at a large distance r in the direction ϕ is then

𝑬 = 𝑬𝟎 𝒆−𝒋𝝍/𝟐 + 𝑬𝟎 𝒆+𝒋𝝍/𝟐 − − − −(𝟐)
where 𝝍 = 𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅ and the amplitude of the field components at the distance r is
given by E0.
The first term in (2) is the component of the field due to source 1 and the second
term the component due to source 2. Equation (2) may be rewritten as
𝑬 = 𝑬𝟎 (𝒆−𝒋𝝍/𝟐 + 𝒆+𝒋𝝍/𝟐 )
𝒆−𝒋𝝍/𝟐 + 𝒆+𝒋𝝍/𝟐
𝑬 = 𝟐𝑬𝟎
𝟐

𝝍
𝑬 = 𝟐𝑬𝟎 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( )
𝟐
𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅
𝑬 = 𝟐𝑬𝟎 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( ) − − − (𝟑)
𝟐
This result may also be obtained with the aid of the vector diagram1 shown in
figure 9b.
To normalize (3), set 2E0 = 1. Let d=λ/2 then
𝟐𝝅𝒅
𝒅𝒓 =
𝝀
𝟐𝝅(𝝀/𝟐)
𝒅𝒓 =
𝝀
𝒅𝒓 = 𝝅
𝝅𝒄𝒐𝒔∅
𝑬 = 𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( )
𝟐
𝝅
𝑬 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅) − − − (𝟒)
𝟐
E is maximum when
𝝅
𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅𝒎𝒂𝒙 ) = ±𝟏
𝟐

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 25

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

𝝅
( 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅𝒎𝒂𝒙 ) = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (±𝟏)
𝟐
𝝅
( 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅𝒎𝒂𝒙 ) = ±𝒌𝝅
𝟐
Where k=0, 1, 2, …
For k=0,
𝒄𝒐𝒔∅𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟎
∅𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (𝟎)
∅𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟗𝟎° 𝒐𝒓 𝟐𝟕𝟎°
For k >0 the main lobe does not exist. k=1, 2… are considered as side lobes.
E is minimum when,
𝝅
𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅𝒎𝒊𝒏 ) = 𝟎
𝟐
𝝅
( 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅𝒎𝒊𝒏 ) = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (𝟎)
𝟐
𝝅 𝝅
( 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅𝒎𝒊𝒏 ) = ±(𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏)
𝟐 𝟐

Where k=0, 1, 2, …
𝝅 𝝅
𝒄𝒐𝒔∅𝒎𝒊𝒏 = ±(𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏)
𝟐 𝟐
𝒄𝒐𝒔∅𝒎𝒊𝒏 = ±(𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏)
For k=0,
𝒄𝒐𝒔∅𝒎𝒊𝒏 = ±𝟏
∅𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (±𝟏)
∅𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟎° 𝒐𝒓 𝟏𝟖𝟎°
HPBW: At half power 𝐸 = 1/√2
𝝅
𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅𝑯𝑷𝑩𝑾 ) = ±𝟏/√𝟐
𝟐

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 26

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

𝝅
( 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅𝑯𝑷𝑩𝑾 ) = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (±𝟏/√𝟐)
𝟐
𝝅 𝝅
( 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅𝑯𝑷𝑩𝑾 ) = ±(𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏)
𝟐 𝟒
𝟏
(𝒄𝒐𝒔∅𝑯𝑷𝑩𝑾 ) = ±(𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏)
𝟐
𝟏
∅𝑯𝑷𝑩𝑾 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (± )
𝟐
∅𝑯𝑷𝑩𝑾 = ±𝟔𝟎° 𝒐𝒓 ±𝟏𝟐𝟎°
The field pattern of E versus ϕ as expressed by (4) is presented in figure 12c.

Figure 9: (c) Field pattern of two isotropic point sources of equal amplitude and
same phase located as in (a) for the case where the separation d = λ/2

The pattern is a bidirectional figure-of-eight with maxima along the y axis. The
space pattern is doughnut-shaped.

Case 2. Two Isotropic Point Sources of Same Amplitude but Opposite Phase
In this case the two sources are in opposite phase instead of in the same phase. Let
the sources be located as in figure 10.
Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 27
 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

Figure 10: Relation to coordinate system of two isotropic point sources separated
by a distance d.
Then the total field in the direction ϕ at a large distance r is given by
𝒋𝝍 𝒋𝝍
𝑬 = 𝑬𝟎 𝒆+ 𝟐 − 𝑬𝟎 𝒆− 𝟐 − − − −(𝟏)
𝒋𝝍 𝒋𝝍
𝑬 = 𝑬𝟎 (𝒆+ 𝟐 − 𝒆− 𝟐)

𝒋𝝍 𝒋𝝍
𝒆+ 𝟐 − 𝒆− 𝟐
𝑬 = 𝟐𝒋𝑬𝟎 ( )
𝟐𝒋

𝝍
𝑬 = 𝟐𝒋𝑬𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( )
𝟐
𝒅𝒓
𝑬 = 𝟐𝒋𝑬𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅) − −(𝟐)
𝟐
Equation (2) also includes an operator j, indicating that the phase reversal of one of
the sources in Case 2 results in a 90◦ phase shift of the total field as compared with
the total field for Case 1. Thus, putting 2jE0 = 1 and considering the special case of
d = λ/2,

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 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

𝟐𝝅𝒅
𝒅𝒓 =
𝝀
𝟐𝝅(𝝀/𝟐)
𝒅𝒓 =
𝝀
𝒅𝒓 = 𝝅
𝝅𝒄𝒐𝒔∅
𝑬 = 𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( )
𝟐
𝝅
𝑬 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅) − − − −(𝟑)
𝟐
The directions ϕm of maximum field are obtained by setting the argument of (3)
equal to ± (2k + 1) π/2. Thus,
𝝅
𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅) = ±𝟏
𝟐
𝝅
( 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (±𝟏)
𝟐
𝝅 𝝅
𝒄𝒐𝒔∅𝒎𝒂𝒙 = ± (𝟐𝐤 + 𝟏)
𝟐 𝟐
𝒄𝒐𝒔∅𝒎𝒂𝒙 = ± (𝟐𝐤 + 𝟏) − − − (𝟒)
where k = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .. For k = 0, cos ϕm = ±1 and ϕm = 0◦ and 180◦.
The null directions ϕ0 are given by

