UNIT – IV

MEMORY

Basic Concepts of Memory Hierarchy

In the Computer System Design, Memory Hierarchy is an enhancement to organize the memory such
that it can minimize the access time. The Memory Hierarchy was developed based on a program
behaviour known as locality of references. The figure below clearly demonstrates the different levels
of memory hierarchy:

This Memory Hierarchy Design is divided into 2 main types:

1. External Memory or Secondary Memory – Comprising of Magnetic Disk, Optical Disk, Magnetic
Tape i.e. peripheral storage devices which are accessible by the processor via I/O Module.
2. Internal Memory or Primary Memory – Comprising of Main Memory, Cache Memory & CPU
registers. This is directly accessible by the processor.

We can infer the following characteristics of Memory Hierarchy Design from above figure:
1. Capacity: It is the global volume of information the memory can store. As we move from top to
bottom in the Hierarchy, the capacity increases.
2. Access Time: It is the time interval between the read/write request and the availability of the data.
As we move from top to bottom in the Hierarchy, the access time increases.

3. Performance: Earlier when the computer system was designed without Memory Hierarchy design,
the speed gap increases between the CPU registers and Main Memory due to large difference in
access time.
4. Cost per bit: As we move from bottom to top in the Hierarchy, the cost per bit increases i.e. Internal
Memory is costlier than External Memory.

Semi-Conductor Memories
1. RAM - Random Access Memory
2. ROM - Read Only Memory
A device for storing digital information that is fabricated by using integrated circuit technology is
known as semiconductor memory. Also known as integrated-circuit memory, large-scale integrated
memory, memory chip, semiconductor storage, transistor memory.

Definition: Semiconductor memory is the main memory element of a microcomputer-based system

and is used to store program and data. The main memory elements are nothing but semiconductor
devices that stores code and information permanently. The semiconductor memory is directly
accessible by the microprocessor. And the access time of the data present in the primary memory
must be compatible with the operating time of the microprocessor.
Thus, semiconductor devices are preferred as primary memory. With the rapid growth in the
requirement for semiconductor memories there have been a number of technologies and types of
memory that have emerged. Names such as ROM, RAM, EPROM, EEPROM, Flash memory, DRAM,
SRAM, SDRAM, and the very new MRAM can now be seen in the electronics literature. Each one has its
own advantages and area in which it may be use.
Types of semiconductor memory: Electronic semiconductor memory technology can be split into
two main types or categories, according to the way in which the memory operates:

1. Random Access Memory (RAM)

As the names suggest, the RAM or random-access memory is a form of semiconductor memory
technology that is used for reading and writing data in any order - in other words as it is required by the
processor. It is used for such applications as the computer or processor memory where variables and
other storage are required on a random basis. Data is stored and read many times to and from this
type of memory.
Random access memory is used in huge quantities in computer applications as current day
computing and processing technology requires large amounts of memory to enable them to handle
the memory hungry applications used today. Many types of RAMS including SDRAM with its DDR3,
DDR4, and soon DDR5variants are used in huge quantities.

a. DRAM
Dynamic RAM is a form of random-access memory. DRAM uses a capacitor to store each bit of data,
and the level of charge on each capacitor determines whether that bit is a logical 1 or 0. However
these capacitors do not hold their charge indefinitely, and therefore the data needs to be refreshed
periodically. As a result of this dynamic refreshing it gains its name of being a dynamic RAM.
DRAM is the form of semiconductor memory that is often used in equipment including personal
computers and workstations where it forms the main RAM for the computer. The semiconductor
devices are normally available as integrated circuits for use in PCB assembly in the form of surface
mount devices or less frequently now as leaded components.

Disadvantages of DRAM.
• Complex manufacturing process.
• Data requires refreshing.
• More complex external circuitry required (read and refresh periodically).
• Volatile memory.
• Relatively slow operational speed.

b. SRAM
SRAM stands for Static Random Access Memory. This form of semiconductor memory gains its
name from the fact that, unlike DRAM, the data does not need to be refreshed dynamically. These
semiconductor devices are able to support faster read and write times than DRAM (typically 10 ns
against 60 ns for DRAM), and in addition its cycle time is much shorter because it does not need to
pause between accesses.
However they consume more power, they are less dense and more expensive than DRAM. As a result
of this SRAM is normally used for caches, while DRAM is used as the main semiconductor memory
technology.

