Psychology of Criminal Behaviour

Elective
 Crime
Crime or Offence (or Criminal
offence)
Understanding Crime

Crime is Behavior That Violates the

Criminal Law
Crime is defined as behavior that violates the criminal law and
is subject to state-imposed punishment. The authors emphasize
that crime is not just a legal category but also a social and
psychological phenomenon. Crime represents conduct that
society labels as harmful, dangerous, or morally wrong.
In ordinary language, a crime is an unlawful act punishable by a
state or other authority.
Crime as a Social & Legal
Construct
Crime is a relative and socially
constructed concept. It varies over time,
place, and culture, and is shaped by those
who hold power in society.

"Why is one behavior a crime and not

another?" and that crime cannot be
understood apart from ideology and politics.
The notion that acts such as murder, rape, and theft are to be prohibited exists worldwide. What precisely is a
criminal offence is defined by the criminal law of each relevant jurisdiction.

In most modern societies, there are procedures to which investigations and trials must adhere. If found guilty,
an offender may be sentenced to a form of reparation such as a community sentence, or, depending on the nature
of their offence, to undergo imprisonment, life imprisonment or, in some jurisdictions, death.

Concept of Crime
The concept of crime changes with the social policies and values. This can be understood very easily if we know
the types of crimes existed in the following three period.

01 02 03

Earlier Period In between 18th century & 19th century After 20th century
century
Earlier Period: The types of crimes existed during the 12th & 13th centuries
Offences Against the State and the Law of Wrongs: During this period offences against the state considered as crimes.
For example, treason and blasphemy were crimes whereas murder was not a crime.
During this period there was no difference between law of tort and law of crimes. The people knew about only law of
wrongs.

The penal law of ancient communities are not the law of crimes but the law of torts or civil wrongs (Henry Maine).

The society prior to 10th century confused crime with torts. During this period the wrongdoer offered compensation to the
victim. The quantum of damages depend upon the extent of the injury caused and the status of the victim. The payment of
compensation was called a bot. It washed away the guilt of the wrongdoer. After the payment, the wrongdoer, it was
thought he became an innocent person.

There were certain wrongs, which necessitated payment of additional fines to the king. This additional fine was called as
wite, there were certain other offences called botless offences.
Botless Offences and the Development of Modern Crime
For certain offences the payment of compensation was considered quite insufficient to wipe out the guilt of the offender. The
offender must suffer punishment. The punishments in force were death penalty, mutilation, forfeiture of property to the ruler
etc. The following were designated as botless offences, house breaking, harbouring the outlaws, refusing to serve in the army
breach of peace etc. From this botless offence the modern concept of crime has developed with the passage of time, the
number of botless offences increased considerably.

Torts Crimes
Wrongs which could be compensated by payment of Wrongs for which punishment was to be imposed
compensation

As regards the criminal procedure the system was in a rudimentary and undeveloped stage, deals by fire or by water were
adopted as the methods to establish the guilt or innocence of the accused. It is due to the dominance of religion in those days.
With the change of time and advancement in psychology the king assumed the responsibility of arresting the offenders. From
12th century to 17th century the European society underwent a radical change. This was due to the development of science
and technology. With this change, the concept of crime also changed to meet the needs of time.
In between 18th & 19th Century
From Divine Punishment to Scientific Study: This period
witnessed enormous change. During early times it was
believed that people imbibed criminality, because of divine
displeasure or because of the influence of devil and
demon.

The theory was called as Demonological theory.

This was completely discarded. During this period the study
of crimes and criminals were started on a scientific basis.

It was proved that no one else other than the offender

could be made responsible for the commission of crime. It
was also stated that the external agencies has nothing to
do with the commission of crimes.
After 20th century
Modern Criminality & Changing Laws: Now there has been much increase in the criminality rate. If we analyze the crime
statistics the numbers of crimes are increasing decade to decade.

Causes of Increase Changing Concepts

The increase in criminality is due to various reasons. With
modern urbanization, advancement of science & technology Due to these changes the concept of crime also changed.
and the advent of materialism there is increase in criminality New crimes are added; existing crime; are deleted from the
rate. Science also played a dominant role for the increase of statute book.
crime rate.

Therefore, if we analyse the criminal law, that is sufficient. If we analyse the criminal policy, the social standards of society
can be easily assessed. For e.g. in order to minimize population suitable changes are made in the law relating to abortion
The Medical Termination Pregnancy Act, 1971 was also passed.

Till, 1955 for capital offences death penalty was the general rule and imposing life imprisonment was the exception. For
capital offences such as murder and waging against the Government the Sessions war Judge can impose life
imprisonment as the punishment. If the offender is found guilty til1 1955 the Sessions Judge must impose death penalty.
Definitions of Crime
The term crime does not, in modern criminal law, have any simple and universally accepted definition,
though statutory definitions have been provided for certain purposes. The most popular view is that
crime is a category created by law.
Several definitions of crime are presented:

Paul Tappan (1947) Critical Criminologists

Defined crime legally as "an
Critical criminologists like the
intentional act in violation of the Proposed broader approaches, Schwendingers argued that
criminal law, committed without suggesting that criminology should violations of human rights—racism,
defense or excuse, and penalized study all violations of social norms, sexism, poverty, and imperialism—
by the state." This strict view limits not just those codified in law. should be treated as crimes, since
criminology to acts processed
these inflict serious social harm.
through the justice system.