𝝅
𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅) = 𝟎
𝟐
𝝅
( 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (𝟎)
𝟐
𝝅
𝒄𝒐𝒔∅𝟎 = ± 𝐤 𝛑
𝟐
𝒄𝒐𝒔∅𝟎 = ± 𝟐𝐤 − − − − (𝟓)
For k = 0, ϕ0 = ±90◦
The half-power directions are given by
Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 29
 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

𝝅 𝝅
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 = ± (𝟐𝐤 + 𝟏)
𝟐 𝟒
(𝟐𝐤 + 𝟏)
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓𝑯𝑷𝑩𝑾 = ± − − − (𝟔)
𝟐
For k = 0, ϕ = ±60◦, ±120◦.
The field pattern given by (11) is shown in figure 12. The pattern is a relatively
broad figure-of-eight with the maximum field in the same direction as the line
joining the sources (x axis). The two sources, in this case, may be described as a
simple type of “end-fire” array.

Figure 12: Relative field pattern for two isotropic point sources of the same
amplitude but opposite phase, spaced λ/2 apart.

Case 3. Two Isotropic Point Sources of the Same Amplitude and In-Phase
Quadrature
Let the two point sources be located as in figure 13.

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 30

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

Figure 13: Relation to coordinate system of two isotropic point sources separated
by a distance d.
Taking the origin of the coordinates as the reference for phase, let source 1 be
retarded by 45◦ and source 2 advanced by 45◦. Then the total field in the direction φ
at a large distance r is given by
𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅ 𝝅 𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅ 𝝅
+ 𝒋( 𝒓 𝟐 + 𝟒) −𝒋( 𝒓 𝟐 + 𝟒)
𝑬 = 𝑬𝟎 𝒆 + 𝑬𝟎 𝒆 − − − (𝟏)
𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅ 𝝅 𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅ 𝝅
+ 𝒋( 𝒓 𝟐 + 𝟒) −𝒋( 𝒓 𝟐 + 𝟒)
𝑬 = 𝑬𝟎 (𝒆 +𝒆 )

𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅ 𝝅 𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅ 𝝅
+ 𝒋( 𝒓 𝟐 + 𝟒) −𝒋( 𝒓 𝟐 + 𝟒)
𝒆 +𝒆
𝑬 = 𝟐𝑬𝟎 ( )
𝟐

𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅ 𝝅
𝑬 = 𝟐𝑬𝟎 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( + ) − − − (𝟐)
𝟐 𝟒
Let 𝟐𝑬𝟎 = 𝟏 and d = λ/2,

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 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

𝟐𝝅𝒅
𝒅𝒓 =
𝝀
𝟐𝝅(𝝀/𝟐)
𝒅𝒓 =
𝝀
𝒅𝒓 = 𝝅
𝝅 𝝅
𝑬 = 𝟏𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅ + )
𝟐 𝟒
𝝅 𝝅
𝑬 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅ + ) − − − (𝟐)
𝟐 𝟒
The directions ϕm of maximum field are obtained by setting the argument of (3)
equal to kπ. Thus,
𝝅 𝝅
𝒄𝒐𝒔∅𝒎𝒂𝒙 + = ±𝐤𝛑
𝟐 𝟒
For k = 0,
𝝅 𝝅
𝒄𝒐𝒔∅𝒎𝒂𝒙 + = 𝟎
𝟐 𝟒
𝝅 𝝅
𝒄𝒐𝒔∅𝒎𝒂𝒙 = −
𝟐 𝟒
𝟏
𝒄𝒐𝒔∅𝒎𝒂𝒙 = − − − − −(𝟑)
𝟐
And ϕm = 120◦ and 240◦

The field pattern given by (2) is presented in figure 14.

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 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

Figure 14: Relative field pattern of two isotropic point sources of the same
amplitude and in phase quadrature for a spacing of λ/2. The source to the right
leads that to the left by 90◦.

Case 4. General Case of Two Isotropic Point Sources of Equal Amplitude and
Any Phase Difference
let us consider the case of two isotropic point sources of equal amplitude but of any
phase difference δ. The total phase difference ψ between the fields from source 2
and source 1 at a distant point in the direction ϕ (as in figure 15) is then
𝝍 = 𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 + 𝜹 − − − (𝟏)
Taking source 1 as the reference for phase, the positive sign in (19) indicates that
source 2 is advanced in phase by the angle δ. A minus sign would be used to
indicate a phase retardation. If, instead of referring the phase to source 1, it is
referred to the center point of the array, the phase of the field from source 1 at a

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 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

distant point is given by −ψ/2 and that from source 2 by +ψ/2. The total field is
then
𝒋𝝍 𝒋𝝍
𝑬 = 𝑬𝟎 𝒆+ 𝟐 + 𝑬𝟎 𝒆− 𝟐

𝝍
𝑬 = 𝟐𝑬𝟎 𝒄𝒐𝒔 − − − (𝟐)
𝟐
Let 2𝐸0 = 1,
𝝍
𝑬 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 − − − (𝟑)
𝟐

Figure 15: Two isotropic point sources with the origin of the coordinate system
coincident with one of the sources

Case 5. Most General Case of Two Isotropic Point Sources of Unequal

Amplitude and Any Phase Difference

A still more general situation, involving two isotropic point sources, exists when
the amplitudes are unequal and the phase difference is arbitrary. Let the sources be
situated as in figure 16a with source 1 at the origin. Assume that the source 1 has
the larger amplitude and that its field at a large distance r has an amplitude of E0.

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 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

Let the field from source 2 be of amplitude aE0 (0 ≤ a ≤ 1) at the distance r. Then,
referring to figure 16b, the magnitude and phase angle of the total field E is given
by

𝑬 = 𝑬𝟎 √(𝟏 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝍)𝟐 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝝍 ∠[𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝍/(𝟏 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝍)] − − − (𝟏)

where 𝝍 = 𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 + 𝜹 and the phase angle (∠ ) is referred to source 1. This

is the phase angle ξ shown in figure 16b.

