MODULE-2: OSCILLATORS AND OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

Oscillators – Barkhausen criterion, sinusoidal and non-sinusoidal oscillators,

Colpitt’s and Hartley oscillator, Multi-vibrators, Single-stage astable oscillator,
Crystal controlled oscillators (Only Concepts, working, and waveforms. No
mathematical derivations)
Operational amplifiers - Ideal op-amp; characteristics of ideal and practical op-amp;
Practical op- amp circuits: Inverting and non-inverting amplifiers, voltage follower,
summer, subtractor, integrator, differentiator.(Text 1)
Oscillator is a electronic device which generates an AC signals with required
frequency, required amplitude and required wave shape. In Radio, TV receivers are used these
oscillators for generating high frequency carrier signals.
Positive feedback
As we have discussed in previous module, the negative feedback is used for an
amplifier circuit to control the gain. Similarly a positive feedback is used for oscillator

Figure-2.1: Amplifier with positive feedback

circuits, Figure-2.1 shows the block diagram of an amplifier stage with positive feedback
applied. The amplifier provides a phase shift of 180° and the feedback network provides a
further 180°. Thus the overall phase shift is 0°. The overall voltage gain, G, is given by,
The overall gain G = 𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (2.1)
𝑉𝐼𝑁

From the block diagram, Vin' = Vin + βVout

Vin = Vin' - βVout -------------------------------------------- (2.2)
The amplifier has input Vin', gain Av and output voltage Vout, therefore amplifier gain Av is
given by,

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 𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇
Av = , 𝑉 = Av 𝑉′ − − − − − − − − − −(2.3)
𝘍
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑂𝑈𝑇 𝑖𝑛

Substitute equation (2.2) and (2.3) in to (2.1), we have

Av 𝑉𝑖𝑛′ Av 𝑉𝑖𝑛′
𝐺= =
𝑉in′ − β𝑉out 𝑉in′ − βAv 𝑉𝑖𝑛′
Av
𝐺= − − − − − − − − − −(2.4)
1− βAv

From equation (2.4), when the loop gain, Av approaches unity the denominator (1 − βAv)
become zero. This will have the effect of increasing the overall gain, i.e. the overall gain with
positive feedback applied will be greater than the gain without feedback.
Barkhausen’s criterion for oscillation
The Barkhausen’s criterion for oscillation are:
❖ The overall phase shift of an oscillator circuit is 00 or 3600, i.e 1800 produced by an
amplifier circuit and another 1800 produced by feedback network there by it become
positive feedback. Hence feedback signal is in-phase with the input signal.
❖ The overall loop voltage gain βAv must be greater than unity. The amplifier’s gain
must be sufficient to overcome the losses associated with any frequency selective
feedback network.
Hence, to create an oscillator we simply need an amplifier with sufficient gain to overcome
the losses of the feedback network that provide positive feedback.
Sinusoidal and non-sinusoidal oscillators
The oscillators, which are generating only sinusoidal waveforms at their output, are called
sinusoidal oscillators. There are number of oscillator circuits are producing sinusoidal
oscillations at its output are,
❖ LC oscillators
❖ RC oscillators
The oscillators, which are generating other than sinusoidal waveforms at their output, are
called non-sinusoidal oscillators. There are number of oscillator circuits are producing
different waveforms at its output are,
❖ Square wave generating oscillator
❖ Triangular wave generating oscillator
❖ Saw-tooth wave generating oscillator
❖ Rectangular wave generating oscillator

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RC Phase shift or Ladder network oscillator
A RC phase-shift oscillator consists of three stage RC ladder network is shown in
Figure-2.2. The Transistor operates as a conventional common-emitter amplifier with R1, R2
and RC provides biasing to transistor operating point in a active region and RE and CE provides
emitter stabilization and CC1, CC2 is to block the DC component by coupling only AC signal