Crime is an act harmful not only to some individual but also to a community, society, or the state ("a public wrong").
Such acts are forbidden and punishable by law.
Stages of Crime
There are three distinct stages of crime : (i) Intention (i) Preparation (iii) Attempt

01 02 03
Intention Preparation Attempt
It is the first stage of a crime. It is the device or arrangement of It is the third stage of a crime.
Intention means guilty intention of a the means or measures necessary Here the term attempt means direct
person against another person; it to complete the offence. movement toward the commission of
helps a person to design to commit the crime after the preparations are
the offence. made.
Here the term intention means bad It is very important that there must be
intention because if one person has attempt to commit a crime because it
no bad intention then he can not helps the judge of a court to convict a
commit crime. offender. If there is no attempt, then a
judge cannot convict an offender
because he cannot look into the heart
or mind or the individuals.
Elements of Crime
There are two elements of crime- i) Mens-rea or Guilty mind & ii) Actus -rea or An act

i) Mens-rea or Guilty mind ii) Actus-reus or An act

Mens-rea is one of the most important element of a There should an act or commission to constitute a
crime, it may however be direct or implied. The implied crime. Intention or mens-rea alone shall not constitute
mens-rea is otherwise termed as constructive mens- a crime unless it is followed by some external or overt
rea. It implies that there must be a state of mind with act. Generally, omitting to do something will not
respect to an actus reus, i.e. an intention to act in the amount to actus reus of an offence The criminal law
prescribed fashion. As the above mentioned that there usually punishes individuals for positive conduct and
must be a state of mind. It means there must be guilty not for inaction There are however, some notable
mind of a person because an animal never have guilty exceptions, For example- a police officer may have a
mind to commit a crime. So, there must be a person duty to act to prevent an assault and if he does not, he
involved. will be liable to be punished under the law
Types of Crime
Crimes are typically categorized by the severity of the offense, such as felonies, misdemeanors, and infractions, or by
the nature of the crime, including crimes against persons, property crimes, white-collar crimes, organized crimes, and
victimless crimes.

By severity of Punishment

Felonies Misdemeanors Infractions (or violations)

The most serious crimes, punishable Less severe crimes than felonies, The least serious offenses, often
by imprisonment of one year or punishable by less than one year of resulting in fines rather than jail time.
more, or even the death penalty in imprisonment. Examples include Examples include minor traffic
some cases. Examples include murder, petty theft, simple assault, and writing violations or violations of local
rape, robbery, and serious forms of bad checks. ordinances.
burglary.
By Nature of the Crime

Crimes against Persons (Personal Property Crimes White-collar Crimes

(Personal Crimes) Crimes committed with the intent to Financially motivated, non-violent
Offenses that involve harm or the damage or unlawfully gain property. crimes committed by individuals in
threat of harm to another person. Examples include burglary, larceny a professional or business setting.
Examples include murder, assault, (theft), arson, and vandalism. Examples include fraud,
rape, and kidnapping. embezzlement, money laundering,
and insider trading.

Organized Crimes Victimless Crimes

Crimes committed by a structured Crimes that do not involve a direct,
group, such as a criminal organization unwilling victim. The acts are often
or gang, often for financial or political illegal due to their perceived harm to
gain. Examples include drug trafficking, society's moral values. Examples
human trafficking, and large-scale include illegal drug use, gambling, and
fraud schemes. prostitution.
Social Institutions & Crime
The Family & Crime
The family is the primary social institution responsible for socializing individuals, teaching norms, values, and acceptable
behavior. However, the family can both prevent and contribute to crime.

Family as a Preventive Institution: Family as a Source of Crime:

• Stable, supportive families instill discipline and moral • Broken homes, domestic violence, or parental neglect
values. can lead to delinquency.
• Parental supervision reduces delinquency. • Children from dysfunctional families may lack role
models or turn to peers for acceptance.
• Emotional attachment to family discourages deviant
• Abuse or exposure to crime within the family normalizes
behavior.
violence.

Example: Studies show that youths from single-parent or conflict-ridden homes have higher rates of juvenile delinquency.
Religion & Crime
Religion influences moral codes and can shape behavior through beliefs in divine judgment and community norms.

Religion as a Deterrent to Crime: Religion as a Contributor to Crime:

• Encourages moral values, forgiveness, and compassion. • Religious extremism or fanaticism can justify violence
• Fear of spiritual punishment (hell, karma) discourages (e.g., terrorism).
wrongdoing. • Conflicts between religious groups may lead to hate
• Religious organizations often provide community crimes.
support and rehabilitation. • Religious hypocrisy—where leaders engage in or
cover up crime—can erode moral authority.

Example: Acts of terrorism justified by distorted religious beliefs demonstrate how religion can be manipulated to commit crimes.
Government Institution & Crime
Government institutions (law enforcement, judiciary, correctional services) are responsible for maintaining order and
enforcing laws. However, they can also be sources of crime or corruption.

Government as Crime Control: Government as a Source of Crime:

• Enacts and enforces laws to prevent criminal behavior. • Corruption, bribery, and abuse of power undermine
• Provides policing, courts, and prisons. justice.
• Promotes social policies to address root causes of • Political repression and human rights violations are
crime. forms of state crime.
• Poor governance may create conditions (poverty,
inequality) that foster crime.

Example: Embezzlement of public funds or police brutality are examples of crimes within government institutions.
Mass Media & Crime
The media plays a powerful role in shaping public perceptions of crime
and influencing behavior.

Media as a Preventive Tool: Media as a Contributor to

Crime:
• Raises awareness about crime • Glamorization of violence and
prevention. criminal lifestyles can
• Exposes corruption and influence imitation (copycat
criminal behavior. crimes).
• Promotes moral education • Sensationalized reporting can
and social responsibility. spread fear or stereotypes.
• Online platforms can facilitate
cybercrime, hate speech, and
misinformation.

Example: Social media has been used to organize criminal activities or

spread hate-based violence.
War & Crime
War is often accompanied by the breakdown of law and order, leading to widespread criminality.

War as a Source of Crime:

War crimes Illegal activities Post-war violence

War crimes (e.g., genocide, Looting, destruction, and illegal Post-war societies often
torture, sexual violence). arms trade thrive during conflict. experience increased violent
crime due to trauma and
availability of weapons.

Example: The wars in Bosnia, Rwanda, and Syria involved crimes against humanity and massive violations of international law.
Economic Institution & Crime
Economic structures influence the distribution of wealth, employment,
and opportunity—all key factors in crime causation.