SDRAM
Synchronous DRAM. This form of semiconductor memory can run at faster speeds than conventional
DRAM. It is synchronized to the clock of the processor and is capable of keeping two sets of memory
addresses open simultaneously. By transferring data alternately from one set of addresses, and then
the other, SDRAM cuts down on the delays associated with non-synchronous RAM, which must close
one address bank before opening the next.
Within the SDRAM family there are several types of memory technologies that are seen. These are
referred to by the letters DDR - Double Data Rate. DDR4 is currently the latest technology, but this is
soon to be followed by DDR5 which will offer some significant improvements in performance.

MRAM
This is Magneto-resistive RAM, or Magnetic RAM. It is a non-volatile RAM memory technology that
uses magnetic charges to store data instead of electric charges. Unlike technologies including DRAM,
which require a constant flow of electricity to maintain the integrity of the data, MRAM retains data
even when the power is removed.
An additional advantage is that it only requires low power for active operation. As a result this
technology could become a major player in the electronics industry now that production processes
have been developed to enable it to be produced.
2. Read Only Memory (ROM)
A ROM is a form of semiconductor memory technology used where the data is written once and then
not changed. In view of this it is used where data needs to be stored permanently, even when the
power is removed - many memory technologies lose the data once the power is removed. As a result,
this type of semiconductor memory technology is widely used for storing programs and data that
must survive when a computer or processor is powered down.
For example, the BIOS of a computer will be stored in ROM. As the name implies, data cannot be
easily written to ROM.
This stands for Programmable Read Only Memory. It is a semiconductor memory which can only
have data written to it once, the data written to it is permanent. These memories are bought in a blank
format and they are programmed using a special PROM programmer. Typically, a PROM will consist
of an array of useable links some of which are "blown" during the programming process to provide the
required data pattern.
The PROM stores its data as a charge on a capacitor. There is a charge storage capacitor for each cell
and this can be read repeatedly as required. However, it is found that after many years the charge may
leak away and the data may be lost. Nevertheless, this type of semiconductor memory used to be
widely used in applications where a form of ROM was required, but where the data needed to be
changed periodically, as in a development environment, or where quantities were low.

a. EPROM
This is an Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. This form of semiconductor memory can be
programmed and then erased at a later time. This is normally achieved by exposing the silicon to
ultraviolet light. To enable this to happen there is a circular window in the package of the EPROM to
enable the light to reach the silicon of the chip. When the PROM is in use, this window is normally
covered by a label, especially when the data may need to be preserved for an extended period.

b. EEPROM
This is an Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. Data can be written to it and it
can be erased using an electrical voltage. This is typically applied to an erase pin on the chip. Like
other types of PROM, EEPROM retains the contents of the memory even when the power is turned off.
Also, like other types of ROM, EEPROM is not as fast as RAM. EEPROM memory cells are made from
floating-gate MOSFETS (known as FGMOS).
c. Flash memory

Flash memory may be considered as a development of EEPROM technology. Data can be written to it
and it can be erased, although only in blocks, but data can be read on an individual cell basis. To erase
and re-program areas of the chip, programming voltages at levels that are available within electronic
equipment are used. It is also non-volatile, and this makes it particularly useful. As a result Flash
memory is widely used in many applications including memory cards for digital cameras, mobile
phones, computer memory sticks and many other applications.
Flash memory stores data in an array of memory cells. The memory cells are made from floating- gate
MOSFETS (known as FGMOS). These FG MOSFETs (or FGMOS in short) have the ability to store an
electrical charge for extended periods of time (2 to 10 years) even without a connecting to a power
supply.
Disadvantages of Flash Memory
• Higher cost per bit than hard drives
• Slower than other forms of memory
• Limited number of write / erase cycles
• Data must be erased before new data can be written
• Data typically erased and written in blocks

