Advanced Engineering Physics (R25) by Dr. B. Ashok, Sr.

Assistant Professor
(Physics)
Unit-5: Quantum Computing

Concept of quantum computer: -

A quantum computer is a revolutionary type of computer that exploits the principles of
quantum mechanics, such as superposition and entanglement, to perform computations. Unlike
classical computers, which use bits that exist only in one of two states (0 or 1), quantum computers use
qubits, which can exist in a state of 0, 1, or a superposition of both simultaneously.
This unique property enables quantum computers to process a vast number of possibilities in
parallel, allowing them to solve certain complex problems exponentially faster than classical
computers. As a result, quantum computing has promising applications in fields such as medicine,
finance, cryptography, and materials science, where classical supercomputers face fundamental
limitations.
Like classical computers, quantum computers consist of both hardware (quantum processors,
control systems) and software (quantum algorithms and programming frameworks).
Advantages of Quantum Computers
1. Exponential Speed-up
Quantum computers can solve certain problems much faster than classical computers using
quantum algorithms (e.g., Shor’s and Grover’s algorithms).
2. Massive Parallelism
Due to superposition, qubits can represent multiple states simultaneously, enabling parallel
computation.
3. Efficient Problem Solving
They are highly effective for complex problems such as optimization, factorization, and
simulation of quantum systems.
4. Accurate Simulation of Nature
Quantum computers can naturally simulate molecules, atoms, and materials, which is extremely
difficult for classical computers.
5. Advancements in Medicine and Chemistry
Useful for drug discovery, protein folding, and understanding chemical reactions at the
quantum level.
Important Features of Quantum Computers
1. Qubits as Basic Units
Quantum computers use qubits instead of classical bits. A qubit can exist as 0, 1, or a

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 Advanced Engineering Physics (R25) by Dr. B. Ashok, Sr. Assistant Professor
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superposition of both states.
2. Superposition
Qubits can be in multiple states simultaneously, allowing quantum computers to process many
possibilities at the same time.
3. Entanglement
Qubits can become entangled, meaning the state of one qubit is directly related to another, even
at large distances, enabling powerful correlations.
4. Quantum Interference
Quantum algorithms use interference to amplify correct results and cancel incorrect ones,
improving computational accuracy.
5. Massive Parallelism
Due to superposition and entanglement, quantum computers perform many computations
simultaneously.
6. Quantum Gates and Circuits
Computation is performed using quantum logic gates (Hadamard, CNOT, Pauli gates)
arranged in quantum circuits.
Classical bits: -
In classical computing, the smallest unit of information is called a bit, or the basic unit of information
is called a bit. A bit may take only one of two logical values: either 0 or 1. Bits are used in all modern
digital computers and electronic devices. Multiple bits can be grouped together to form larger units of
information. For example, 8-bits are grouped together to form a Byte. Classical bits are deterministic,
either there is a current flow i.e., 1 or no current flow i.e., 0, it stores only two values 0 or 1. The
classical computers are used to execute algorithms in a sequential and predictable manner.
A kilobyte (KB) is 1,024 bytes
1 MB is 1,024 kB or 1,048,576 (1024×1024) bytes
1 GB is 1,024 MB or 1,073,741,824 (1024×1024×1024) bytes.
1 terabyte (TB) is 1,024 GB
Characteristics of Classical Bits
1. Binary States
A classical bit represents either 0 or 1, never both at the same time.
2. Deterministic Nature
The value of a classical bit is certain and predictable.