Figure 16: (a) Two isotropic point sources of unequal amplitude and arbitrary
phase with respect to the coordinate system. (b) Vector addition of fields from
unequal sources arranged as in (a). The amplitude of source 2 is assumed to be
smaller than that of source 1 by the factor a.

Nonisotropic but Similar Point Sources and the Principle of Pattern

Multiplication
Consider two nonisotropic sources but similar point sources as shown in figure 17.
The field pattern is given by
𝑬𝟎 = 𝑬𝟎 ′ 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝓 − − − (𝟏)

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 35

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

Figure 17: Two nonisotropic sources with respect to the coordinate system.

Consider the Case 4: General case of two isotropic point sources of equal
amplitude and any phase difference, where the field pattern is given by
𝝍
𝑬 = 𝟐𝑬𝟎 𝒄𝒐𝒔 − − − (𝟐)
𝟐
From (1)
𝝍
𝑬 = 𝟐𝑬𝟎 ′ 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝓𝒄𝒐𝒔
𝟐
Let 2𝐸0 ′ = 1,
𝝍
𝑬 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝓𝒄𝒐𝒔 − − − (𝟑)
𝟐
where 𝝍 = 𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 + 𝜹
This result is the same as obtained by multiplying the pattern of the individual
source (sin ϕ) by the pattern of two isotropic point sources (cos ψ/2).

Therefore, principle of pattern multiplication, which may be expressed as follows:

The field pattern of an array of nonisotropic but similar point sources is the
product of the pattern of the individual source and the pattern of an array of
isotropic point sources having the same locations, relative amplitudes, and phase
as the nonisotropic point sources.

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 36

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

This principle may be applied to arrays of any number of sources provided only
that they are similar. The individual nonisotropic source or antenna may be of
finite size but can be considered as a point source situated at the point in the
antenna to which phase is referred. This point is said to be the “phase center.”

If the field of the nonisotropic source and the array of isotropic sources vary in
phase with space angle, i.e., have a phase pattern which is not a constant, the
statement of the principle of pattern multiplication may be extended to include this
more general case as follows:
The total field pattern of an array of nonisotropic but similar sources is the
product of the individual source pattern and the pattern of an array of isotropic
point sources each located at the phase center of the individual source and
having the same relative amplitude and phase, while the total phase pattern is
the sum of the phase patterns of the individual source and the array of isotropic
point sources.
The total phase pattern is referred to the phase center of the array. In symbols, the
total field E is then
𝑬=⏟
𝒇(𝜽, 𝝓)𝑭(𝜽, 𝝓) ∠[𝒇(𝜽,
⏟ 𝝓) + 𝑭𝒑 (𝜽, 𝝓)] − − − (𝟒)
𝑭𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏 𝑷𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏

where
f (θ, ϕ) = field pattern of individual source
fp (θ, ϕ) = phase pattern of individual source
F (θ, ϕ) = field pattern of array of isotropic sources
Fp (θ, ϕ) = phase pattern of array of isotropic sources
Example of pattern multiplication

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 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

1. Two nonisotropic but identical point sources of the same amplitude and
phase, spaced λ/2 apart and with individual source patterns given by
𝑬𝟎 = 𝑬𝟎 ′ 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝓

Consider two identical point sources separated by a distance d, each source having
the field pattern given by
𝑬𝟎 = 𝑬𝟎 ′ 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝓 − − − −(𝟏)
Patterns of this type might be produced by short dipoles oriented parallel to the x
axis as suggested by figure 17.
Let d = λ/2 and the phase angle δ = 0.
We know that,
𝝍 = 𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 + 𝜹

𝝍 = 𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 + 𝟎
𝝍 = 𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓
And
𝟐𝝅𝒅
𝒅𝒓 =
𝝀
𝟐𝝅(𝝀/𝟐)
𝒅𝒓 =
𝝀
𝒅𝒓 = 𝝅
We know that

𝝍
𝑬 = 𝟐𝑬𝟎 𝒄𝒐𝒔 − − − (𝟐)
𝟐
From (1)
𝝍
𝑬 = 𝟐𝑬𝟎 ′ 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝓𝒄𝒐𝒔
𝟐

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 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

Let 𝟐𝑬𝟎 ′ = 𝟏
𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓
𝑬 = 𝟏𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝓𝒄𝒐𝒔
𝟐
Then the total field pattern is
𝝅
𝑬 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝓𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓) − − − (𝟐)
𝟐
This pattern is illustrated in figure 18c as the product of the individual source
pattern (sin ϕ) shown at (a) and the array pattern {cos[(π/2) cos ϕ]} as shown at (b).

Figure 18: (a) The individual source has the pattern (b) pattern of an array of two
isotropic point sources (of the same amplitude and phase) (c) the total array pattern

2. Two nonisotropic but identical point sources of the same amplitude and
phase, spaced λ/2 apart and with individual source patterns given by
𝑬𝟎 = 𝑬𝟎 ′ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 39

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

Consider two identical point sources separated by a distance d, each source having
the field pattern given by
𝑬𝟎 = 𝑬𝟎 ′ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 − − − −(𝟏)
Patterns of this type might be produced by short dipoles oriented parallel to the y
axis as suggested by figure 19.

Figure 19: Array of two nonisotropic sources with respect to the coordinate
system
Let d = λ/2 and the phase angle δ = 0.
We know that,
𝝍 = 𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 + 𝜹

𝝍 = 𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 + 𝟎
𝝍 = 𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓
And
𝟐𝝅𝒅
𝒅𝒓 =
𝝀
𝟐𝝅(𝝀/𝟐)
𝒅𝒓 =
𝝀
𝒅𝒓 = 𝝅

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 40

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

We know that
𝝍
𝑬 = 𝟐𝑬𝟎 𝒄𝒐𝒔 − − − (𝟐)
𝟐
From (1)
𝝍
𝑬 = 𝟐𝑬𝟎 ′ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓𝒄𝒐𝒔
𝟐
Let 𝟐𝑬𝟎 ′ = 𝟏
𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓
𝑬 = 𝟏𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓𝒄𝒐𝒔
𝟐
Then the total field pattern is
𝝅
𝑬 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓) − − − (𝟐)
𝟐
This pattern is illustrated in figure 19c as the product of the individual source
pattern (cosϕ) shown at (a) and the array pattern {cos[(π/2) cos ϕ]} as shown at (b).