VCC
Basic Amplifier
RC CC 2
R1
C
CC 1 RC VO
B

E
R2 CE
RE

C C C

R R R

Feedback network

Figure-2.2: RC Phase shift oscillator

to the transistor amplifier. Every pair of RC elements in a feedback network provides 60 0

phase shift and consists of 3 – RC pairs and provides a total phase shift of 1800. The transistor
amplifier provides a phase shift of 1800 (signal at collector is 1800 out of phase with the
signal at base) at the collector terminal with respect to base terminal. Hence the total phase
shift at the base of transistor is 3600 or 00, thereby providing positive feedback to the amplifier
input (at base of transistor).
1
𝑓= − − − − − − − − − − − −(2.5)
2𝜋√6 𝑅𝐶

Hartley Oscillator
A Hartley Oscillator consists of LC tank circuit as feedback network is shown in
Figure-2.3. The Transistor operates as a conventional common-emitter amplifier with R1, R2
and RC provides biasing to transistor operating point in a active region and RE and CE provides
emitter stabilization and CC1, CC2 is to block the DC component by coupling only AC signal.

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The feedback network is connected between collector to base of a transistor amplifier. The
feedback means a part of output signal is fed back to the input. The LC tank circuit is taken
from the centre tap of the inductor coil or even two separate coils connected in series, which
are in parallel with a variable capacitor, C as shown in figure-2.3. The transistor amplifier
provides a phase shift of 1800 (signal at collector is 1800 out of phase with the signal at base)
at the collector terminal with respect to base terminal and the feedback network provides
another 1800 phase shift. Since output of feedback network is connected to the input (base
terminal), hence the overall phase shift becomes 00 or 3600.

VCC
Basic Amplifier
RC CC 2
R1
C
CC 1 RC VO
B

E
R2 CE
RE

L1 L2

Feedback network

Figure-2.3: Hartley Oscillator

The frequency of oscillations can be adjusted by varying the varying or “tuning” the
value of capacitor, C or by varying value of inductors. The frequency of oscillation of the
circuit shown in Figure- 2.3 is given by,

1
𝑓= − − − − − − − − − − − −(2.6)
2𝜋√𝐿𝑒𝑞𝐶

Where 𝐿𝑒𝑞 = L1 + L2

Colpitts Oscillator
A colpitts Oscillator consists of LC tank circuit as feedback network is shown in
Figure-2.4. The Transistor operates as a conventional common-emitter amplifier with R1, R2
and RC provides biasing to transistor operating point in a active region and RE and CE provides
emitter stabilization and CC1, CC2 is to block the DC component by coupling only AC signal.

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The feedback network is connected between collector to base of a transistor amplifier. The
feedback means a part of output signal is fed back to the input. The LC tank circuit consists of
two capacitors connected in series, which are in parallel with a inductor coils shown in figure-
2.4. The transistor amplifier provides a phase shift of 1800 (signal at collector is 1800 out of
phase with the signal at base) at the collector terminal with respect to base terminal and the
feedback network provides another 1800 phase shift. Since output of feedback network is
connected to the input (base terminal), hence the overall phase shift becomes 00 or 3600.
The frequency of oscillations can be adjusted by varying the varying or “tuning” the

VCC
Basic Amplifier
RC CC 2
R1
C
CC 1 RC VO
B

E
R2 CE
RE

C1 C2

Feedback network

Figure-2.3: Colpitt’s Oscillator

value of capacitors, or by varying value of inductor. The frequency of oscillation of the circuit
shown in Figure- 2.3 is given by,

1
𝑓= − − − − − − − − − − − −(2.6)
2𝜋√𝐶𝑒𝑞𝐿
𝐶1𝐶2
Where 𝐶𝑒𝑞 =
𝐶1+ 𝐶2

Crystal Oscillator
The Transistor operates as a conventional common-emitter amplifier with R1, R2 and
RC provides biasing to transistor operating point in a active region and RE and CE provides
emitter stabilization and CC1, CC2 is to block the DC component by coupling only AC signal.