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 Advanced Engineering Physics (R25) by Dr. B. Ashok, Sr. Assistant Professor
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3. Physical Representation
Implemented using transistors, where:
o No current / low voltage → 0
o Current / high voltage → 1
4. No Superposition or Entanglement
Classical bits do not exhibit quantum properties.
5. Sequential Processing
Classical computers process bits in a step-by-step manner.
6. Stable and Noise-Resistant
Classical bits are relatively robust and less sensitive to environmental noise.
7. Used in All Conventional Computers
Found in CPUs, memory (RAM, ROM), storage devices, and digital electronics
Qubit: -
A qubit (quantum bit) is the basic unit of information in a quantum computer. Unlike a classical
bit, a qubit can exist in multiple states simultaneously due to quantum mechanics. Due to
superposition, a qubit can represent multiple states at the same time. In quantum computing 2 n states
are possible for n bits because each bit has 2 options (0 or 1), and these choices multiply: 1 bit =2 1 = 2;
states (0, 1); 2 bits = 22 = 4; states are (00, 01, 10, 11) and for 3 bits = 2 3 = 8; states are (000, 001, 010,
100, 011, 101, 110, 111) and for n bits there are 2n states.
Advantages of Qubits
• Enable quantum parallelism
• Allow faster algorithms for specific problems
• Essential for quantum simulation and cryptography
Limitations
• Highly sensitive to noise (because their quantum states depend on very various physical
properties such as phase, spin, and energy levels).
• Even small errors in amplitude or phase can lead to incorrect computation results.
• Require error correction and extreme operating conditions

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 Advanced Engineering Physics (R25) by Dr. B. Ashok, Sr. Assistant Professor
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Differences between Classical bits and Qubits: -

Feature Classical Bit Qubit

Basic unit of
bit qubit
information

0, 1 & superposition of
possible states only 0 and 1
of both

Electrical signals Quantum particles

Representation
in computers (electron, photon, atoms)

Information Multiple states

single definite state
storage (by superposition)
Processing
Sequential (one at a time) Parallel (Multiple states at once)
Capability
Highly sensitive to noise
Error Sensitivity Comparatively low
(Required error correction)
Quantum Phys
Phenomena used Classical Physics
(Superposition, Entanglement)

Copying the state Can be copied Can be copied (No Cloning Theorem)

Dirac’s Brac and Ket notation and their properties: -

Dirac’s Brac and Ket notation is the standard notation in quantum mechanics to describe the quantum
states and quantum measurements in elegant and compact way in Hilbert space, which was introduced
by the physicist Paul Dirac in the year 1939. Earlier to Dirac notation, the mathematical framework of
quantum mechanics was based on wave mechanics. The Brac’s and Ket’s are the different names for
row and column vectors in matrix representation. i.e., Ket (|⟩) is column vector in matrix representation
and Brac (⟨|) is adjoint of Ket or (complex conjugate transpose of Ket).
Let a vector V has 3 components 𝜳1, 𝜳2 and 𝜳3 along x, y and z-directions
respectively. Then the Ket vector is represented as | K⟩
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 Advanced Engineering Physics (R25) by Dr. B. Ashok, Sr. Assistant Professor
(Physics)
𝛹1
| K⟩ = [𝛹2] and the Brac’s vector is represented as ⟨B|
𝛹3
⟨B|=[𝛹1∗ 𝛹2∗ 𝛹3∗ ]
Properties and Operations of Brac and Ket vectors:
(i) Linearity: Brac and Ket vectors are linear i.e. they can be added and scaled.
(ii) Adjoint: The adjoint of Brac is a Ket vector or vice-versa
(iii) Inner Product: The inner product of Brac and Ket is a scalar.
i.e. (⟨ψ1∣⊗⟨ϕ1∣). (∣ψ2⟩⊗∣ϕ2⟩) =⟨ψ1∣ψ2⟩⋅⟨ϕ1∣ϕ2⟩
(iv) Addition: Brac and Ket vectors can be added. i.e. ⟨B|+| K⟩
(v) Scalar multiplication: The Brac and Ket are scaled. i.e. C| K⟩ or C⟨B|
(vi) The Brac and Ket can be combined using the tensor product and which enables
entanglement. i.e. ∣ 𝐾⟩ ⊗ ⟨𝐵 ∣

Multiple Qubits: -
A multiple-qubit system consists of two or more qubits combined to form a composite quantum
system. Unlike classical bits, multiple qubits can exist in superposition and entangled states,
enabling powerful quantum computation.