Economic Stability & Crime Prevention:

• Job opportunities and fair wages reduce economic desperation.
• Social welfare systems can prevent crimes driven by poverty.

Economic Inequality & Crime:

• Unemployment, poverty, and unequal wealth distribution
lead to theft, fraud, and other economic crimes.
• White-collar crimes (e.g., embezzlement, insider trading)
emerge from greed and opportunity.
• Capitalist pressures may normalize unethical competition.

Example: Financial crimes like Ponzi schemes or corruption in business

are often linked to capitalist greed and weak regulation.
Alcohol & Drug Abuse and Crime

Alcohol and drug abuse are major social problems that have strong
links to criminal behavior. Substance abuse affects judgment, self-
control, and social relationships, often leading to violence, theft, and
other offenses. Many crimes worldwide are committed under the
influence of drugs or alcohol.

Psychological & Behavioral Effects

• Loss of control: Intoxication reduces inhibitions and impairs reasoning, increasing aggression and impulsive
acts.
• Emotional instability: Alcohol or drugs can trigger mood swings, paranoia, and irrational behavior.
• Addiction: Dependence on drugs or alcohol can make individuals desperate to obtain money or substances,
leading to theft, robbery, or prostitution.

Example: Many violent crimes (e.g., domestic assault, fights, homicide) occur when the offender is intoxicated.
Economic & Social Pressure
• Addicts often spend large sums to sustain their habits.
• When legal income sources are exhausted, they may turn to illegal means such as burglary, fraud, or drug
trafficking.
• Substance abuse can lead to job loss and family breakdown, which increase the risk of criminal involvement.

Alcohol, Drugs, & Violent Crime

• Alcohol is strongly associated with domestic violence, sexual assault, homicide, and drunk driving accidents.

• Some drugs (e.g., methamphetamine, cocaine, PCP) heighten aggression and cause psychotic behavior, increasing
the likelihood of violent acts.
• Victims as well as offenders are often under the influence during violent incidents.
The Psychology of Crime
From a psychological perspective, crime is not only a legal violation but also a behavioral outcome influenced by a mix of
internal and external factors.

Psychological Mechanisms Behind Crime

Psychological mechanisms such as aggression, impulse

control, or moral reasoning influence criminal acts.

In other words, crime is both a legal violation and a

behavioral manifestation rooted in human motivation,
personality, and social context.

Motivation for crime Personality Traits Cognitive patterns

What drives individuals to offend (e.g.,
Certain traits (e.g., impulsivity, lack of How offenders perceive and interpret
greed, revenge, thrill-seeking, psychological
compulsion). empathy) are correlated with criminality. situations (e.g., hostile attribution bias).

Social Learning Mental Disorders

How people learn criminal behaviors by How conditions like antisocial personality
disorder (ASPD), psychopathy, or
observing and imitating others.
schizophrenia relate to criminal acts.
Criminal
Law
Criminal Law: Against Society
The criminal law is the system through which the There are important psychological principles in law,
state regulates behaviour by defining acts that are such as the requirement that defendants be competent
considered harmful to society. to stand trial — meaning they must understand the
proceedings and be able to assist in their defence.
Criminal cases are "against society" rather than
individuals (unlike civil cases). Thus, criminal law is not only about punishment but also
about justice, fairness, and protecting rights.
The criminal justice system exists both to control
crime and to maintain order among the population.
Legal Systems Differ Internationally

Adversarial System
Used in the UK & US
The adversarial system requires defendants to actively
participate in their defence.

Inquisitorial Systems
Used in parts of Europe
Inquisitorial systems focus more on judges investigating
the truth rather than competition between prosecution
and defence.
Elements of Crime & Legal Distinctions

Criminal law is the formal mechanism through which societies define and control behavior. It distinguishes criminal law
from civil and administrative law based on its purpose and consequences:

Criminal Law Civil Law

Deals with offenses against society and imposes penal Governs private wrongs and provides for compensation
sanctions such as imprisonment or execution. rather than punishment.

Every crime must include (two essential elements):

Actus reus (the guilty act) Mens rea (the guilty mind)

A wrongful act or omission. The intent or state of mind accompanying the act.
Criminal Law is Relative & Political
Criminal law is also relative and political. What constitutes a crime and how it is punished changes with time and ideology.
For instance:

• The criminalization of marijuana and the legalization of tobacco reflect political decisions, not objective measures of harm.
• Acts once criminalized, such as abortion or marital rape, have been decriminalized, while new behaviors (e.g., cybercrime)
have become offenses.
Law serves both consensus & conflict functions:

Consensus Perspective Conflict Perspective

From a consensus perspective, law maintains order From a conflict perspective, law preserves existing
and reflects shared moral values. power relationships, protecting the interests of elites
and marginalizing weaker groups.

Hence, criminal law is not static—it is a dynamic reflection of social, political, and moral priorities at a given time.
Goals of Criminal Punishment
Punishments under criminal law aim not only to deter and punish but also to rehabilitate and reform offenders.

Deter Punish Rehabilitate

Prevent future crimes through Hold offenders accountable for their Reform offenders and reintegrate
consequences actions them into society
The Intersection of Law & Psychology

From a psychological standpoint, criminal

law reflects society's moral reasoning —
determining responsibility, intent, and
culpability. Courts often consider factors
such as mental illness, competence to
stand trial, or diminished responsibility,
showing the intersection between law and
psychology.

Thus, criminal law serves as both a moral

compass and a social control mechanism,
guided by evolving understandings of
human behavior.
 Criminals
People who have committed an act
that is against the law and have
been found guilty of that act through
a legal process.
Criminals
Criminals are people who have A criminal is someone who has Criminal behavior is defined by
committed a crime been found guilty of such an act by the laws of a society

Meaning they have broken a law Usually by a court or Individuals who What is illegal in one place may not
established by a government or legal engage in behavior that violates be illegal in another.
system. criminal law

Legal Status Range of Crimes Not an Identity

A person is usually considered a criminal Crimes can range from minor offenses The term refers to the actions and legal
only after conviction in a court of law. (like petty theft) to serious crimes (like status, not an inherent identity—people can
assault or fraud). commit a crime without that defining their
whole character.
Criminal psychology does not assume that criminals are
“born bad.”