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Feedback means a part of output signal is fed back to the input. The feedback network consists
of two capacitors connected in series, which are in parallel with a quartz crystal shown in
figure-2.5. The transistor amplifier provides a phase shift of 1800 (signal at collector is 1800
out of phase with the signal at base) at the collector terminal with respect to base terminal and
the feedback network provides another 1800 phase shift. Since output of feedback network is
connected to the input (base terminal), hence the overall phase shift becomes 00 or 3600. A

V CC
Basic Amplifier
RC CC 2
R1
C
CC 1 RC VO
B

E
R2 CE
RE

Crystal

C1 C2

Feedback network

Figure-2.5: crystal oscillator

piezoelectric crystal is a frequency selective element and it mechanically vibrates as a
resonator and frequency of vibration determines the oscillation frequency. The crystal has
very high Q-factor and better temperature stability than LC and RC oscillators. The crystal
oscillator always produces sustained oscillation.
Multivibrators

There are many occasions we require non-sinusoidal oscillations, like Square wave,
Triangular wave, Pulse and etc. for many electronic applications. The term ‘multivibrator’
simply originates from ‘multiple vibrations’ and Multivibrators uses regenerative or positive
feedback. Basically multivibrators are classified as,

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❖ Astable multivibrators: Provides a continuous train of pulses and sometimes, it is also
called free-running multivibrators
❖ Monostable multivibrators: It produces a single output pulse and it has one stable state.
Sometimes it is also called ‘one-shot’ multivibrator
❖ Bistable multivibrators: It has two stable states and requires a trigger pulse or control
signal to change from one state to another.
Astable multivibrator
The figure-2.6 shows, the circuit diagram of astable multivibrator consists of two
common emitter transistor amplifiers. The transistor TR1 biased through resistor R4,

VC

R1 R4 R2
R3 VCC
VCC

VC C1 C2 VC
C C 0v
0v
B
TR
TR B

E E

Figure-2.6: Astable Multivibrator

transistor TR2 biased through resistor R3, the collector of TR2 connected to base of the
transistor TR1 through capacitor C1 and the collector of TR1 connected to base of the
transistor TR2 through capacitor C2.
Whenever supply voltage VCC is applied to the circuit both the transistors are trying
conduct. Let us assume the transistor TR1 is conducting first, as a result, voltage at collector
VC1 = 0 volt (means operating in saturation region) and TR2 is in OFF state as a result voltage
at collector VC2 = VCC (means cut-off region). During this condition the current is flowing
through R3, C1, and collector of TR1 to emitter of TR1 shown in figure-2.7. Since current is
flowing through C1 and it starts charging to the maximum of VCC, the charging period
depends on time constant R3C1. The C1 is connected from collector of TR1 to the base of
TR2, the charged capacitor voltage across C1 drives the transistor TR2 to operate in saturation
region or switch ON, correspondingly VC2 = 0 volt and the transistor TR1 goes in cut-off
region, there by VC1 = VCC volt. During this condition the

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current is flowing through R4, C2, and collector of TR2 to emitter of TR2 shown in figure-2.8,

VCC
R1 R3 R4 R2

C1 C2 VC2 =VCC
VC1 =0v C C
B
TR2
TR1 B

Short or ON E E

Figure-2.7: TR1 ON and TR2 OFF

current is flowing through C2 and it starts charging to the maximum of V CC, the charging
period depends on time constant R4C2. The C2 is connected from collector of TR2 to the base
of TR1, the charged capacitor voltage across C2 drives the transistor TR1 to operate in

VCC

R1 R3 R4 R2

VC1= V CC C1 C2 VC2 =0v

C C

TR1 B
TR2
B
Short or ON
Open or OFF E E

Figure-2.8: TR1 OFF and TR2 ON

saturation region or switch ON correspondingly V C1 = 0 volt and the transistor TR1 goes in
cut-off region there by VC1 = VCC volt. There are two square waves generating at collectors
of transistor but both are out of phase with each other shown in figure-2.6. This process
repeats, hence generating square wave.
Single – stage Astable multivibrator
The single - stage astable multivibrator circuit is shown in figure-2.9, it consists
positive feedback through resistor R2 to non-inverting terminal of OPAMP. Due to this
positive feedback the output voltage increases to positive saturation (+Vsat) voltage
approximately +VCC, the feedback voltage is given by,