Figure 19: (a) The individual source has the pattern (b) pattern of an array of two
isotropic point sources (of the same amplitude and phase) (c) the total array pattern

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 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

Linear Arrays of n Isotropic Point Sources of Equal Amplitude and

Spacing

Consider the case of n isotropic point sources of equal amplitude and spacing
arranged as a linear array, as indicated in figure 20, where n is any positive integer.
The total field E at a large distance in the direction ϕ is given by
𝑬 = 𝟏 + 𝒆𝒋𝝍 + 𝒆𝒋𝟐𝝍 + 𝒆𝒋𝟑𝝍 + … … … … . + 𝒆𝒋(𝒏−𝟏)𝝍 − − − (𝟏)
where ψ is the total phase difference of the fields from adjacent sources as given by
𝝍 = 𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 + 𝜹 − − − (𝟐)
𝟐𝝅𝒅
𝝍 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 + 𝜹 − − − (𝟑)
𝝀
where δ is the phase difference of adjacent sources, i.e., source 2 with respect to 1,
3 with respect to 2, etc.

Figure 20: Arrangement of linear array of n isotropic point sources.

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 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

Figure 21: (a) Vector addition of fields at a large distance from the linear array of
five isotropic point sources of equal amplitude with source 1 as the phase center
(reference for phase). (b) Same, but with midpoint of array (source 3) as phase
center.

The amplitudes of the fields from the sources are all equal and taken as unity.
Source 1 (Figure 21) is the phase reference. Thus, at a distant point in the direction
ϕ the field from source 2 is advanced in phase with respect to source 1 by ψ, the
field from source 3 is advanced in phase with respect to source 1 by 2ψ, etc.
Equation (1) is a geometric series. Each term represents a phasor, and the
amplitude of the total field E and its phase angle ξ can be obtained by phasor
(vector) addition as in figure 21.
Multiply (1) by ejψ,

𝑬𝒆𝒋𝝍 = 𝒆𝒋𝝍 (𝟏 + 𝒆𝒋𝝍 + 𝒆𝒋𝟐𝝍 + 𝒆𝒋𝟑𝝍 + … … … … . + 𝒆𝒋(𝒏−𝟏)𝝍 )

𝑬𝒆𝒋𝝍 = 𝒆𝒋𝝍 + 𝒆𝒋𝟐𝝍 + 𝒆𝒋𝟑𝝍 + … … … … . + 𝒆𝒋𝒏𝝍 − − − (𝟒)
Now subtract (4) from (1)

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 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

𝑬 − 𝑬𝒆𝒋𝝍 = (𝟏 + 𝒆𝒋𝝍 + 𝒆𝒋𝟐𝝍 + 𝒆𝒋𝟑𝝍 + … … … … . + 𝒆𝒋(𝒏−𝟏)𝝍 )

− (𝒆𝒋𝝍 + 𝒆𝒋𝟐𝝍 + 𝒆𝒋𝟑𝝍 + … … … … . + 𝒆𝒋𝒏𝝍 )
𝑬(𝟏 − 𝒆𝒋𝝍 ) = 𝟏 − 𝒆𝒋𝒏𝝍
𝟏 − 𝒆𝒋𝒏𝝍
𝑬= − − − −(𝟓)
𝟏 − 𝒆𝒋𝝍

𝒆𝒋𝒏𝝍/𝟐 𝒆𝒋𝒏𝝍/𝟐 − 𝒆−𝒋𝒏𝝍/𝟐

𝑬 = 𝒋𝝍/𝟐 ( 𝒋𝝍/𝟐 )
𝒆 𝒆 − 𝒆−𝒋𝝍/𝟐
𝒆𝒋𝒏𝝍/𝟐 − 𝒆−𝒋𝒏𝝍/𝟐
𝟐𝒋 [ ]
𝒋𝝃 𝟐𝒋
𝑬=𝒆 ( )
𝒆𝒋𝝍/𝟐 − 𝒆−𝒋𝝍/𝟐
𝟐𝒋 [ ]
𝟐𝒋

𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒏𝝍/𝟐)
𝑬 = 𝒆𝒋𝝃
𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝍/𝟐)
𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒏𝝍/𝟐)
𝑬= ∠𝝃 − − − (𝟔)
𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝍/𝟐)
where ξ is referred to the field from source 1. The value of ξ is given by
𝒏−𝟏
𝝃= 𝝍 − − − (𝟕)
𝟐
If the phase is referred to the center point of the array, (6) becomes
𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒏𝝍/𝟐)
𝑬= − − − (𝟖)
𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝍/𝟐)
In this case the phase pattern is a step function as given by the sign of (8). The
phase of the field is constant wherever E has a value but changes sign when E goes
through zero. When ψ = 0, (6) or (8) is indeterminate so that for this case E must
be obtained as the limit of (8) as ψ approaches zero. Thus, for ψ = 0 we have the
relation that

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 44

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

𝑬=𝒏 − − − (𝟗)
This is the maximum value that E can attain. Hence, the normalized value of the
total field for Emax = n is
𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒏𝝍/𝟐)
𝑬= − − − −(𝟏𝟎)
𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝍/𝟐)
The field as given by (10) will be referred to as the “array factor. The field from
the array will be a maximum in any direction ϕ for which ψ = 0. Or the fields from
the sources all arrive at a distant point in the same phase when ψ = 0. In special
cases, ψ may not be zero for any value of ϕ, and in this case the field is usually a
maximum at the minimum value of ψ.

Case 1. Array of n isotropic point sources of the same amplitude and phase
(Broadside Array case)
In broadside array maximum radiation is perpendicular to axis of the array and
sources are in phase. Therefore, δ = 0 and 𝜓 = 0 for principle or main lobe must
be satisfied.
i.e. we know that 𝝍 = 𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 + 𝜹
𝝍 = 𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 + 𝟎
𝟎 = 𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 + 𝟎
𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟎
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟎
𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙 = ±𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (𝟎)
𝝅
𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙 = ±
𝟐
Therefore, the field is maximum when 𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟗𝟎° 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝟐𝟕𝟎° .
For Example:
Consider n=4, δ = 0 and d=λ/2.