Instead, it views criminal behavior as the result of

interacting psychological, social, and biological factors.
Biological Explanations

Cesare Lombroso
Cesare Lombroso (1835–1909) is often considered the
“Father of Modern Criminology." He was one of the
first to suggest that criminal behavior could be
biologically determined rather than purely a moral or
social failing.

Lombroso Theory of Born Criminal (late 19th)

• Structural anomalies of the skull are indicative of

criminal behavior
• 'Explains' lack of criminality in women
• It has been rejected by the scientific community, and
widely recognized as a pseudoscience
The "Born Criminal" Theory
Lombroso proposed that some individuals are "born criminals" — people whose biological makeup predisposes them to
criminality. He believed that these individuals could be identified by physical characteristics or atavistic traits
(features that resemble earlier stages of human evolution).

Protruding Jaw Facial Features

A protruding jaw Large ears or asymmetrical

facial features

Body Proportions Forehead Shape

Long arms relative to the body A sloping forehead

Lombroso's Argument & Legacy

Lombroso argued that such traits indicated a more primitive or less evolved nature, similar to early humans or
"savages," and therefore, a natural tendency toward crime and violence.

Critical Assessment: Although Lombroso's ideas were influential in the late 19th century, they have been strongly criticized
for being sexist and lacking scientific basis. However, his work was important because it introduced the idea that criminality
might have biological roots, inspiring later studies on genetics, brain chemistry, and neurophysiology.
Biological Factors & Their Interaction with Environment
Modern criminological and psychological research recognizes that biological influences — such as genetics, brain chemistry,
hormones, and neurological functioning — play an important role in predisposing individuals to certain behaviors, including
aggression, impulsivity, and risk-taking.

Genetics Neurological Impairments

Some people may inherit traits Imbalances in neurotransmitters Damage or abnormalities in areas
that make them more prone to like serotonin or dopamine can such as the prefrontal cortex
impulsive or antisocial behavior. affect mood regulation and (responsible for decision-making
Twin and adoption studies show impulse control. For instance, low and self-control) can lead to poor
that there is a genetic component serotonin levels are often linked to judgment and inability to foresee
to tendencies like aggression and aggression, while high testosterone consequences.
low self-control. has been associated with violent or
dominant behavior.
Psychological Classification of
of Criminals
Criminal psychologists often classify offenders based on
their behavioral patterns, motives, and personality traits
rather than just the crime they commit. This helps in
profiling, investigation, and rehabilitation.
Type 1

Organized Criminals
• These offenders plan their crimes in advance — selecting victims,
preparing tools, and taking steps to avoid detection.

• They often follow the news, cover their tracks, and may have
above-average intelligence.
• Organized criminals often appear normal in society and may hold
jobs or relationships.

• Their crimes show control and precision, and they tend to move
between areas to avoid patterns.

Key traits: Intelligent, methodical, socially skilled, and careful

planners.

Example: Serial killer Ted Bundy — charming, intelligent, and highly

organized in how he lured and murdered his victims.
Type 2

Disorganized Criminals
Crimes are spur-of-the-moment or emotionally driven, They may leave behind fingerprints, weapons, or
with little to no planning. DNA evidence.

Often mentally unstable or socially isolated, acting out Their crime scenes are chaotic and random, reflecting
of frustration, anger, or confusion. poor impulse control.

Key traits: Example:

Impulsive, careless, socially awkward, and emotionally An offender who kills during an argument without thinking
unstable. — leaving the weapon behind and fleeing in panic.
Type 3

Instrumental Offenders
Their crimes serve a practical purpose — money, power, status, or revenge.

• They see crime as a means to an end, not an emotional

Key traits: Goal-oriented, rational, and motivated by personal
act.
gain.
• Examples include theft, fraud, drug trafficking, or contract
killing. Example: A white-collar criminal committing fraud to gain
wealth or a robber planning a heist for financial benefit.
• Often calculated risk-takers who justify their crimes as
"business."
Type 4

Expressive Offenders
Emotional Trigger Impulsive Nature Emotional Release
These crimes are committed due to They are unplanned and impulsive, The crime is a release of emotion,
strong emotions — anger, jealousy, often resulting in violent acts like not a strategy for material gain.
fear, or revenge. assault or murder.

Key traits: Emotional, reactive, and motivated by feelings rather than logic.

Example: A person kills their partner in a fit of rage during an argument — a spontaneous act of passion.
Type 5

Psychopathic Criminals

Psychopaths are emotionally detached and manipulate others They are highly intelligent, can mimic normal emotions, but
for personal benefit. emotions, but don't feel guilt or fear.

Their crimes are calculated and premeditated, often to satisfy Psychopathy is often linked to biological and personality
control, thrill, or dominance. personality factors (e.g., underactive amygdala).

Key traits: Example:

Cold, manipulative, charming, and lack empathy or remorse. A serial killer who plans murders carefully and enjoys the
sense of control, feeling no guilt afterward.
Type 6

Sociopathic Criminals
Environmental Product Erratic Emotions
Sociopaths are typically a product of their environment They have erratic emotions and find it hard to form
— abusive childhoods, poverty, neglect, or poor role stable relationships.
models.

Impulsive Violence Limited Guilt

Their crimes are impulsive and violent, often done in Unlike psychopaths, sociopaths do feel some guilt or
anger or frustration. attachment but lack full control over behavior.

Key traits: Impulsive, emotionally unstable, aggressive, and shaped by negative environments.

Example: A gang member raised in a violent neighborhood who commits crimes impulsively under peer pressure or anger.
Theories Explaining Crime
A. Psychodynamic Theories (Freud)
Crime results from unresolved unconscious conflicts, usually from childhood experiences.

