Lake
An inland body of water, an
expanded part of a river, a
reservoir formed by a dam, or a
lake basin intermittently or
formerly covered by water.
River
A natural waterway
usually formed by water
derived from
precipitation and flows
from higher ground to
lower ground.
[Link]
Stream
A body of water with a
detectable current,
confined within a bed
and banks.
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Water Quality for Specific Uses
▪ rivers, streams, lakes, groundwater, coastal and
offshore waters are classified by the EMB
according to their beneficial uses.
▪ BENEFICIAL USES – refer to ways in which water is
used by humans and other living things
➢ ex: drinking water and habitat of aquatic
organisms
➢ the government regulates water quality by
classifying water bodies according to their
beneficial uses, designating the ambient water
quality guideline values for each class of water
body and by setting limits to the concentration
of pollutants in effluent or wastewater that can
be discharged into the water bodies.
[Link]
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Water Quality for Specific Uses
▪ The Clean Water Act defines
“beneficial use” as the use
of the environment or any
element or segment thereof
conducive to public or
private welfare, safety and
health; and shall include,
but not be limited to the use
of water for domestic,
municipal, irrigation, power
generation, fisheries,
livestock raising, industrial,
recreational and other
purposes.
[Link]
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Water Quality for Specific Uses
▪ The beneficial uses
and guideline
values for the
different classes of
waters in the
country are
specified in the
Revised Water
Quality Guidelines
(revision of DAO 34,
series of 1990). [Link]
in-the-Philippines-E-coli_tbl1_353731058
Water Quality for Specific Uses
▪ Generally, waters in the higher
classification level have more
stringent water quality guideline
values than waters in the lower
classification level.
▪ Thus, effluent to be discharged
into waters of higher
classification level usually has
stricter effluent standards than
effluent to be discharged into
waters of lower classification
level. [Link]
in-the-Philippines-E-coli_tbl1_353731058
SIGNIFICANCE OF WATER
QUALITY PARAMETERS
Water quality
parameters are the
physical, chemical,
and biological
properties of water
by which its quality
is measured.
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Physical Properties
❑ depth, flow velocity, flow rate
temperature, color, turbidity,
transparency or visibility
❑ measurements of these
parameters are particularly useful
in analyzing if the waters could
support habitat requirements for
fish and other wildlife
Chemical Properties
❑ nutrient composition, pH,
chemicals that affect the
chemistry of water
❑ studies on water quality
focus only on the
chemicals that are most
important to the objectives
of the study
Chemical Properties
❑ changes in the
chemical
properties of
water can be
cause by land
and water
activities, either
natural or man-
made
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Chemical Properties
❑ in waters
affected by
agricultural runoff,
chemicals of
concern should
include those
found in manure,
fertilizers, and
pesticides
[Link]
Chemical Properties
❑ in waters
affected by
industrial
discharges,
measurements
may be limited to
the chemicals
used or by-
products of the
nearby industries
[Link]
Biological Properties
▪ biological properties of an
aquatic system consist of
organisms and their life
functions
▪ organisms found in aquatic
environments include
microscopic organisms like
bacteria, viruses and
protozoa; or creatures such as
algae, vertebrates and
invertebrates.
Biological Properties
▪ photosynthesis,
decomposition,
respiration and
metabolism of
organisms in
water affect BOD,
DO and nutrient
levels.
PRIMARY PARAMETERS
❑ Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
❑ Total Suspended Solids (TSS)
❑ Color ❑ Temperature
❑ Dissolved oxygen (DO) ❑ Nitrate (as NO3-N)
❑ Fecal Coliform ❑ pH
❑ Phosphate
❑ Chloride
[Link]
1. Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
▪ DO is the concentration of
oxygen dissolved in the water.
▪ It is measured either in
concentration or "percent
saturation."
▪ Concentration is the milligram of
oxygen in a liter of water,
expressed as mg/L.
▪ Percent saturation is the amount
of oxygen in a liter of water
relative to the total amount of
oxygen that the water can hold
at that temperature.
[Link]
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
▪ DO allowsaquatic organisms like fish
and zooplankton to breathe.