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 45

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

We know that,
𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒏𝝍/𝟐)
𝑬=
𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝍/𝟐)
Direction of pattern maximum
E is maximum when 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑛𝜓/2) = ±1
𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒏𝝍/𝟐) = ±𝟏
𝒏𝝍
= 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (±𝟏)
𝟐
𝒏𝝍 𝝅
= ±(𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏)
𝟐 𝟐
𝝅
𝝍 = ±(𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏)
𝒏
𝝅
𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 + 𝜹 = ±(𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏)
𝒏
𝝅
𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 + 𝟎 = ±(𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏)
𝒏
𝟐𝝅𝒅 𝝅
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 = ±(𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏) 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒊𝒔 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑴𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒐𝒃𝒆
𝝀 𝒏

The maximum field for minor lobe can be calculated as

𝟐𝝅𝒅 𝝅
𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = ±(𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏)
𝝀 𝒏

𝟐𝒅 𝟏
𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = ±(𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏)
𝝀 𝒏
𝝀
𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = ±(𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏)
𝟐𝒏𝒅
𝝀
(𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (±(𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏) )
𝟐𝒏𝒅

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 46

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

For n=4 and d=λ/2 then,

𝝀
(𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (±(𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏) )
𝝀
𝟐×𝟒×
𝟐
(𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏)
(𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (± )
𝟒
For k=1,
𝟑
(𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (± )
𝟒
(𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = 𝟒𝟏. 𝟒 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟏𝟑𝟖. 𝟔
For k>1 the maximum pattern for minor lobes does not exist.
Thus, we have 4 minor lobes in the directions 41.4, -41.4, 138.6 and -138.6.

Direction of pattern minima

We know that,
𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒏𝝍/𝟐)
𝑬=
𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝍/𝟐)
E is minimum when 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑛𝜓/2) = 0
𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒏𝝍/𝟐) = 𝟎
𝒏𝝍
= 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (𝟎)
𝟐
𝒏𝝍
= ±𝒌𝝅
𝟐
𝟐𝒌𝝅
𝝍=±
𝒏
𝟐𝒌𝝅
𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 + 𝜹 = ±
𝒏
𝟐𝒌𝝅
𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 + 𝟎 = ±
𝒏

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 47

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

𝟐𝝅𝒅 𝟐𝒌𝝅
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 = ±
𝝀 𝒏
The minimum field for minor lobe can be calculated as
𝟐𝝅𝒅 𝟐𝒌𝝅
𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝝓𝒎𝒊𝒏 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = ±
𝝀 𝒏

𝒅 𝒌
𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝝓𝒎𝒊𝒏 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = ±
𝝀 𝒏
𝒌𝝀
𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝝓𝒎𝒊𝒏 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = ±
𝒏𝒅
𝒌𝝀
(𝝓𝒎𝒊𝒏 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (± )
𝒏𝒅
For n=4 and d=λ/2 then,

𝒌𝝀
(𝝓𝒎𝒊𝒏 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (± )
𝝀
𝟒×
𝟐
𝒌
(𝝓𝒎𝒊𝒏 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (± )
𝟐
For k=1,
𝟏
(𝝓𝒎𝒊𝒏 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (± )
𝟐
(𝝓𝒎𝒊𝒏 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = 𝟔𝟎° 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟏𝟐𝟎°
For k=2,
(𝝓𝒎𝒊𝒏 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (±𝟏)
(𝝓𝒎𝒊𝒏 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = 𝟎° 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟏𝟖𝟎°
For K>2, the minor lobe minima do not exist.
Thus, we have 6 minor lobe minima in the directions at 60, -60, 120 and -120, 0,
and 180.

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 48

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

The pattern of a broadside array of four in-phase isotropic point sources of equal
amplitude is shown in figure 22.

Figure 22: Field pattern of broadside array of four isotropic point sources of the
same amplitude and phase. The spacing between sources is λ/2.

BWFN for broadside

The possible nulls are given by
𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒏𝝍/𝟐) = 𝟎
The beamwidth between first null is given by

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 49

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

𝑩𝑾𝑭𝑵 = 𝟐𝜸
where 𝜸 = 𝟗𝟎 − (𝝓𝒎𝒊𝒏 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓

𝒌𝝀
∴ 𝜸 = 𝟗𝟎 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (± )
𝒏𝒅
𝒌𝝀
𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (± ) = 𝟗𝟎 − 𝜸
𝒏𝒅
𝒌𝝀
± = 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝟗𝟎 − 𝜸)
𝒏𝒅
𝒌𝝀
± = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜸
𝒏𝒅
𝒌𝝀
∴ 𝜸 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (± )
𝒏𝒅
𝒌𝝀
𝑩𝑾𝑭𝑵 = 𝟐𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (± )
𝒏𝒅

For k=1, n=4 and d=λ/2,

𝟏×𝝀
𝑩𝑾𝑭𝑵 = 𝟐𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (± )
𝝀
𝟒×
𝟐
𝟏
𝑩𝑾𝑭𝑵 = 𝟐𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (± )
𝟐
𝑩𝑾𝑭𝑵 = 𝟐 × 𝟑𝟎
𝑩𝑾𝑭𝑵 = 𝟔𝟎°
Problem:
Complete the field pattern and find BWFN and HPBW for a linear uniform array
of 6 isotropic point sources spaced λ/2 distance apart. The power is applied with
equal and inphase.
Solution:

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 50

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

Given n=6 and d=λ/2

We know that,
𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒏𝝍/𝟐)
𝑬=
𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝍/𝟐)
Where,
𝝍 = 𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 + 𝜹
δ=0 for equal amplitude and phase
𝝍 = 𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 + 𝟎
Field is maximum in the direction of ϕ for ψ=0
𝟎 = 𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 + 𝟎
𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟎
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟎
𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙 = ±𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (𝟎)
𝝅
𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙 = ±
𝟐
Therefore, the field is maximum when 𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟗𝟎° 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝟐𝟕𝟎° .
Direction of pattern maximum for side lobes
E is maximum when 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑛𝜓/2) = ±1
𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒏𝝍/𝟐) = ±𝟏
𝒏𝝍
= 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (±𝟏)
𝟐
𝒏𝝍 𝝅
= ±(𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏)
𝟐 𝟐
𝝅
𝝍 = ±(𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏)
𝒏