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 R2
𝑉𝐹𝐵 = Vsat − − − − − − − − − (2.7)
R1 + R2
Assume that OPAMP is ideal and no current flow through inverting terminal (Ib = 0). Since
the output is at +Vsat, the capacitor starts charging through resistor R and the direction of

+VCC

A 2 - 7
Ib = 0 741A 6
3 V0
B + 4
R1
C
+VEE

R2

Figure-2.9: Single-stage Astable Multivibrator

current is shown in figure-2.9. When voltage at node-A is slightly more than at node-B the
output voltage suddenly changes from +Vsat to -Vsat during this interval the capacitor starts
discharging through the same resistor R and voltage at node-B greater than node- A again the
output voltage suddenly changes from -Vsat to +Vsat and it repeats thereby generating square
wave shown in figure-2.10

+Vsat
+Vsat

0
t
-Vsat
-Vsat

Figure-2.10: output wave form and capacitor charging and discharging

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 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
An operational amplifier, or op-amp, is a very high gain (A ≈ ∞) differential amplifier with
high input impedance (Zi ≈ ∞) and low output impedance (Zo ≈ 0).
The standard operational amplifier symbol is shown in Figure-2.11. It has two input
terminals, the inverting (−) input and the non-inverting (+) input, and one output terminal. The
typical op-amp operates with two DC supply voltages, one positive (+V CC) and the other
negative (-VEE). The positive and negative supply will decide the output voltage swing.

Introduction to OPAMP Positive supply

Voltage
An OPAMP is basically an
Inverting +VCC
amplifier, which amplifies the Input terminal
V1 2 - 7 Output Voltage
difference between two input 6
741
3 V0
signals applied to its input V2 + 4
terminals, hence it is called Non-Inverting
-VEE
input terminal
difference amplifier. Negative supply
Voltage

V0 = AV (V2 – V1) Figure-2.11: Operational amplifier symbol

Where ‘AV’ is proportionality constant and is equals to voltage Gain of differential amplifier
➢ Differential Gain (AD): Since the differential amplifier amplifies the difference
between two input signals and hence gain provided under this condition is called differential
gain.
V0 = AD (V2 – V1),
AD is differential gain
VD = (V2 – V1), therefore

𝑉0
𝐴𝐷 =
𝑉𝐷

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➢ Common Mode Gain (AC): When same signal is applied to both inverting and non-
inverting input terminals, the difference will be zero. But, practical differential amplifier not
only depends on difference between two inputs but also depends on the average of two
signals. Therefore VC is given by,
𝑉2+𝑉1
𝑉𝐶 = , therefore
2
𝑉0
𝐴𝐶 =
𝑉𝐶
Where Ac is common mode gain

The total voltage of any differential amplifier is expressed as sum of output voltages under
differential mode and common mode is given by,
𝑉0 = 𝐴𝐷𝑉𝐷 + 𝐴𝐶𝑉𝐶

➢ Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR): It is defined as the ratio of differential

mode gain(AD) to the common mode gain(AC).
𝐴
CMRR = | 𝐷|
𝐴𝐶
𝐷 𝐴
CMRR(dB) = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔10 | |
𝐴𝐶

Ideal OPAMP Characteristics

List of ideal characteristics of ideal OPAMP

(i). Infinite open loop voltage Gain (AOL = ∞)

(ii). Infinite input impedance (Ri = ∞)

(iii). Zero output impedance (R0 = 0)

(iv). Zero off-set voltage (VOS = 0)

(v). Infinite Bandwidth (BW =∞)

(vi). Infinity Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR = ∞)

(vii). Infinite Slew Rate (S = ∞)

(viii) No Effect of Temperature

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(ix). Power Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR = 0)

PRACTIAL OPAMP CHARACTERISTICS

(i). Open loop voltage Gain (AOL) is of several thousands

(ii). Input impedance (Ri), typically 1 MΩ

(iii). Output impedance (R0) is 1 to 2 ohms

(iv). The off-set voltage (VOS) is small and it depends on temperature.