➢ much of the DO in water comes
from air
➢ oxygen can also be mixed into the
water by waves or lakes or fast-
moving rivers
➢ algae and rooted aquatic plants
also add oxygen through
photosynthesis
▪ Oxygen can enter a body of water in
a few different ways: photosynthesis
by aquatic plants, surface diffusion,
aeration from churning water
[Link]
▪ DO - primary monitoring parameter in ambient water; Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
important measurement of aquatic health since aquatic
organisms get all of their oxygen from water; higher DO
level indicates better water quality:
✓ 8 mg/L – DO levels of healthy freshwater bodies
✓ 5 mg/L - DO levels sufficient for many aquatic
species
▪ In contrast to lakes, where DO levels are most likely to vary
vertically in the water column, the DO in rivers and streams
changes more horizontally along the course of the
waterway.
✓ DO levels in and below riffle areas, waterfalls, or dam
spillways are typically higher than those in pools and
slower-moving stretches
✓ if one wants to measure the effect of a dam, it would
be important to sample for DO behind the dam,
immediately below the spillway, and upstream of the
dam
✓ since DO levels are critical to fish, a good place to
sample is in the pools that fishes tend to favor or in
their spawning areas. [Link]
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Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
▪ DO - The concentration of free (not
chemically combined) molecular
oxygen (a gas) dissolved in water,
usually expressed in milligrams per liter
parts per million, or percent of
saturation.
▪ Adequate concentrations of dissolved
oxygen are necessary for the life of fish
and other aquatic organisms and the
prevention of offensive odors.
▪ DO levels are considered the most
important and commonly employed
measurement of water quality and
indicator of a water body's ability to
support desirable aquatic life.
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Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
▪ levels above 5 milligrams per liter
(5mg O2/L) are considered optimal
▪ most fish cannot survive for
prolonged periods at levels below
3 mg O2/L.
▪ Levels below 1 mg O2/L are often
referred to as hypoxic
▪ O2 is totally absent anoxic (often
called anaerobic which
technically means without air).
[Link]
[Link]
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
▪ Secondary and
advanced
wastewater
treatment systems are
generally designed to
degrade organic
matter to ensure
adequate dissolved
oxygen in waste-
receiving waters.
[Link]
[Link]
Factors affecting Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
• Volume and velocity of water flowing in the water body
• Climate or season
• Type and number of organisms in the water body
• Altitude
• Dissolved or suspended solids
• Amount of nutrients in water
• Organic wastes
• Riparian vegetation
• Groundwater inflow
[Link]
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
1. Volume and velocity of water flowing in the
water body
➢ Water in fast-moving streams is aerated by
bubbles as it rolls over rocks and falls down
waterfalls.
➢ unpolluted streams are usually saturated
with oxygen
➢ slow, stagnant waters → oxygen enters only
the top layer of water; deeper water is often
low in DO because organic matter is
decomposed by bacteria that live on or
near the bottom of the reservoir.
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1. Volume and velocity of [Link]
[Link]
21-07/parameter-factsheet_temperature.pdf
water flowing in the water
body
➢ Water-flow-retarding structures like
dams slow down water and affect the
DO concentration downstream.
➢ if water is released from the top of
reservoir → water can be warmer
because the dam has slowed the
water, giving it more time to warm up
and lose oxygen
➢ if dams release water from the bottom
of a reservoir → water will be cooler,
but may be low in DO due to
decomposition of organic matter by
bacteria
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
2. Climate or season
▪ more oxygen can dissolve in cooler water.
➢ thus DO concentrations are usually higher in the cooler months or rainy
season than in summer or dry season.
▪ during dry seasons, water levels decrease and the flow rate of a river slows
down → as the water moves slower, it mixes less with the air → DO
concentration decreases
▪ during rainy seasons, oxygen concentrations tend to be higher because
the rain interacts with oxygen in the air as it falls
▪ more sunlight and warmer temperatures also bring increased activity
levels in plant and animal life → may increase or decrease the DO
concentration depending on the organisms present
[Link]
[Link]
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
3. Type and number of organisms (plant, bacteria, fungi)
in the water body
▪ Plants release oxygen into the water during photosynthesis and
remove oxygen from the water during respiration.