Superposition of two states: -

The main difference between the classical bits and qubits is that a qubit can be a linear
combination of the two states ∣ 0⟩ & ∣ 1⟩. i.e., qubit is the superposition of two states ∣ 0⟩ & ∣
1⟩.
For example, 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the probability amplitudes of an electron in the ground state
(i.e., in ∣ 0⟩ state) and in the excited state (i.e., in ∣ 1⟩ state) then the linear combination of two
states is
∣ 𝜓⟩ = 𝛼 ∣ 0⟩ + 𝛽 ∣ 1⟩
then ∣ 𝛼 ∣2 +∣ 𝛽 ∣2 = 1.
Here ∣ 𝛼 ∣2 is the probability of finding ∣ 𝜓⟩ in the state ∣ 0⟩
∣ 𝛽 ∣2 is the probability of finding ∣ 𝜓⟩ in the state ∣ 1⟩
Matrix representation of 0 and 1 states: -
The ket vector is nothing but the column vector in the matrix representation whereas the Brac
vector is the row vector in the matrix representation. The matrices for the states of ∣ 0⟩ & ∣ 1⟩ are
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 Advanced Engineering Physics (R25) by Dr. B. Ashok, Sr. Assistant Professor
(Physics)
1 0
∣ 0⟩ =[ ] and ∣ 1⟩ =[ ] (Ket notations)
0 1
⟨0| = [1 0] and ⟨1| = [0 1] (Brac notations)
Let us consider the quantum state
∣ 𝜓⟩ = 𝛼 ∣ 0⟩ + 𝛽 ∣ 1⟩
1 0 𝛼
∣ 𝜓⟩ = 𝛼 [ ] + 𝛽 [ ]= [𝛽 ]
0 1
The inner product
𝛼
⟨ 𝜓 ∣ 𝜓⟩ = [𝛼 ∗ 𝛽 ∗ ] [𝛽 ]= 𝛼 ∗ 𝛼 + 𝛽 ∗ 𝛽

∣ 𝜓 ∣2 = ∣ 𝛼 ∣2 +∣ 𝛽 ∣2
As per the principle of normalization ∣ 𝜓 ∣2 = 1
Hence ∣ 𝛼 ∣2 +∣ 𝛽 ∣2 = 1

Quantum computing system for information processing: -

✓ Representation of Information: Information is encoded in qubits, which can exist in
superposition, allowing storage and manipulation of many states simultaneously.
✓ Information Transformation: Quantum operations are carried out using quantum gates
(unitary transformations), which rotate and entangle qubits rather than just flipping states.
✓ Parallelism: Superposition enables quantum computers to evaluate multiple possibilities at
once, providing massive parallelism.
✓ Entanglement: Strong correlations between qubits allow highly efficient information sharing
and processing.
✓ Measurement: Extracting results involve measuring qubits, which collapses their states into
definite outcomes, with probabilities linked to amplitudes.
✓ Algorithms: Quantum algorithms (e.g., Shor’s for factoring, Grover’s for searching)
demonstrate clear speedups over classical methods for specific tasks.

Hilbert Space: -
A Hilbert space is a complete vector space equipped with an inner product. In quantum
mechanics and quantum computing, Hilbert space provides the mathematical framework for
describing quantum states, observables, and measurements.
Hilbert space is a fundamental concept in math and physics.
It is an infinite-dimensional vector space that generalizes Euclidean space, equipped with an

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 Advanced Engineering Physics (R25) by Dr. B. Ashok, Sr. Assistant Professor
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inner product. It's essential for quantum mechanics, where particles' states are represented as
vectors (wavefunctions) in these spaces, allowing for complex wave behaviors.

A vector space is a mathematical structure formed by a set of vectors together with

scalar multiplication and vector addition, satisfying specific rules. It is fundamental in linear
algebra, quantum mechanics, and quantum computing.