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 51

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

𝝅
𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 + 𝜹 = ±(𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏)
𝒏
𝝅
𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 + 𝟎 = ±(𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏)
𝒏
𝟐𝝅𝒅 𝝅
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 = ±(𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏) 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒊𝒔 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑴𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒐𝒃𝒆
𝝀 𝒏
The maximum field for minor lobe can be calculated as
𝟐𝝅𝒅 𝝅
𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = ±(𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏)
𝝀 𝒏

𝟐𝒅 𝟏
𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = ±(𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏)
𝝀 𝒏
𝝀
𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = ±(𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏)
𝟐𝒏𝒅
𝝀
(𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (±(𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏) )
𝟐𝒏𝒅
For n=6 and d=λ/2 then,

𝝀
(𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (±(𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏) )
𝝀
𝟐×𝟔×
𝟐
(𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏)
(𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (± )
𝟔
For k=0,
𝟏
(𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (± )
𝟔
(𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = ±𝟖𝟎. 𝟒, ±𝟗𝟗. 𝟔
These angles are neglected, since these angles comes under main lobe
For k=1,
𝟏
(𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (± )
𝟐

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 52

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

(𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = ±𝟔𝟎, ±𝟏𝟐𝟎

For k=2,
𝟓
(𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (± )
𝟔
(𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = ±𝟑𝟑. 𝟓, ±𝟏𝟒𝟔. 𝟓

For k>2 the maximum pattern for minor lobes does not exist.
Thus, we have 8 minor lobes maximum patterns in the directions of 60, -60, 120,
-120, 33.5, -33.5, 146.5, and -146.5.

Direction of pattern minima

We know that,
𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒏𝝍/𝟐)
𝑬=
𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝍/𝟐)
E is minimum when 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑛𝜓/2) = 0
𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒏𝝍/𝟐) = 𝟎
𝒏𝝍
= 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (𝟎)
𝟐
𝒏𝝍
= ±𝒌𝝅
𝟐
𝟐𝒌𝝅
𝝍=±
𝒏
𝟐𝒌𝝅
𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 + 𝜹 = ±
𝒏
𝟐𝒌𝝅
𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 + 𝟎 = ±
𝒏
𝟐𝝅𝒅 𝟐𝒌𝝅
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 = ±
𝝀 𝒏
The minimum field for minor lobe can be calculated as

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 53

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

𝟐𝝅𝒅 𝟐𝒌𝝅
𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝝓𝒎𝒊𝒏 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = ±
𝝀 𝒏

𝒅 𝒌
𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝝓𝒎𝒊𝒏 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = ±
𝝀 𝒏
𝒌𝝀
𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝝓𝒎𝒊𝒏 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = ±
𝒏𝒅
𝒌𝝀
(𝝓𝒎𝒊𝒏 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (± )
𝒏𝒅
For n=6 and d=λ/2 then,

𝒌𝝀
(𝝓𝒎𝒊𝒏 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (± )
𝝀
𝟔×
𝟐
𝒌
(𝝓𝒎𝒊𝒏 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (± )
𝟑
For k=0,
(𝝓𝒎𝒊𝒏 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = ±𝟗𝟎
This is to be eliminated because field is maximum for ϕ=90
For k=1,
𝟏
(𝝓𝒎𝒊𝒏 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (± )
𝟑
(𝝓𝒎𝒊𝒏 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = ±𝟕𝟎. 𝟓, ±𝟏𝟎𝟗. 𝟓
For k=2,
𝟐
(𝝓𝒎𝒊𝒏 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (± )
𝟑
(𝝓𝒎𝒊𝒏 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = ±𝟒𝟖. 𝟐, ±𝟏𝟑𝟏. 𝟖
For k=3,
(𝝓𝒎𝒊𝒏 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (±𝟏)
(𝝓𝒎𝒊𝒏 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = 𝟎, 𝟏𝟖𝟎

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 54

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

For K>3, the minor lobe minima do not exist.

Thus, we have 8 minor lobe minima in the directions at 70.5, -70.5, 109.5 and
-109.5, 48.2, -48.2, 131.8, -131.8, 0, and 180.
The pattern of a broadside array of six in-phase isotropic point sources of equal
amplitude is shown in figure 23.

Figure 23: Field pattern of broadside array of six isotropic point sources of the
same amplitude and phase. The spacing between sources is λ/2.

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 55

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

BWFN for broadside

The possible nulls are given by
𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒏𝝍/𝟐) = 𝟎
The beam width between first null is given by
𝑩𝑾𝑭𝑵 = 𝟐𝜸
where 𝜸 = 𝟗𝟎 − (𝝓𝒎𝒊𝒏 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓
𝒌𝝀
∴ 𝜸 = 𝟗𝟎 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (± )
𝒏𝒅
𝒌𝝀
𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (± ) = 𝟗𝟎 − 𝜸
𝒏𝒅
𝒌𝝀
± = 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝟗𝟎 − 𝜸)
𝒏𝒅
𝒌𝝀
± = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜸
𝒏𝒅
𝒌𝝀
∴ 𝜸 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (± )
𝒏𝒅
𝒌𝝀
𝑩𝑾𝑭𝑵 = 𝟐𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (± )
𝒏𝒅

For k=1, n=6 and d=λ/2,

𝟏×𝝀
𝑩𝑾𝑭𝑵 = 𝟐𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (± )
𝝀
𝟔×
𝟐
𝟏
𝑩𝑾𝑭𝑵 = 𝟐𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (± )
𝟑
𝑩𝑾𝑭𝑵 = 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟗. 𝟒𝟕
𝑩𝑾𝑭𝑵 = 𝟑𝟗°
𝑩𝑾𝑭𝑵 𝟑𝟗°
𝑯𝑷𝑩𝑾 = = = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟓°
𝟐 𝟐

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 56

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

Case 2: Ordinary End-Fire Array

Consider the phase angle between adjacent sources which is required to make the
field a maximum in the direction of the array (ϕ = 0). An array of this type may be
called an “end-fire” array.
We know that,
𝝍 = 𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 + 𝜹
For end-fire array substitute the conditions ψ = 0 and ϕ = 0, from which
𝟎 = 𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝟎) + 𝜹
𝜹 = −𝒅𝒓
Hence, for an end-fire array, the phase between sources is retarded progressively
by the same amount as the spacing between sources in radians. Thus, if the spacing
is λ/4, source 2 in figure 20 should lag source 1 by 90◦, source 3 should lag source
2 by 90◦, etc. As an example, the field pattern of an end-fire array of four isotropic
point sources is presented in figure 24. The spacing between sources is λ/2 and
δ = − π.