➢ If many plants are present, the water can be supersaturated
with DO at daytime when photosynthesis takes place.
➢ Concentrations of oxygen can decrease significantly at night
due to respiration.
➢ DO concentrations are usually highest in the late afternoon
because photosynthesis has been occurring all day.
▪ Bacteria and fungi use oxygen as they breakdown dead
organic matter in the stream.
[Link]
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
4. Altitude
▪ Oxygen is more easily
dissolved in water at
low altitudes than at
high altitudes due to
higher atmospheric
pressure.
[Link]
[Link]
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
5. Dissolved or suspended solids
▪ Oxygen is more easily dissolved into water with low levels of
dissolved or suspended solids.
▪ Waterswith high amounts of salt, such as the ocean (which
contains about 35 grams of salt for each 1000 grams of water)
have low concentrations of DO.
▪ Freshwater lakes, streams, and tap water generally contain much
less salt, so DO concentrations are higher.
▪ Asthe amount of salt in any body of water increases, the amount
of dissolved oxygen decreases.
▪ Anincrease in salt concentration due to evaporation of water
from an ecosystem tends to reduce the dissolved oxygen
available to the ecosystem’s inhabitants.
[Link]
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
6. Amount of nutrients in water
▪ Eutrophication – process by which
excess nutrients cause an
overabundance of algae and plant
matter → when these algae die,
bacteria decompose them, and use up
oxygen → DO concentrations can drop
too low, making it difficult for fish to
breathe and thus lead to fishkill
▪ Note: nutrients can lead to increased
plant growth → causes high DO
concentrations during the day as
photosynthesis occurs and low DO
concentrations during the night when
photosynthesis stops and plants and
animals use the oxygen during
respiration.
[Link]
[Link] 1170x0_subsampling-2_upscale.png
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
▪ common nutrient sources:
➢ nitrate - sewage discharge, fertilizer
runoff, and leakage from septic
systems
➢ phosphate - fertilizer and some
detergents.
▪ eutrophication also produces large
amounts of CO2 causing ocean
acidification → slows fish and shellfish
growth, prevents shell formation in
mollusks → reduced catch/harvest
▪ eutrophication can also lead to algal
blooms and dead zones
[Link]
[Link] 1170x0_subsampling-2_upscale.png
7. Organic wastes Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
▪ organic wastes - remains of any living or once-living
organisms
leaves dead plants or animals
grass clippings sewage
animal droppings
▪ organic waste → decomposed by bacteria → bacteria
remove dissolved oxygen from the water when they
breathe
▪ If more food (organic waste) is available for the
bacteria, more bacteria will grow and use oxygen, and
the DO concentration will drop.
▪ Directly downstream from where sewage effluent is
discharged to a river, DO content often decreases,
because of the increase in growth rate of bacteria that
consume the organic matter contained in the effluent.
▪ The degree and extent of the DO "sag" depends on the
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) of the effluent
(how much oxygen the effluent can consume).
[Link] [Link]
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Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
8. Riparian Vegetation
▪ temperature, DO
▪ shading by trees/removal of trees
▪ removal of trees, bare soil exposed from
removing the tree can erode, increasing
the amount of dissolved and suspended
solids in the water → decrease in DO
concentrations
▪ direct sunlight, along with increased
nutrients can increase the growth rate
of aquatic plants → plants release
oxygen to the water during the day, but
then remove oxygen from the water at
night → results in very high DO
concentrations during the day, and very
low DO concentrations during the night.
[Link]
[Link]
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
9. Groundwater inflow
▪ groundwater usually has low
concentrations of DO, but it is
also often colder than stream
water
➢ groundwater may at first
lower the DO concentration,
but as groundwater cools
the stream or river, the ability
of the water to hold oxygen
improves.
[Link]
[Link]
2. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
▪ Biochemical Oxygen Demand or Biological Oxygen Demand
(BOD) is a measure of how much oxygen is consumed by
bacteria or microbes as they break down organic pollutant in
water.