Id Ego Superego
Basic instincts and desires (e.g., Rational self that balances desires Moral conscience that knows right
aggression, pleasure). with reality. from wrong.

Sigmund Freud proposed that human personality has three parts: Id — basic instincts and desires (e.g., aggression,
pleasure), Ego — rational self that balances desires with reality, and Superego — moral conscience that knows right from
wrong.

• If childhood experiences are traumatic, or if parenting is too harsh or too lenient, the superego may not develop properly.
• A weak superego → little guilt, leading to antisocial or criminal behavior.
• A too strong superego → excessive guilt, which may also lead to crime as a form of self-punishment.

Example: A person who grew up with neglectful parents may lack empathy and guilt, making them more likely to
steal or harm others without remorse.
B. Behavioral Theories (Skinner, Bandura)
Crime is learned behavior — people commit crimes because they are rewarded or reinforced for doing so.

B.F. Skinner (operant conditioning)

Behavior is shaped by rewards & punishments.

• If stealing brings money (reward) and no punishment follows, the behavior is repeated.

Example: A teenager learns from older gang members that stealing earns respect, so they imitate it — reinforcing
criminal behavior.
Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura): Social Learning Theory & Environmental Factors
Bandura proposed that criminal behavior is learned through observation, imitation, and reinforcement:

01 02 03
Observation Evaluation Reinforcement
Individuals observe others (family, If they see that the behavior leads to Repeated reinforcement strengthens
peers, media) engaging in crime. rewards (money, status, approval), they these learned patterns.
are more likely to imitate it.

This means that environment and role models are crucial — people learn not just how to commit crimes, but also why they
might be justified.

Environmental & Family Factors

Also highlights the strong influence of social context:

• Poverty and social inequality can increase stress and limit lawful opportunities.
• Family dysfunction, neglect, and abuse can hinder emotional development and empathy.
• Association with delinquent peers normalizes deviance.

Thus, crime often reflects a social process of adaptation to adverse environments rather than purely individual pathology.
Hans Eysenck's Biosocial Theory
Moving into the 20th century, psychological theories began focusing
on personality and mental processes as factors influencing criminal
behavior. One of the most influential psychologists in this field was
Hans Eysenck (1916–1997).

Eysenck's Three Personality Dimensions

Eysenck's biosocial theory of criminality combines biological and
psychological factors. He proposed that individuals differ along three
key personality dimensions: Psychoticism, Extraversion, Neuroticism
Eysenck's Biosocial Theory
Hans Eysenck proposed that personality has three major dimensions:

Psychoticism (P) Extraversion (E) Neuroticism (N)

aggression, lack of empathy, impulsivity sociability, risk-taking, need for stimulationemotional instability, anxiety

According to Eysenck, people with high levels of P, E, and N are more likely to engage in criminal or antisocial acts. This is
because they are less easily conditioned — they don't learn as effectively from punishment or fear of guilt.
His theory links biological temperament (nervous system arousal) with psychological learning — making it a "biosocial"
explanation. Essentially, some people are biologically predisposed to seek excitement and are psychologically less
responsive to deterrents.

Eysenck's work implies that criminals are not fundamentally different from others, but they may have personality
profiles that make them less responsive to social norms and more likely to seek stimulation or act impulsively.
C. Cognitive Theories (Beck, Yochelson & Samenow)
Cognitive psychologists focus on how offenders think. They argue that
criminal behavior results from faulty or distorted thought patterns:

• Offenders may justify wrongdoing ("everyone steals").

• They may fail to see things from others' perspectives (low empathy).

• They often show poor impulse control and moral disengagement

(switching off guilt or responsibility when committing harm).

Cognitive-behavioral programs in prisons often try to retrain

these thought processes, teaching offenders to evaluate
consequences and empathize with victims.
Cognitive Theories
Criminals have faulty or distorted thinking patterns that justify or minimize their wrongdoing.

These individuals think differently — they might:

Blame others Minimize harm Feel entitled

"It's not my fault; they deserved it". "I didn't really hurt anyone". "I deserve this money".

• Such cognitive distortions allow them to commit crimes without feeling guilty.
• Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) helps offenders recognize and correct these faulty thoughts.

Example: A fraudster convinces themselves that "big companies can afford to lose money," justifying their criminal
acts.
D. Biological 7 Neuropsychological Theories
Some people may be biologically predisposed to criminal behavior due to genetics, brain structure, or chemistry.

Genetic factors Brain structure Neurochemistry

Certain genes may increase tendencies Damage or abnormalities in the frontal • Low serotonin = poor impulse control.
toward aggression or impulsivity. lobe (decision-making, impulse control) • High testosterone = increased
or amygdala (emotion regulation) can aggression.
affect behavior. • Imbalances in dopamine = thrill-
seeking or addiction-related crimes.

Example: An individual with frontal lobe damage may act violently without thinking about consequences.
The Biosocial Perspective

Biology does not cause crime by itself. Biological traits interact with
environmental and psychological factors — such as family life, social
context, and learned behavior.

For example, a person with an impulsive temperament might never

commit crimes if raised in a supportive environment but could develop
antisocial tendencies in a violent or neglectful one. This view is called a
biosocial perspective, meaning that both biology (nature) and
environment (nurture) work together to influence criminal behavior.
E. Social and Environmental Theories
Crime is influenced by social environment and life circumstances — not just individual traits.

Social disorganization Peer influence Strain theory (Robert Merton)

• Society pressures people to
Crime is more common in Associating with deviant peers
achieve goals (like wealth and
communities with poverty, weak normalizes criminal behavior.
success).
social institutions, or lack of
education. • If legitimate means (education,
jobs) are blocked, people may turn
to illegitimate means (theft,
fraud).