d. PCM
This type of semiconductor memory is known as Phase change Random Access Memory, P-RAM or
just Phase Change memory, PCM. It is based around a phenomenon where a form of chalcogenide
glass changes is state or phase between an amorphous state (high resistance) and a polycrystalline
state (low resistance). It is possible to detect the state of an individual cell and hence use this for data
storage. Currently this type of memory has not been widely commercialized, but it is expected to be a
competitor for flash memory.
Semiconductor memory technology is developing at a fast rate to meet the ever-growing needs of the
electronics industry. Not only are the existing technologies themselves being developed, but
considerable amounts of research are being invested in new types of semiconductor memory
technology. In terms of the memory technologies currently in use, SDRAM versions like DDR4 are
being further developed to provide DDR5 which will offer significant performance improvements. In
time, DDR5 will be developed to provide the next generation of SDRAM. Other forms of memory are
seen around the home in the form of USB memory sticks, Compact Flash, CF cards or SD memory
cards for cameras and other applications as well as solid state hard drives for computers. The
semiconductor devices are available in a wide range of formats to meet the differing PCB assembly
and other needs.

Semi-Conductor RAM Memories

Semiconductor memories are available in a wide range of speeds. Their cycle times range from l00ns
to less than 10 ns.

INTERNAL ORGANIZATION OF MEMORY CHIPS:

Memory cells are usually organized in the form of array, in which each cell is capable of storing one bit
of information. Each row of cells constitutes a memory word and all cells of a row are connected to a
common line called as word line. The cells in each column are connected to Sense / Write circuit by
two-bit lines. The Sense / Write circuits are connected to data input or output lines of the chip. During
a write operation, the sense / write circuit receive input information and store it in the cells of the
selected word.
The data input and data output of each senses / write ckt are connected to a single bidirectional data
line that can be connected to a data bus of the cptr.
R / W → Specifies the required operation.
CS → Chip Select input selects a given chip in the multi-chip memory system
2D & 2 1/2D memory organization

2D Memory organization – In 2D organization, memory is divided in the form of rows and columns
(Matrix). Each row contains a word, now in this memory organization, there is a decoder. A decoder is
a combinational circuit that contains n input lines and 2n output lines. One of the output lines selects
the row by the address contained in the MAR and the word which is represented by that row gets
selected and is either read or written through the data lines.
2.5 D Memory organization
In 2.5D Organization the scenario is the same but we have two different decoders one is a column
decoder and another is a row decoder. Column decoder is used to select the column and a row
decoder is used to select the row. The address from the MAR goes as the decoders’ input. Decoders
will select the respective cell through the bit outline, then the data from that location will be read or
through the bit, inline data will be written at that memory location.

Read and Write Operations –

1. If the select line is in Reading mode, then the Word/bit which is represented by the MAR will be
available to the data lines and will get read.
2. If the select line is in write mode, then the data from the memory data register (MDR) will be sent to
the respective cell which is addressed by the memory address register (MAR).
3. With the help of the select line, we can select the desired data and we can perform read and write
operations on it.

Comparison between 2D & 2.5D Organizations –

1. In 2D organization hardware is fixed but in 2.5D hardware changes.
2. 2D Organization requires more gates while 2.5D requires less.
3. 2D is more complex in comparison to the 2.5D organization.
4. Error correction is not possible in the 2D organization but in 2.5D it could be done easily.
5. 2D is more difficult to fabricate in comparison to the 2.5D organization.
Cache Memory in Computer Organization

Cache Memory is a special very high-speed memory. It is used to speed up and synchronize with
high-speed CPU. Cache memory is costlier than main memory or disk memory but more economical
than CPU registers. Cache memory is an extremely fast memory type that acts as a buffer between
RAM and the CPU. It holds frequently requested data and instructions so that they are immediately
available to the CPU when needed. Cache memory is used to reduce the average time to access data
from the Main memory. The cache is a smaller and faster memory that stores copies of the data from
frequently used main memory locations. There are various different independent caches in a CPU,
which store instructions and data.

Levels of memory:
• Level 1 or Register – It is a type of memory in which data is stored and accepted that are
immediately stored in CPU. Most commonly used register is accumulator, Program counter, address
register etc.
• Level 2 or Cache memory – It is the fastest memory which has faster access time where data is
temporarily stored for faster access.
• Level 3 or Main Memory – It is memory on which computer works currently. It is small in size and
once power is off data no longer stays in this memory.
• Level 4 or Secondary Memory – It is external memory which is not as fast as main memory but data
stays permanently in this memory.