Figure 24: Field pattern of ordinary end-fire array of four isotropic point sources of
same amplitude. Spacing is λ/2 and the phase angle δ = − π.

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 57

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

Problem:
A linear array consists of 4 isotropic point sources. The distance between adjacent
elements is λ/2. The power is applied with equal magnitude and a phase difference
of−𝑑𝑟 . Obtain the field pattern, BWFN and HPBW.
Solution:
Given n=4 and d=λ/2
We know that,
𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒏𝝍/𝟐)
𝑬=
𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝍/𝟐)
Where,
𝝍 = 𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 + 𝜹
and 𝛿 = −𝑑𝑟
𝝍 = 𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 − 𝒅𝒓
Field is maximum in the direction of ϕ for ψ=0
𝟎 = 𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 − 𝒅𝒓
𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 = 𝒅𝒓
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟏
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟏
𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙 = ±𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (𝟏)
𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 ± 𝟏𝟖𝟎°
Therefore, the field is maximum when 𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 ± 𝟏𝟖𝟎° .
Direction of pattern maximum for side lobes
E is maximum when 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑛𝜓/2) = ±1
𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒏𝝍/𝟐) = ±𝟏
𝒏𝝍
= 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (±𝟏)
𝟐

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 58

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

𝒏𝝍 𝝅
= ±(𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏)
𝟐 𝟐
𝝅
𝝍 = ±(𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏)
𝒏
𝝅
𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 + 𝜹 = ±(𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏)
𝒏
𝝅
𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 − 𝒅𝒓 = ±(𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏)
𝒏
𝝅
𝒅𝒓 (𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 − 𝟏) = ±(𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏)
𝒏
𝟐𝝅𝒅 𝝅
(𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 − 𝟏) = ±(𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏)
𝝀 𝒏
For n=4 and d=λ/2 then,
𝟐𝝅(𝛌/𝟐 ) 𝝅
(𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 − 𝟏) = ±(𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏)
𝝀 𝟒
(𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏)
(𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 − 𝟏) = ±
𝟒
(𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏)
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 = 𝟏 ±
𝟒
(𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏)
𝝓 = ±𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (𝟏 ± )
𝟒
The maximum field for minor lobe can be calculated as
(𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏)
(𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = ±𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (𝟏 ± )
𝟒
For k=0,
𝟏 𝟑
(𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = ±𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (𝟏 − ) = ±𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 ( )
𝟒 𝟒
(𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = ±𝟒𝟏. 𝟏°
For k=1,
𝟑 𝟏
(𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = ±𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (𝟏 − ) = ±𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 ( )
𝟒 𝟒
Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 59
 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

(𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = ±𝟕𝟓. 𝟓𝟐°

For k=2,
𝟓 𝟏
(𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = ±𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (𝟏 − ) = ±𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (− )
𝟒 𝟒

(𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = ±𝟏𝟎𝟒. 𝟒𝟖°

For k=3,
𝟕 𝟑
(𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = ±𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (𝟏 − ) = ±𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (− )
𝟒 𝟒
(𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = ±𝟏𝟑𝟖. 𝟔°
For k>3 the maximum pattern for minor lobes does not exist.

Direction of pattern minima (Nulls)

We know that,
𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒏𝝍/𝟐)
𝑬=
𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝍/𝟐)
E is minimum when 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑛𝜓/2) = 0
𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒏𝝍/𝟐) = 𝟎
𝒏𝝍
= 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (𝟎)
𝟐
𝒏𝝍
= ±𝒌𝝅
𝟐
𝟐𝒌𝝅
𝝍=±
𝒏
𝟐𝒌𝝅
𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 + 𝜹 = ±
𝒏
𝟐𝒌𝝅
𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 − 𝒅𝒓 = ±
𝒏

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 60

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

𝟐𝒌𝝅
𝒅𝒓 (𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 − 𝟏) = ±
𝒏
𝟐𝝅𝒅 𝟐𝒌𝝅
(𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 − 𝟏) = ±
𝝀 𝒏
For n=4 and d=λ/2 then,
𝟐𝝅(𝛌/𝟐 ) 𝟐𝒌𝝅
(𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 − 𝟏) = ±
𝝀 𝟒
𝒌
(𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 − 𝟏) = ±
𝟐
𝒌
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 = 𝟏 ±
𝟐
𝒌
𝝓 = ±𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (𝟏 ± )
𝟐
The minimum field for minor lobe can be calculated as
𝒌
(𝝓𝒎𝒊𝒏 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = ±𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (𝟏 ± )
𝟐

For k=0,
(𝝓𝒎𝒊𝒏 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = 𝟎
This is to be eliminated because field is maximum for ϕ=0.
For k=1,
𝟏 𝟏
(𝝓𝒎𝒊𝒏 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = ±𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (𝟏 − ) = ±𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 ( )
𝟐 𝟐
(𝝓𝒎𝒊𝒏 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = ±𝟔𝟎

For k=2,
𝟐
(𝝓𝒎𝒊𝒏 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = ±𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (𝟏 − ) = ±𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (𝟎)
𝟐
(𝝓𝒎𝒊𝒏 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = ±𝟗𝟎

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 61

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

For k=3,
𝟑 𝟏
(𝝓𝒎𝒊𝒏 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = ±𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (𝟏 − ) = ±𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (− )
𝟐 𝟐
(𝝓𝒎𝒊𝒏 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = ±𝟏𝟐𝟎
For k=4,
𝟒
(𝝓𝒎𝒊𝒏 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = ±𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (𝟏 − ) = ±𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (−𝟏)
𝟐
(𝝓𝒎𝒊𝒏 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = ±𝟏𝟖𝟎
This is to be eliminated because field is maximum for ϕ=180.
For K>4, the minor lobe minima do not exist.

The pattern of end fire array of four isotropic point sources of equal amplitude and
phase difference of -dr is shown in figure 25.

Figure 25: Field pattern of ordinary end-fire array of four isotropic point sources
of same amplitude. Spacing is λ/2 and the phase angle δ = − dr.