▪ BOD is measured in milligrams of oxygen consumed per liter of
water. Scientists take water samples and incubate them for 5
days at 68° F/20° C
▪ The loss of DO in the sample, once corrections have been made
for the degree of dilution
Undiluted: BOD = Initial DO – Final DO
Diluted: ( (Initial DO – Final DO) –BOD of seed) x Dilution
Factor
[Link]
2. Biochemical Oxygen Demand
(BOD)
▪ BOD is typically divided into:
a. Carbonaceous biochemical oxygen demand (CBOD)
- result of the breakdown of organic molecules such a cellulose and
sugars into carbon dioxide and water.
a. Nitrogenous biochemical oxygen demand
- result of the breakdown of proteins, which contain sugars linked to
nitrogen
- after the nitrogen is "broken off”, it is usually in the form of ammonia,
which is readily converted to nitrate in the environment
- conversion of ammonia to nitrate requires more than four times the
amount of oxygen as the conversion of an equal amount of sugar to
carbon dioxide and water
[Link]
2. Biochemical Oxygen Demand
(BOD)
What is the significance of BOD in in Water
Quality Monitoring ?
▪ BOD measures the rate of oxygen used up by micro-organisms in a sample
of water at a fixed temperature (20OC) and over a given period of time in
the dark.
▪ The BOD test is widely used to determine the pollution strength of domestic
and industrial wastes → useful in determining the degree of pollution of
streams and lakes at any time and hence can be used in determining the
purification capacities of bodies of waters receiving organic wastes.
▪ The test generally takes place over an elapsed period of five days, but
other BOD tests are also used.
➢ The 5-day BOD (BOD5) represents the amount of oxygen consumed
by microorganisms to break down the organic matter present in the
sample bottle during the incubation period.
[Link]
What other factors can cause high
BOD levels?
▪ BOD indicates water pollution; BOD indicates good quality of
water
▪ dead zones can form under both natural and human-induced
stresses
▪ natural stresses can include: high summer temperatures, water flow
blockages due to natural disasters,
▪ human caused stresses that create oxygen depleted zones are most
commonly caused by: fertilizer runoff (mainly high levels of N and P),
overuse of certain deicing compounds (lower the freezing
temperature of water) that collect in gulfs, lakes, ponds, and
estuaries
3. Color
▪ True color is caused by dissolved compounds
in water and can be due to natural or
anthropogenic causes.
▪ Apparent color is caused by dissolved AND
suspended solids.
ex: brown colored water – may be due to:
✓ dissolvedbyproducts of plant biodegradation
(true color) or;
✓ suspended clay particles (apparent color); or
✓ both (also apparent color)
➢ Color is measured in Platinum-Cobalt units.
➢ Color can be measured using light with a wavelength
of 455 nm. [Link]
[Link]
4. Fecal Coliform
▪ Fecal coliform bacteriological
test tells whether the water is
free from disease-causing
bacteria.
▪ Coliform bacteria grow in the
digestive tracts of humans and
other warm-blooded animals,
and serve as indicators of
fecal contamination and as a
marker for other possibly
pathogenic microorganisms. [Link]
[Link]
4. Fecal Coliform
▪ Coliform bacteria are measured
by counting the most probable
number of bacteria colonies that
grow from a 100mL water sample
(MPN/100ml).
▪ Sources of coliform bacteria
include domestic and industrial
wastewater discharges, septic
tanks, domestic and farm
animals, and wildlife.
▪ Waters with fecal coliform counts
greater than 150 MPN/100ml are
considered unsafe for swimming.
[Link]
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5. pH
▪ pH is a measure of the hydrogen
ion concentration in liquids
➢ water contains both
hydrogen ions (H+) and
hydroxyl ions (OH-)
➢ pH test measures the H+ ion
concentration of liquids and
substances.
▪ most substances have a pH in
the range 0 to 14, although
extremely acidic substances ma y
have pH < 0 and extremely basic
substances may have pH >14 [Link]
5. pH
▪ Pure deionized water
➢ contains equal (H+) and
(OH-), and is considered
neutral (neither acidic nor
basic)
➢ pure deionized or
neutral water: pH of 7
➢ acidic pH < 7
➢ alkaline pH >7
[Link]
5. pH
▪ pH is a logarithmic
value, meaning that for
every one-unit change,
the actual hydrogen ion
concentration change
in the sample is ten-fold
(power of 10)
▪ Water with a pH of 4 is
ten times more acidic
than water with pH of 5
and one hundred times
more acidic than that
with pH of 6.