Example: A person from an impoverished neighborhood may resort to selling drugs to achieve financial success
that society values.
Developmental Perspectives: Terrie Moffitt's Taxonomy (1993)
Psychologist Terrie Moffitt developed a developmental taxonomy of antisocial behavior, which remains highly influential in
forensic psychology. She identified two main types of offenders based on how and when their criminal behavior develops:

Adolescence-Limited Offenders Life-Course Persistent Offenders

• These individuals typically begin offending during their • These individuals show early signs of antisocial behavior in
teenage years. childhood (e.g., aggression, defiance) that continue into
• Their behavior is temporary and situational, often adulthood.
influenced by peer pressure, social imitation, or a desire • Their behavior is often linked to neuropsychological
for independence. deficits, poor parenting, family instability, or exposure
• As they mature and take on adult roles (work, to crime.
relationships, responsibility), their antisocial behavior • They exhibit consistent patterns of violence, dishonesty, or
declines or stops. impulsivity across various life stages.
• Their offending is viewed as part of normal adolescent • For them, crime is part of a stable personality pattern
experimentation rather than a lifelong pattern. rather than a temporary phase.

Moffitt's theory shows that not all criminals are the same — some offend briefly due to social factors, while others have deep-
rooted behavioral and environmental causes.
A Holistic View – The Interaction of Factors
Criminal behavior rarely arises from a single cause. Instead, it results from a complex interplay of:

Biological Factors Psychological Traits

Genetics, hormones, brain chemistry Personality, cognition, learning

Environmental Context Social Influences

Culture and community Family, peers, socioeconomic status

Understanding criminals requires examining the full spectrum of influences that shape human behavior across
biological, psychological, and social domains.
Integrating the Theories
Theories of social learning, moral development, and even "addiction to crime" complement these biological and
psychological views, showing how repeated exposure to crime, poor role models, or reinforcement of antisocial acts can
make offending a persistent pattern.
Together, these theories show that criminal behavior is multidimensional. No single cause explains why people commit
crimes — it results from the interaction of biology, psychology, and environment over time.

Approach Main Focus Key Idea

Biological Genetics, brain function, These factors influence tendencies but don't directly cause
hormones crime; they interact with environment and learning
Crime arises from personality traits, faulty thinking, or
Psychological Personality and cognition
inner conflicts
Social/Developmental Environment, learning, life Crime is learned or shaped by social context and
stages developmental experiences

Understanding this interplay helps in designing effective prevention, rehabilitation, and correctional strategies.
Summary of Theories

Theory Main Idea Key Figures Focus

Psychodynamic Crime from unconscious Freud Childhood & personality

conflicts, weak superego

Behavioral Crime is learned and reinforced Skinner, Bandura Learning & imitation

Cognitive Crime from distorted thinking Beck, Yochelson, Thought patterns

Samenow

Biological Genetic, brain, or chemical Lombroso (early), Biology & brain

causes modern neuroscience

Social/Environmental Crime due to poverty, peers, Merton, Shaw & McKay Society & environment
or inequality
Foundations
of
Modern
Criminology
Modern criminology emerged from the need
to scientifically understand crime, its
causes, and effective ways to prevent it. It is
built on several major foundations that
developed from the 18th century onward.
A. Classical School of Criminology
Cesare Beccaria & Jeremy Bentham are considered the founders of the Classical School of Criminology, which
developed in the 18th century during the Enlightenment.

Foundations of Rational Justice

They challenged harsh, arbitrary punishments and argued for a rational and fair criminal justice system.

Free Will & Rational Choice Cost-Benefit Analysis

They believed that people make decisions by thinking According to them, crime happens when a person
logically. Because humans have free will, they choose believes the benefits of committing the act (like
to commit or not commit a crime based on reasoning— money, revenge, or pleasure) are greater than the
not because of supernatural forces or fate. possible costs (like punishment). Crime is therefore a
calculated decision, not an unavoidable one.
Principles of Fair Laws & Effective Punishment

Clear & Known Laws Deterrence Through Punishment

Beccaria argued that laws should: be written clearly, be They emphasized deterrence, meaning punishment should
known to everyone, apply the same way to all people. This discourage people from committing crimes.
prevents abuse of power and makes it easier for people to
understand what is illegal.

To be effective, punishment must be:

Proportionate: people must believe they will punishment should follow

actually be punished quickly after the crime
not too harsh or too mild

This makes the "cost" of crime outweigh the benefits.

Contribution
The Classical School introduced revolutionary ideas such as:

Fair & equal laws Protection of individual rights

Deterrence Theory: the idea that threats of punishment can

prevent crime and undesirable actions by creating a fear of A justice system based on reason rather than cruelty
consequences.

These ideas influenced modern criminal justice systems around the world and laid the foundation for more
humane, rational legal reforms.
B. Positivist School of
of Criminology
Founders: Cesare Lombroso, Enrico Ferri, Raffaele Garofalo

The Positivist School emerged in the late 19th century as a

scientific alternative to the Classical School. Instead of
viewing crime as a product of free will and rational choice,
positivists argued that criminal behavior is determined by
forces beyond an individual's control.
Core Principles of Positivist Criminology
01 02 03

Determinism Multidimensional Causes of Crime Criminals Differ from Non-

Criminals
Human behavior is shaped by Crime is influenced by a combination of: Early positivists, particularly
factors outside a person's control, • Biological factors – heredity, Lombroso, believed criminals had
such as biological traits, physical abnormalities, brain distinct physical or biological
psychological conditions, and social structure characteristics. Although this early
environment. biological determinism has been
• Psychological factors – personality,
Crime, therefore, is not simply a criticized, it laid the groundwork for
mental illness, cognitive
choice but a result of identifiable scientific study of offenders.
development
causes.
• Social factors – poverty, family
background, education, environment
This marked a shift from the idea of a
single cause of crime to a scientific,
multi-causal approach.
Lombroso Theory of Born Criminal
(late 19th)
Lombroso proposed that some individuals are "born criminals" —
people whose biological makeup predisposes them to criminality.
He believed that these individuals could be identified by physical
characteristics or atavistic traits (features that resemble earlier
stages of human evolution).