(v). Bandwidth (BW) is having several 100’s of MΩ, with negative feedback bandwidth
increases by decreasing gain

(vi). Infinite Slew Rate (S) is 0.5 volts/µsec

(vii). Power Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR) is 30 micro volts/volt

OPAMP APPLICATIONS
The OPAMP can be used for amplification, generating oscillation and for many mathematical
operations are discussed as follows,
Inverting Amplifier: The inverting amplifier is a closed loop amplifier in which the input
is applied at the inverting input. The output of the amplifier is 1800 out of phase with the
input signal. The circuit diagram of inverting amplifier is shown in figure-2.14. The
expression for output voltage can be derived as

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According to virtual ground concept, the voltage at node ‘A’ and voltage at node ‘B’ always
be same. Hence node ‘B’ is connected to ground i.e zero volts, VA = VB = 0.

Rf

If
+VCC
Output signal
R1 Ib=0 2 - 7
Input signal A 741 6
Iin 3
+ V0
Vi B 4

-VEE

Figure-2.14: Inverting amplifier

The current flowing through R1 is equals to current flowing through Rf

Iin = If

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 Where AV is voltage gain, when Rf = R1, then V0 = -Vi

Non-Inverting Amplifier:

Rf

+VCC I
Output signal
R1 2 - 7
A 741
3 6
B + 4 V0
Input signal
Vi -VEE

Figure-2.15: Non-inverting amplifier

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Non-Inverting Amplifier: It is an amplifier circuit, which amplifies the input signal and
providing no phase shift between input and output signals. The figure- 2.15 shows the circuit
diagram of non-inverting amplifier.

I1 = If = I and VA = VB = 0

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Voltage follower: The circuit diagram
+VCC
of voltage follower is shown in figure-
2.16, here the output is fed back to A 2 - 7
741 6
inverting input terminal directly. The 3
B + V0
output is linearly related to OPAMP input 4

i.e output follows the input, hence it is Vi -VEE

called voltage follower or emitter follower.
The voltage at node ‘A’ is same as the Figure-2.16: Voltage follower
output voltage V0.
V A = V0
The voltage at node ‘B’ is equals to Vi and according to virtual ground concept VA = VB
Therefore VA = VB = Vi =V0, hence output voltage follows the input voltage is voltage
follower. The gain of voltage follower is given by,
𝑉0
AV = = 1 − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (2.19)
𝑉𝑖

Adder or Summer: Basically there are two types of adders, inverting adder and non-
inverting adder. The output voltage is equals to sum of all the inputs. The circuit diagram
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of inverting adder is
Rf
shown in figure-2.17,
when two or more inputs R1 I
V1 +VCC
are applied at inverting I1
R2 2 -
terminal the output V2 7
A 741 6
voltage is equals to sum I2 3 V0
B + 4
of all voltages with 1800
phase change. -VEE
The current flowing
Figure-2.17: OPAMP adder
through R1 is equals to
current flowing through Rf,
I1 + I2 = I

As we know voltage at node ’A’ is always equals to voltage at node ‘B’ and node ‘B’ is
directly connected to ground, hence VA = VB is zero.

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Subtractor or Difference Amplifier:

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 𝑖

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Integrator:

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Input and output waveforms are shown infigure below:

Figure-2.22: Input output waveforms

=0
Differentiator: 𝑅𝑓

According to virtual ground concept VA = VB = 0

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If the input signal is square wave the output is spike wave form shown in figure- below.