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 62

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

BWFN for end fire

𝑩𝑾𝑭𝑵 = 𝟐(𝝓𝒎𝒊𝒏 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓

𝒌
For n=4 and d=λ/2, (𝝓𝒎𝒊𝒏 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (𝟏 ± )
𝟐

𝒌
𝑩𝑾𝑭𝑵 = 𝟐𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (𝟏 ± )
𝟐
For k=1,
𝟏
𝑩𝑾𝑭𝑵 = 𝟐𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (𝟏 − )
𝟐
𝟏
𝑩𝑾𝑭𝑵 = 𝟐𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 ( )
𝟐
𝑩𝑾𝑭𝑵 = 𝟐 × 𝟔𝟎
𝑩𝑾𝑭𝑵 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎°
𝑩𝑾𝑭𝑵 𝟏𝟐𝟎°
𝑯𝑷𝑩𝑾 = = = 𝟔𝟎°
𝟐 𝟐

Case 3. End-Fire Array with Increased Directivity (Hanson- Woodyard End

Fire Array)
For δ = −dr, produces a maximum field in the direction ϕ= 0 but does not give the
maximum directivity. So the maximum directivity is obtained by increasing the
phase change between sources,
𝝅
𝜹 = − (𝒅𝒓 + ) − − − −(𝟏)
𝒏
This condition will be referred to as the condition for “increased directivity.” Thus
for the phase difference of the fields at a large distance we have
𝝅
𝝍 = 𝒅𝒓 (𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 − 𝟏) − − − − −(𝟐)
𝒏

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 63

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

As an example, the field pattern of an end-fire array of four isotropic point sources
for this case is illustrated in figure 26
The spacing between sources is λ/2, and therefore δ=−(5π/4). The phase difference
between sources is increased by π/4. Here width of the main lobe decreased so the
HPBW becomes less. For this we get increased directivity.

Figure 26 Field pattern of end-fire array of four isotropic point sources of equal
amplitude spaced λ/2 apart. The phasing is adjusted for increased directivity
δ=−(5π/4).

Case 4. Array with Maximum Field in an Arbitrary Direction. Scanning

Array
Let us consider the case of an array with a field pattern having a maximum in some
arbitrary direction ϕ1 not equal to kπ/2 where k = 0, 1, 2, or 3. Then
𝝍 = 𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 + 𝜹
𝟎 = 𝒅𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓𝟏 + 𝜹

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 64

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

By specifying the spacing dr, the required phase difference δ is then determined by
the above equation. Conversely, by changing δ the beam direction ϕ1 can be shifted
or scanned. As an example, if n=4, d =λ/2, and we wish to have a maximum field
in the direction of ϕ =60◦. Then δ=−π/2, yielding the field pattern shown in figure
27.

Figure 26: Field pattern of array of four isotropic point sources of equal amplitude
with phasing adjusted to give the maximum at ϕ = 60◦. The spacing is λ/2.

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 65

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

Question Bank
1. State and Prove power theorem and its application to an isotropic source
2. Show that the maximum radiation intensity of unidirectional cosine source is
4 times of the radiation intensity from an isotropic source radiating the same
total power
Or
A source has a cosine radiation intensity pattern given by U = Um cosθ for
0 ≤ θ ≤ π/2 and 0 ≤ ϕ ≤ 2π. Find the total power and directivity.
3. Show that the maximum radiation intensity of unidirectional cosine-squared
source is 6 times of the radiation intensity from an isotropic source radiating
the same total power
Or
A source has a cosine squared radiation intensity pattern given by
U = Um cos2θ for 0 ≤ θ ≤ π/2 and 0 ≤ ϕ ≤ 2π. Find the total power and
directivity.
4. Show that the maximum radiation intensity of sine (doughnut) source is 1.27
times of the radiation intensity from an isotropic source radiating the same
total power
Or
A source has a sine radiation intensity pattern given by U = Um sinθ for
0 ≤ θ ≤ π and 0 ≤ ϕ ≤ 2π). Find the total power and directivity.
5. Show that the maximum radiation intensity of sine-squared (doughnut)
source is 1.5 times of the radiation intensity from an isotropic source
radiating the same total power.
Or
A source has a sine squared radiation intensity pattern given by U = Um sin2θ
for 0 ≤ θ ≤ π and 0 ≤ ϕ ≤ 2π). Find the total power and directivity.
6. Show that directivity D=2(n+1) for cosn power pattern.

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 66

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

7. Find the approximate and exact directivity for the following power pattern
U=Umsinθsin2Φ for 0≤θ≤π, 0≤Φ≤π
8. Find the approximate and exact directivity for the following power pattern
U=Umsin2θsin2Φ for 0≤θ≤π, 0≤Φ≤π
9. Find the approximate and exact directivity for the following power pattern
U=Umsin2θsin3Φ for 0≤θ≤π, 0≤Φ≤π
[Link] the approximate and exact directivity for the following power pattern
U=Umcos3θ
[Link] the expression for total field and plot the field pattern for two
isotropic point sources with same amplitude and same phase spaced λ/2
apart
[Link] the field pattern for two isotropic point sources with equal amplitude
and opposite phase. Assume distance between two sources is λ/2.
[Link] the expression for total field and plot the field pattern for two
isotropic point sources with same amplitude and in-phase quadrature.
[Link] nonisotropic but similar point sources and the principle of pattern
multiplication.
[Link] array factor of n isotropic point sources.
16.A linear uniform array of n isotropic antenna satisfies the following
parameters, obtain the field pattern and find BWFN and HPBW n=4, δ=0,
d= λ/2 (Broadside case)
17.A linear uniform array of isotropic antenna satisfies the following parameter,
obtain the field pattern and find BWFN and HPBW n=4, δ=-dr, d= λ/2 (End
fire case)
[Link] principle of pattern multiplication with examples.
19.A linear uniform array of n isotropic antenna satisfies the following
parameters, obtain the field pattern and find BWFN and HPBW n=6, δ=0,
d= λ/2 (Broadside case)

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 67

 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC71)

20.A linear uniform array of isotropic antenna satisfies the following parameter,
obtain the field pattern and find BWFN and HPBW n=6, δ=-dr, d= λ/2 (End
fire case)

Dr. Rajendra S Soloni, Associate Professor, JIT, Davangere 68