• Structural anomalies of the skull are indicative of criminal behavior

• 'Explains' lack of criminality in women
• It has been rejected by the scientific community, and widely
recognized as a pseudoscience
Somatotype Theory of Criminal Behavior (1940s-50s)
Proposed by psychologist William Sheldon.
Proposes that body type (somatotype) is linked to personality and
behavior, including criminality.
He identified three main body types:

1. Endomorph: Soft, round, and overweight - friendly, sociable,

relaxed
2. Mesomorph: Muscular, athletic - aggressive, competitive,
assertive.
3. Ectomorph: Thin, fragile - introverted, sensitive, intellectual

Sheldon suggested that mesomorphs are more likely to engage in

criminal behavior due to their aggressive and assertive nature.
However, his theory has been widely criticized for lacking empirical
support and being overly simplistic.
XYY Syndrome (1960s-70s)

Theory
• Proposed by British geneticist Dr. Patricia Jacobs
• Presence of an extra Y chromosome responsible for
increased aggression, violence & criminal behavior

Reality
Fact: the majority of men with the XYY syndrome do not
engage in criminal behavior and are no more likely to commit
crimes than the general population.
Intelligence Testers
This approach attempted to explain criminal behavior through mental deficiency, especially low intelligence.

In the early 20th century, psychologists began using newly developed intelligence tests (IQ tests) to measure cognitive
ability. They believed crime rates were higher among individuals with below-average intelligence.

This led to the label "feeble-mindedness", a term used at that time to describe people considered intellectually inferior -
individuals lacked judgment and self-control, making them more prone to criminal behavior.

Although influential in early criminology, the theory is now criticized as unscientific and discriminatory.

Key Figures

Henry Goddard Alfred Binet

• Popularized the use of IQ testing in criminology. • Created the first modern IQ test.
• Studied the "Kallikak family," claiming criminality and • Important: Binet himself did not support the idea that
"feeble-mindedness" were hereditary. IQ determines criminality.
• Advocated for segregation and even sterilization of • However, his tests were widely used (and misused) to
the "feeble-minded" (a highly criticized stance today). classify offenders as mentally deficient.
Contribution
The Positivist School significantly advanced criminology by introducing:

Scientific methods Empirical research

(observation, measurement, data collection) to understand crime patterns and offender behavior

Rehabilitation focus Modern foundation

A shift toward rehabilitation and treatment instead of purely A foundation for modern criminology, including sociology,
punitive measures psychology, and biosocial research

Overall, the Positivist School transformed criminology into a scientific discipline focused on understanding and
addressing the causes of crime.
C. Biological Foundations of Criminology
The biological foundation of criminology examines how genetic, physiological, and neurological factors contribute to
criminal or antisocial behavior. It seeks to understand crime not only as a social issue but also as a phenomenon influenced
by processes within the human body.

Biological Factors in Criminal Behavior

1 2 3

Genetic Explanations Brain Structure & Function Hormones & Neurotransmitters

Some individuals may inherit traits that Abnormalities in certain brain regions Neurotransmitters
Chemical imbalances can influence behavior:
increase the likelihood of aggressive or (e.g., the frontal lobe, amygdala) are
Testosterone has been associated with
impulsive behavior. linked to poor impulse control,
aggression.
Twin & adoption studies show that aggression, and emotional regulation.
Serotonin levels affect mood regulation and
heredity can play a role in criminal Brain injuries, developmental problems, impulse control.
tendencies. or neurological disorders can Dopamine is linked to reward-seeking behavior.
Genes do not cause crime directly, but contribute to antisocial behavior.
These biological factors can shape how
they may influence traits such as
individuals react to stress, threats, and
temperament, impulsivity, or risk-
social situations.
taking.
 Modern Biosocial Criminology
Contemporary criminology emphasizes biosocial interaction, meaning biology and environment combine to
influence behavior.
Environmental factors can activate or suppress biological tendencies.
Examples:

• Childhood trauma
• Malnutrition
• Family conflict or neglect
• Exposure to violence

This approach explains why two individuals with similar biological traits may behave differently based on their
upbringing or social context.
Theories of
Crime
Radical, Situational, Rationality
Perspective.
Radical Theories of Crime
Radical criminology (also called Marxist criminology) sees crime as a product of social and economic inequality created
by capitalism. It argues that the law and justice system are not neutral — they serve the interests of the rich and powerful.

Core Principles of Radical Criminology

Class Division Laws Protect Power

Society is divided between the ruling class (who own the
The ruling class creates laws that protect their property and
means of production) and the working class (who sell their
power, while criminalizing the behavior of the poor.
labor).

Crime as Resistance Political Issue

Crime among the poor (like theft or vandalism) often reflects Therefore, crime is a political issue, not just a moral one — it
resistance to oppression, while crimes of the rich (like reflects social injustice.
corporate fraud) are often ignored or treated leniently.
Radical Theory in Practice
The Example
A poor person stealing food to survive is punished harshly, but a
corporation exploiting workers or polluting the environment may
face minimal consequences.

The Solution
To reduce crime, society must change its social and economic
structure — reduce inequality, promote fairness, and challenge
capitalist exploitation.
Situational Theories of Crime
Situational theories focus on the immediate circumstances in which crimes occur, rather than on social class or individual
background. The main idea is that crime happens when the opportunity arises.

• Most people won't commit crimes unless the situation makes it easy or low-risk.
• A crime occurs when three elements come together (from Routine Activity Theory, Cohen & Felson, 1979):

01 02 03

A motivated offender A suitable target The absence of a capable guardian

(like police, neighbors, CCTV)

By changing the environment — making targets less accessible or increasing surveillance — crime can be prevented.

Example: Installing better lighting in car parks, using security cameras, or locking doors are situational measures
that reduce opportunities for theft or assault.