Cache Performance: When the processor needs to read or write a location in main memory, it
first checks for a corresponding entry in the cache.
• If the processor finds that the memory location is in the cache, a cache hit has occurred and data is
read from the cache.
• If the processor does not find the memory location in the cache, a cache miss has occurred. For a
cache miss, the cache allocates a new entry and copies in data from main memory, then the request
is fulfilled from the contents of the cache.

The performance of cache memory is frequently measured in terms of a quantity called Hit ratio.
Hit ratio = hit / (hit + miss) = no. of hits/total accesses
We can improve Cache performance using higher cache block size, and higher associativity, reduce
miss rate, reduce miss penalty, and reduce the time to hit in the cache.
Cache Mapping: There are three different types of mapping used for the purpose of cache memory
which is as follows: Direct mapping, Associative mapping, and Set-Associative mapping. These are
explained below.
A. Direct Mapping
• The simplest technique, known as direct mapping, maps each block of main memory into only one
possible cache line. or In Direct mapping, assign each memory block to a specific line in the cache. If
a line is previously taken up by a memory block when a new block needs to be loaded, the old block is
trashed. An address space is split into two parts index field and a tag field. The cache is used to store
the tag field whereas the rest is stored in the main memory. Direct mapping`s performance is directly
proportional to the Hit ratio.
i = j modulo m
where
i=cache line number
j= main memory block number
m=number of lines in the cache
For purposes of cache access, each main memory address can be viewed as consisting of three
fields. The least significant w bits identify a unique word or byte within a block of main memory. In
most contemporary machines, the address is at the byte level. The remaining s bits specify one of the
2s blocks of main memory. The cache logic interprets these s bits as a tag of s-r bits (most significant
portion) and a line field of r bits. This latter field identifies one of the m=2r lines of the cache. Line
offset is index bits in the direct mapping.
B. Associative Mapping
In this type of mapping, the associative memory is used to store content and addresses of the
memory word. Any block can go into any line of the cache. This means that the word id bits are used to
identify which word in the block is needed, but the tag becomes all of the remaining bits.
This enables the placement of any word at any place in the cache memory. It is considered to be the
fastest and the most flexible mapping form. In associative mapping the index bits are zero.

C. Set-associative Mapping
This form of mapping is an enhanced form of direct mapping where the drawbacks of direct mapping
are removed. Set associative addresses the problem of possible thrashing in the direct mapping
method. It does this by saying that instead of having exactly one line that a block can map to in the
cache, we will group a few lines together creating a set. Then a block in memory can map to any one
of the lines of a specific set. Set-associative mapping allows that each word that is present in the
cache can have two or more words in the main memory for the same index address. Set associative
cache mapping combines the best of direct and associative cache mapping techniques. In set
associative mapping the index bits are given by the set offset bits. In this case, the cache consists of a
number of sets, each of which consists of a number of lines.
The relationships are:
m=v*k
i= j mod v
where
i=cache set number
j=main memory block number
v=number of sets
m=number of lines in the cache number of sets
k=number of lines in each set
Application of Cache Memory:
1. Usually, the cache memory can store a reasonable number of blocks at any given time, but this
number is small compared to the total number of blocks in the main memory.
2. The correspondence between the main memory blocks and those in the cache is specified by a
mapping function.
3. Primary Cache – A primary cache is always located on the processor chip. This cache is small and
its access time is comparable to that of processor registers.
4. Secondary Cache – Secondary cache is placed between the primary cache and the rest of the
memory. It is referred to as the level 2 (L2) cache. Often, the Level 2 cache is also housed on the
processor chip.
5. Spatial Locality of reference This says that there is a chance that the element will be present in
close proximity to the reference point and next time if again searched then more close proximity to the
point of reference.
6. Temporal Locality of reference in this Least recently used algorithm will be used. Whenever there
is page fault occurs within a word will not only load word in main memory but complete page fault will
be loaded because the spatial locality of reference rule says that if you are referring to any word next
word will be referred to in its register that’s why we load complete page table so the complete block
will be loaded.
Auxiliary Memory
An auxiliary memory is referred to as the lowest-cost, highest-space, and slowest-approach storage in
a computer system. It is where programs and information are preserved for long-term storage or when
not in direct use. The most typical auxiliary memory devices used in computer systems are magnetic
disks and tapes.