Figure: Input and output waveforms

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Example-4: Determine the frequency of oscillation of a three stage ladder network oscillator
in which C = 10 nF and R = 10 kΩ.
Solution: As we know the frequency of oscillation ‘f’ for RC phase shift or ladder network
oscillator is,
1 1
𝑓= =
2𝜋√6 𝑅𝐶 2𝜋√6 𝑋 10 𝑋 10−9 𝑋 10 𝑋 103
f = 647 Hz
Example-5: An inverting amplifier using OPAMP has R1 = 5 KΩ and Rf = 47 KΩ. It is
applied with 2 volts peak to peak sinusoidal waveform. An AC voltmeter is used between
output terminal and ground to measure output voltage. Calculate the reading on voltmeter.
Assume power supply voltages to be ± 12 volts.
Solution: The gain of inverting amplifier is,
𝑉0 −𝑅𝑓 −47 𝑋 103
= 𝐴𝑣 = = = −9.4
𝑉𝑖 𝑅1 5 𝑋 103
𝑉0
𝐴𝑣 = −9.4 =
𝑉𝑖
V0 (peak to peak) = - 9.4 X Vi (peak to peak) = -9.4 X 2 = -18.8 volts
V0 (peak) = V0 (peak to peak) / 2 = 18.8 / 2 = 9.4
𝑉0𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 9.4
𝑉0𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = = 6.6468 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
√2 √2
Example-6: For a non-inverting amplifier given that R1 = 10 KΩ and gain required from the
circuit is 91. Determine the appropriate value of feedback resistor.
Solution: For a non-inverting amplifier gain is given by,
𝑉0 𝑅𝑓
= 𝐴𝑣 = (1 + )
𝑉𝑖 𝑅1
𝑅𝑓
91 = (1 + )
10 𝑋 103
𝑅𝑓
= 91 − 1
10 𝑋 103
Rf = 10 X 103 X 90 = 900 KΩ
Example-6: Find the gain and output voltage for a non-inverting amplifier using OPAMP
when input voltage is 0.5 volts and -3 volts. Assuming supply voltage used is ±12 volts, Rf =
10 KΩ and R1 = 1 KΩ.
Solution: For a non-inverting amplifier gain is given by,

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 𝑉0 𝑅𝑓
𝐴𝑣 = = (1 + )
𝑉𝑖 𝑅1
When Vi = 0.5 volts
𝑉0 10 𝑋 103
= (1 + 1 𝑋 103 )
0.5
V0 = 0.5 X 11 X 103 = 5.5 volts
When Vi = -3 volts
𝑉0 10 𝑋 103
= (1 + 1 𝑋 103 )
−3
V0 = -3 X 11 X 103 = -33 volts
Practically V0 = -33 volts is not possible, because the output voltage will saturate at -12 volts
is equals to the supply voltage and remaining portion of output voltage is clipped - off.
Example-7: Determine the output voltage for the OPAMP adder circuit shown in figure-2.25.

1 KΩ 1 KΩ
+2v
1 KΩ If
+1v +VCC

1 KΩ 2 -
+4v 7
A 741 6
3 V0
B + 4

-VEE

Figure-2.25

Solution: As we know that the output voltage of inverting adder is given by,
𝑅𝑓𝑉1 𝑅𝑓𝑉2
𝑉 = −( + ), for two inputs, but the given circuit has three inputs
0 𝑅1 𝑅2

𝑅𝑓𝑉1 𝑅𝑓𝑉2 𝑅𝑓𝑉3

𝑉0 = − ( + + )
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

But R1 = R2 = R3 = Rf = R
𝑅𝑉1 𝑅𝑉2 𝑅𝑉3
𝑉0 = − ( + + )
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
V0 = - (V1 + V2 + V3)

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 V0 = - (2 + 1 + 4) = - 7 volts

Example-8: Design a scaling adder circuit using OPAMP to give the output voltage

V0 = - (8V1 + 6V2 + 5V3)

Solution: Since the output voltage equation has negative sign, hence it is inverting adder.

V0 = - (8V1 + 6V2 + 5V3)

As we know the expression for output voltage of inverting adder is,

𝑅𝑓𝑉1 𝑅𝑓𝑉2 𝑅𝑓𝑉3
𝑉0 = − ( + + )
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

Let us assume Rf = 100 KΩ

𝑅𝑓
= 8,
𝑅1
𝑅𝑓 100 𝑋 103
𝑅1 = = = 12.25 KΩ
8 8
𝑅𝑓
= 6,
𝑅2

𝑅𝑓 100 𝑋 103
𝑅2 = = = 16.66 KΩ
6 6
𝑅𝑓
= 5,
𝑅3
𝑅𝑓 100 𝑋 103
𝑅3 = = = 20 KΩ
5 5

12.25 KΩ 100 KΩ
V1
16.66 KΩ If
V2 +VCC

20 KΩ 2 -
V3 7
A 741 6
3 V0
B + 4

-VEE

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