Crime prevention should focus on practical environmental changes (called Situational Crime Prevention, developed by
Ronald Clarke) — such as designing safer public spaces and increasing the effort or risk involved in committing crime.
 Rationality (Rational Choice) Theories of Crime
The rationality perspective is based on the idea that people are rational decision-makers. They weigh the potential costs and
benefits of their actions before deciding whether to commit a crime.

Classical Origins Cost-Benefit Analysis

Derived from Classical Criminology (Beccaria and Bentham, People choose crime if they believe it will bring more
18th century). rewards than risks.

Deterrence Works Limited Rationality

If punishment is certain, swift, and appropriately severe, it Modern versions (like Rational Choice Theory, Cornish &
will deter potential offenders. Clarke, 1986) recognize that people's rationality is limited —
they make quick judgments based on available information.

Example: A person might decide to shoplift if they think security is lax and the value of the stolen goods outweighs the risk of getting caught.

Policy Implications: Crime control should focus on deterrence — increasing the likelihood of detection and punishment so that crime
appears less rewarding.
Comparing the Three Perspectives

Perspective Focus Causes of Crime Key Thinkers Policy Focus

Radical Social structure Inequality, class Marx, Quinney Social reform, equality
conflict, capitalism

Situational Immediate environment Opportunity, weak Clarke, Felson Crime prevention design
guardianship

Rationality Individual decision- Cost-benefit Beccaria, Bentham, Deterrence, enforcement

making calculation Cornish
Getting a line on
Crime:
The Production & Use
of Data
refers to the process of producing,
measuring, and using crime data
to understand crime patterns.
Production of Crime Data
The production of crime data refers to how information about crime is collected, recorded,
and compiled by different agencies.

Crime is not directly observable in full, so we rely on various data sources to understand it.
Each source captures different aspects of criminal behavior.

The main ways crime data is produced:

• Police recorded crime
• Victimization Surveys
• Self report surveys
• Court & Justice system Data
• Special research studies
a. Police-Recorded Crime
Data comes from crimes reported to the police and then
recorded by them.

• Includes reports, arrests, complaints, and incident logs.

• Often used in official crime statistics.

Strengths:
• Large-scale, systematic, consistent over time.
• Useful for identifying trends and hot spots.

Limitations:
• Only includes crimes that come to police attention.
• Influenced by public reporting behavior and police
recording practices.
b. Victimization Surveys

Surveys ask members of the public whether they have been victims of crime, whether or not they reported it.

Examples: National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS).

Strengths: Limitations:
• Reveals the "dark figure" of crime—unreported crimes. • Memory errors, misunderstanding questions.
• Provides detailed information about victims, • Excludes certain populations (children, homeless,
circumstances, and reasons for not reporting. institutionalized people).
Additional Data Sources
1 2 3

d. Court and Criminal Justice e. Special Research Studies

c. Self-Report Surveys System Data
These ask individuals—especially Includes: Academic or government research
youth—to self-report offenses they may include:
• court convictions
have committed. • interviews
• sentencing data
Strengths: • ethnographies
• probation and parole information
• Captures hidden or minor crimes • field observations
• prison populations
not recorded by police. • case studies
Strengths:
• Useful for studying juvenile Strengths:
delinquency. • Shows how cases progress through
the justice system. • Rich, in-depth detail.
Limitations: • Useful for studying punishment and • Provides context and motivations
• Honesty and recall issues. trends in sentencing. behind crime.

• Often focus on less serious crimes. Limitations: Limitations:

• Represents only a small fraction of • Small-scale; cannot represent

actual crimes committed. national crime patterns.
Key Issues in the Production of Crime Data
Even though crime data is essential, its production is complicated by multiple problems. Crime is socially constructed,
underreported, inconsistently defined, and influenced by many external factors.

a. The Dark Figure of Crime b. Underreporting and Overreporting

This is the gap between: Crime data can be inaccurate because:
• the actual amount of crime that occurs, and • Victims may not report crimes (fear, shame, mistrust of police).
• the crime recorded or reported. • Police may fail to record incidents properly.
Many crimes (e.g., domestic violence, sexual assault, white-collar • Sometimes police overrecord certain types of offenses due to
crime) go unreported. pressure.

c. Social Construction of Crime Data d. Differences in Definitions

Crime statistics do not simply reflect crime; they are created Crimes are defined differently in different places and at different
through social processes, such as: times. For example, what counts as "assault" or "theft" may vary
• policing priorities across jurisdictions.
This makes comparisons difficult.
• definitions of what counts as a crime
• public attitudes
• government policies
• media influence
Example: A crackdown on drug offenses increases drug-related
arrests even if actual drug use stays the same.
Additional Challenges

e. Recording and Classification f. Political and Organizational g. Sampling and Survey

Classification Problems Organizational Influence Limitations
Governments and police departments Victimization and self-report surveys
Police and other agencies may:
may have incentives to: may miss:
• mislabel offenses
• show crime decreasing (for • homeless people
• downgrade crimes (e.g., from
political success) • institutionalized populations
robbery to theft)
• highlight certain crimes to justify • children
• use inconsistent coding practices
funding or policies • non-English-speaking groups
These issues affect accuracy and
This can influence what gets recorded This can skew results.
reliability.
and published.
Uses of Crime Data

Policy Making Policing Strategies Criminological Research

Governments use crime data to: Data supports: Researchers use data to:
• plan crime prevention programs • test theories of crime
• hotspot policing
• allocate budgets • predictive policing • identify trends
• evaluate laws • resource deployment • examine social patterns
• set national security priorities • crime mapping (GIS) • study offender characteristics

Public Communication Performance Monitoring

Media and government agencies use crime statistics to: Criminal justice agencies use data to measure:
• inform the public • police performance
• create crime reports • court efficiency
• shape public opinion • prison overcrowding
• influence political debates • recidivism rates
Why Crime Data Matters
Crime data helps society to:

understand the nature and extent of identify at-risk groups and places develop effective policies
crime

evaluate the criminal justice system hold public institutions accountable

But it must be interpreted carefully, because data is influenced by many social factors.