Magnetic Disks
A magnetic disk is a type of memory constructed using a circular plate of metal or plastic coated with
magnetized materials. Usually, both sides of the disks are used to carry out read/write operations.
However, several disks may be stacked on one spindle with read/write head available on each
surface.
The following image shows the structural representation for a magnetic disk.

• The memory bits are stored in the magnetized surface in spots along the concentric circles called
tracks.
• The concentric circles (tracks) are commonly divided into sections called sectors.

Magnetic Tape
Magnetic tape is a storage medium that allows data archiving, collection, and backup for different
kinds of data. The magnetic tape is constructed using a plastic strip coated with a magnetic recording
medium. The bits are recorded as magnetic spots on the tape along several tracks. Usually, seven or
nine bits are recorded simultaneously to form a character together with a parity bit.
Magnetic tape units can be halted, started to move forward or in reverse, or can be rewound. However,
they cannot be started or stopped fast enough between individual characters. For this reason,
information is recorded in blocks referred to as records.
Optical Disc
An optical disc is an electronic data storage medium that is also referred to as an optical disk, optical
storage, optical media, Optical disc drive, disc drive, which reads and writes data by using optical
storage techniques and technology. An optical disc, which may be used as a portable and secondary
storage device, was first developed in the late 1960s. James T. Russell invented the first optical disc,
which could store data as micron-sized light and dark dots.

An optical disc can store more data and has a longer lifespan than the preceding generation of
magnetic storage medium. To read and write to CDs and DVDs, computers use a CD writer or DVD
writer drive, and to read and write to Blu-ray discs, they require a Blu-ray drive. MO drives, such as CD-
R and DVD-R drives, are used to read and write information to discs (magneto-optic). The CDs, Blu-
ray, and DVDs are the most common types of optical media, which are usually used to:
• They are used to transfer data to various devices or computers.
• These media are used to deliver the software to others.
• They help users to hold large amounts of data, like videos, photos, music, and more.
• Also, optical media are used to get back up from a local machine.

With the introduction of an all-new generation of optical media, the storage capacity to store data has
increased. CDs have the potential to store 700 MB of data, whereas DVDs allow you to store up to 8.4
GB of data. Blu-ray discs, the newest type of optical media, can hold up to 50 GB of data. This storage
capacity is the most convenient benefit as compared to the floppy disk storage media, which can
store up to 1.44 MB of data
Additionally, a Blu-ray, a new type of optical media that can read CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs. In
other words, older drives are not able to read newer optical discs, but the latest drives have the ability
to read older optical discs.

Different Kinds of Optical Drives

Optical drives are disk-based drives that were introduced to the market in the 1980s to allow for
increased storage capacity and faster read and write times. There are multiple kinds of optical media,
which are discussed below:

• CD-ROM
CD-ROM, short for compact disk read-only memory, was the first disk on the basis of drives for the
latest PCs. CD-ROM devices populate Compact Disk Filing System discs with data encoded in ISO
9660. To reduce noise and increase stability, most CD-ROM drives in computers run at a slower
speed, and if the drive experiences read errors, it will only speed up for larger data files. However, the
newest CD-ROM drives have the potential to achieve read speeds of 60 revolutions in a second (60x).
• DVD-ROM
DVD-ROM drives, which stand for Digital Versatile Disk Read Only Memory and are a direct evolution
from CD-ROM drives, have significantly more performance and capacity than their CD counterparts
while maintaining the same physical dimensions. The DVD Forum is a non-profit organization that
establishes several standards for DVD functionality and construction, as well as overseeing DVD
development.

• Blu-ray
In the commercial market, Blu-ray drives are the newest drives available as of 2011. During the early
2000s, Sony developed the Blu-ray technology that was one of the founding proponents.

• RW Drives
The rewritable drive types are Blu-ray drives, DVD-ROMs, and CD-ROMs. All the functionalities of
read-only counterparts are available in RW drives. Write processes are particularly sensitive to shock
and can ruin the disc beyond repair if forcibly interrupted; write speeds are slower to preserve stability
than read speeds. Writable disks come in multiple-time write and one-time write variations; however,
RW drives can write multiple times.