[Link]
5. pH
▪ changes in pH can greatly affect
aquatic organisms
▪ organisms that have adapted to water
of a specific pH may die if sudden
changes in pH occur
▪ pH changes between 0.2 and 0.3 are
already stressful to some species
▪ chances of survival diminishes as pH falls
below 5 or increases above 9.
▪ pH of 6.5 to 8.2: deal for most
organisms
▪ pH 6.5-8.5: optimal range for most
tropical fishes
5. pH
▪ At pH 6.0, the microorganisms which decompose organic matter begin to die. The plankton (microscopic plants
and animals) which form the base of the food chain begins to decline drastically at this pH level. Between 6.0 and
5.5, the number of aquatic invertebrate species declines, most fish species lose their ability to reproduce and algal
mats form along the shoreline. At stronger acid levels, toxic metals such as aluminum, mercury, lead and cadmium
dissolve more readily and therefore are more easily absorbed by fish and other aquatic animals. Heavy metals can
accumulate on the gills of fish or cause deformities in young fish, reducing their chances of survival.
6. Phosphates and Nitrates
▪ Phosphates - nutrients that
come from both natural
sources and human activities
(fertilizers, detergents,
wastewater, etc.)
▪ phosphate sources:
polyphosphates in
detergents, raw sewage, and
run off from farms that use
phosphate fertilizers.
▪ nitrate sources: fertilizers and
domestic and industrial
wastes [Link]
▪ transport of phosphates in runoff can occur in
phosphates and nitrates
dissolved and particulate forms
▪ particulate phosporus - all phase forms,
including phosphates absorbed by soil particles
and organic matter eroded during runoff;
constitute the major proportion (75 %-90%) of P
transported from cultivated land
▪ dissolved phosphorus - runoff from grass or
forest land carries little sediment and is therefore ,
generally dominated by the dissolved form
➢ NOTE: dissolved P is immediately available for
biological uptake while particulate P can
provide a long-term source of P for aquatic
biota
▪ Bioavailable P = dissolved phosphates +
particulate phosphates
[Link]
[Link] 001437 18
[Link]
Phosphates and Nitrates
Impact on Human Health and
Aquatic Life
▪ Algal bloom - a form of
cyanobacteria, which can
produce neurotoxins (affecting the
nervous system) and hepatotoxins
(affecting the liver); ingestion of
these algae- produced toxins while
swimming can lead to death.
▪ Algal blooms do not have to
produce toxins in order to be
harmful (only 1% of algal species
produce toxins)
➢ blooms of nontoxic species can
block light to aquatic plants
deeper in the water, and even
clog or harm fish gills.
[Link]
[Link]
Phosphates and Nitrates
Impact on Human Health and
Aquatic Life
▪ some harmful algal blooms (HAB)
can also result in dead zones →
when blooms occur, the
overgrowth of algae can quickly
die off → large amounts of algae
die, sink, and decompose in the
water → the decomposition
consumes oxygen and depletes
the amount available to healthy
marine plants and animals
(eutrophication)
➢ If the organisms are unable to
leave the area affected by the
HAB, they may die.
[Link]
[Link]
Phosphates and Nitrates
▪ In areas with intensive confined
animal operations, the land
application of manure to marginal
lands as a cheap source of nutrients
and organic matter has increased
both grass and crop yields → cause
an increase in stocking rates for
grazed pasture, sales of hay
▪ Thus, carefully managed P inputs to
low fertility systems can have several
direct and indirect benefits to the
terrestrial environment.
▪ While phosphorus and nitrates are
generally non-toxic to crops, problems
arise when it moves from land to
water systems, where it can
accelerate eutrophication.