Bloch Sphere: -
The Bloch sphere is a geometrical representation of a single qubit state. It provides an
intuitive way to visualize qubit states, superposition, and quantum gates using a unit sphere.
(or) Bloch sphere is an imaginary sphere which is used to represent pure single qubit states as a
point on its surface. It has unit radius. Its north pole and south pole are selected to represent the
basis states namely ∣ 0⟩ and ∣ 1⟩. North pole represents ∣ 0⟩ (say spin up↑) and south pole
represents ∣ 1⟩ (say spin down ↓). All other points on the sphere represent superposed states.
Bloch sphere allows the state of a qubit to be represented in spherical coordinates (i.e., r, θ and
ϕ). It is as follows

The state qubit ∣ 𝜓⟩ on the Bloch sphere makes an angle θ with z-axis and its projection
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 Advanced Engineering Physics (R25) by Dr. B. Ashok, Sr. Assistant Professor
(Physics)
makes angle ϕ with x-axis as shown. It is clear from the figure that 0 < θ < π and 0 < ϕ < 2π.
The general qubit state is written as
∣ 𝜓⟩ = 𝛼 ∣ 0⟩ + 𝛽 ∣ 1⟩
After applying the polar coordinates and trigonometric formulas, it is converted to
𝜃 𝜃
∣ 𝜓⟩ = cos ( 2) ∣ 0⟩ + 𝑒 𝑖∅ sin ( 2) ∣ 1⟩ -----(1)

Using the above equation, we can represent ∣ 𝜓⟩ for different θ and ϕ values as follows
Case-1: let θ=0 and ϕ=0, then the equation (1) becomes
∣ 𝜓⟩ = cos0 ∣ 0⟩ + 𝑒 𝑖0 sin0 ∣ 1⟩ = ∣ 0⟩ + 0
∴∣ 𝜓⟩ = ∣ 0⟩
Case-2: let θ=π and ϕ=0, then the equation (1) becomes
𝜋
∣ 𝜓⟩ = cos ∣ 0⟩ + 𝑒 𝑖0 sin0 ∣ 1⟩ = 0+∣ 1⟩
2
∴∣ 𝜓⟩ = ∣ 1⟩
Case-3: let θ=π/2 and ϕ=0, then the equation (1) becomes
𝜋 𝜋
∣ 𝜓⟩ = cos ∣ 0⟩ + 𝑒 𝑖0 sin ∣ 1⟩
4 4
1 1
∣ 𝜓⟩ = ( ) ∣ 0⟩ + ( ) ∣ 1⟩
√2 √2
∣ 0⟩+∣ 1⟩
∴∣ 𝜓⟩ = ( )
√2
Case-4: let θ=π/2 and ϕ=π, then the equation (1) becomes
𝜋 𝜋
∣ 𝜓⟩ = cos ∣ 0⟩ + 𝑒 𝑖𝜋 sin ∣ 1⟩
4 4
1 1
∣ 𝜓⟩ = ( ) ∣ 0⟩ − ( ) ∣ 1⟩
√2 √2
∣ 0⟩−∣ 1⟩
∴∣ 𝜓⟩ = ( )
√2

In the above discussion we have represented only single qubit state. Bloch sphere is a nice
visualization of single qubit states.
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 Advanced Engineering Physics (R25) by Dr. B. Ashok, Sr. Assistant Professor
(Physics)

Advantage of quantum computing over classical computing

✓ Massive Parallelism (Superposition) A qubit can represent many values at once. It leads to
exponential speed-up in computation
✓ Strong Correlations (Entanglement): Entangled qubits process information collaboratively. It
gives ability to solve powerful for complex problems.
✓ Better for Quantum System Simulations. It naturally simulates atoms, molecules, materials,
which is difficult for classical computers.
✓ Enhances Security in Communication: Quantum cryptography ensures unbreakable security
(e.g., QKD).

Challenges of Quantum Computer Over Classical computer

✓ Decoherence & Noise: Qubits lose their state quickly due to environmental interaction. This
leads to errors in computation
✓ Error Correction is Complex: Requires many physical qubits to maintain one logical qubit
✓ Difficult Implementation & Control: Requires extremely low temperatures, precise control of
qubits
✓ Scalability Issues: Hard to build quantum computers with large number of stable qubits.
✓ Measurement Collapse: Reading the output disturbs the quantum state and destroys information
✓ Expensive Technology: Requires advanced hardware like cryostats, vacuum systems, which are
very costly.

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