Advantages of Optical Disk

• Cost
Only plastics and aluminium foils are used in the production of an optical disk, which makes their
manufacturing cost less expensive. Therefore, users get the advantage to purchase optical disks in
bulk, and also, the optical disk drive is included with many computers by their manufacturers, and
users can be benefited from purchasing optical disk drives separately.
• Durability
While comparing with Volatile and Non-Volatile memories, optical disks are more durable. It is not
caused to data losses due to any power failure and is not subjected to wear. Hence, it can run a long
time. However, it is not much safe from any physical damages, including against scratching and heat.
• Simplicity
With the help of using optical disks, the process of backup of data is much easier. The data should be
placed inside the drive icon; the data, which needs to be burnt. And, the users can backup data easily
only by clicking on "Burn Disk."
• Stability
A very high level of stability is provided by optical disk because it is not unprotected from
electromagnetic fields and other kinds of environmental influences, unlike magnetic disks.

Disadvantages of Optical Disk

Although it has numerous advantages, it also contains some limitations that are discussed below:

• Security
Optical disks need to keep safe from the hands of thieves when you are using them for backup
purposes. If thieves get success in stealing optical disks, it can be more harmful. Hence, it may
provide insecurity; and due to its size, there are more chances to optical disk more prone to lose and
theft.
• Reliability
Unlike flash drives, any plastic casings can be caused to damage optical disks. Therefore, they make
the disk unreadable as they are prone to scratching the disks. The data stored on an optical disk
cannot be recovered anymore.
• Capacity
As compared to other forms of storage drives, the cost of optical disks is high per GB/TB. Also, while
comparing with any other forms of storage medias, it has less storage capacity. Except the Blu-ray
disk, the maximum storage capacity of optical disk is 4.7GB.
• Duplication
Like a USB flash drive, it is not easy to make a duplicate copy by using an optical disk. There is needed
a separate software and hardware in order to process of burning. For this purpose, also, there are
multiple third-party programs available. Writing software is furnished with the newest version of
windows.

Virtual Memory
Virtual memory is a valuable concept in computer architecture that allows you to run large,
sophisticated programs on a computer even if it has a relatively small amount of RAM. A computer
with virtual memory artfully juggles the conflicting demands of multiple programs within a fixed
amount of physical memory. A PC that's low on memory can run the same programs as one with
abundant RAM, although more slowly.

Virtual memory works similarly, but at one level up in the memory hierarchy. A memory management
unit (MMU) transfers data between physical memory and some gradual storage device, generally a
disk. This storage area can be defined as a swap disk or swap file, based on its execution. Retrieving
data from physical memory is much faster than accessing data from the swap disk.

Virtual memory can be configured using any of the following technique:

1. Paging
Paging is a technique of memory management where small fixed-length pages are allocated instead
of a single large variable-length contiguous block in the case of the dynamic allocation technique. In a
paged system, each process is divided into several fixed-size ‘chunks’ called pages, typically 4k bytes
in length. The memory space is also divided into blocks of the equal size known as frames.
Advantages of Paging
There are the following advantages of Paging are −
• In Paging, there is no requirement for external fragmentation.
• In Paging, the swapping among equal-size pages and page frames is clear.
• Paging is a simple approach that it can use for memory management.
Disadvantage of Paging
There are the following disadvantages of Paging are −
• In Paging, there can be a chance of Internal Fragmentation.
• In Paging, the page table employs more memory.
• Because of Multi-level Paging, there can be a chance of memory reference overhead.

2. Segmentation
The partition of memory into logical units called segments, according to the user’s perspective is
called segmentation. Segmentation allows each segment to grow independently, and share. In other
words, segmentation is a technique that partition memory into logically related units called a
segment. It means that the program is a collection of the segment.
Unlike pages, segments can vary in size. This requires the MMU to manage segmented memory
somewhat differently than it would manage paged memory. A segmented MMU contains a segment
table to maintain track of the segment’s resident in memory.
A segment can initiate at one of several addresses and can be of any size, each segment table entry
should contain the start address and segment size. Some system allows a segment to start at any
address, while other limits the start address. One such limit is found in the Intel X86 architecture,
which requires a segment to start at an address that has 6000 as its four low-order bits.