Dey et. al. (2021)
[Link]
7. Turbidity
▪ measure of the degree to which
light is scattered by suspended
particulate material and soluble
colored compounds in the water
▪ provides an estimate of the the
muddiness or cloudiness of the
water due to clay, silt, finely
divided organic and inorganic
matter, soluble colored organic
compounds, plankton, and
microscopic organisms
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8. TEMPERATURE
❑Water temperature
influences the majority of
physical, biological,
chemical, and ecosystem
processes in aquatic
environments.
❑Measuring temperature
helps to understand the
magnitude and variability of
temperature fluctuations and
anticipate the consequences
for water quality and
ecosystem health.
[Link]
Temperature
Increased solubility
of metals and
other toxins in
water
Possible increased
toxicity of some
substances to Decreased DO
Increased available to
aquatic Water
organisms. aquatic life.
Temperature
Algal blooms
(usually during
summer)
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/[Link]/isay_s1t8e.m
jp/gfil e s/do cu me nt s/2 021 -07/parameter-factsheet_temperature.pdf
Decreased metabolic rate of aquatic Temperature
organisms
Reduced photosynthetic rate of aquatic
plants
Decreased
Decrease spawning for certain fish species
water
(ex: salmon, sturgeon)
temperature
Alter timing of egg hatching
Alter timing of migration
[Link]
Temperature
[Link]
Factors Affecting Water Temperature
The transfer of
sunlight, or other
[Link]
Factors Affecting Water Temperature
▪ Weather (air temperature, wind speed,
wind direction, cloud coverage, and
precipitation)
▪ Stormwater runoff from impervious
surfaces (highways, roads, large roofs,
parking lots)
▪ Cooling water discharges (from power
plants and other facilities)
▪ Impoundments (dams)
▪ Groundwater flow
▪ Evaporation rate
▪ Streamflow
Wells et. al. (2022)
▪ Turbidity
[Link]
Factors Affecting Water Temperature
[Link]
Factors Affecting Water Temperature
▪ rivers and lakes undergo
daily temperature changes
▪ lake waters also exhibit
seasonal temperature
changes, typically
stratifying (forming
temperature layers) in the
summer and winter
▪ during the fall and spring,
temperature changes lead
to turnover and mixing of
the water column
[Link]
[Link]
How is water temperature measured?
▪ Temperature can be measured at discrete points in time or continuously. Monitoring
sensors (continuous monitoring) allow assessment of temperature changes throughout the
day and are a cost-effective option for collecting temperature data as compared to
individual readings using thermometers.
▪ Temperature is generally measured in the field along with other water quality parameters
including pH, DO, specific conductance (SC), turbidity, and is generally measured along
with any water samples being collected.
▪ Temperature can vary both horizontally and vertically in a waterbody. Measurement
locations should be well mixed (not substantially warmer or cooler than the rest of the
segment of the waterbody); measurements should capture spatial variability,
stratification, and seasonal trends to the degree feasible
➢ to determine trends, measurements should be taken at the same time of day
➢ measurements at different depths at each location (depth integrated) will provide
information on vertical variability.
[Link]
What are the challenges of using
temperature as a water quality parameter?
▪ Temperature varies naturally throughout the day, throughout seasons, and
throughout the depth of a single waterbody.
➢ aquatic species in a single waterbody can have different optimal
water temperature ranges.
▪ Temperature can vary both horizontally and vertically in a waterbody.
▪ It can be logistically challenging to collect the data needed to fully
characterize seasonal and spatial variability.
▪ It may be difficult to determine the source(s) of alterations to temperature
patterns since many factors can affect temperature.
[Link]
References
▪ [Link]
▪ Dey, G., Banerjee, P., Sharma, R. K., Maity, J. P., Etesami, H., Shaw, A. K., ... &
Chen, C. Y. (2021). Management of phosphorus in salinity-stressed agriculture for
sustainable crop production by salt-tolerant phosphate-solubilizing bacteria—A
review. Agronomy, 11(8), 1552.
▪ Wells, Mathew & Troy, Cary. (2022). Surface Mixed Layers in Lakes. 10.1016/B978-0-
12-819166-8.00126-2.
▪ [Link]
blooms/[Link]
▪ [Link]