SWAMI KESHVANAND INSTITUTE OF

TECHNOLOGY, MANGEMENT& GRAMOTHAN,

JAIPUR

ECL-11

LABORATORY MANUAL

COURSE NAME- ELECTRONICS DEVICES LAB

COURSE CODE- 3EC4-21

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING
 Electronics Devices Lab

[Link]. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page

No.
1 Vision, Mission and Quality Policy of the Institute 4
2 Vision, Mission of the Department 5
3 Program Educational Objectives (PEO‟S), PO‟S & CO‟S and their 6-8
mapping.
4 RTU Syallbus 9
5 List of Experiment 10
6 Beyond Syllabus Experiments 12
7 Lab Ethics 13
8 Safety measure 14
9. Introduction about the Labs: 15-
16
10 Exp: 1 18-40
To study:
(a) Block diagram and working of the Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)
and Function Generator.
(b) To measure peak to peak voltage, time period, frequency, phase-
difference, Lissajous figures of a periodic signal using CRO.
(c) Analog and digital Multimeters
(d) Regulated D.C. power
11 Exp: 2 42-48
(a) To observe and plot the V-I characteristic of Zener diode.
(b) To find the Zener Break down voltage in reverse biased condition.
To find the Static and Dynamic resistances of Zener diode in both forward
and reverse biased conditions.

12 Exp: 3 50-54
Design a half wave without filter rectifier of Vdc = 7 volt, IL(max)=10mA
and with C- filter of Vdc =7 volt, IL(max)=10mA, ripple factor ≤ 0.05.
13 Exp:4 56-61
Design a Bridge without filter rectifier of Vdc =13 volt, IL(max)=100mA
and with C- filter of Vdc =21 volt, IL(max)=100mA, ripple factor ≤ 0.04.
14 Exp:5 – 62-66

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(a) Design a Clipper circuit for a 4 V to -5V output signal.
(b) Design a Clamper circuit for a 2 V to -8 V output signals.
15 Exp:6- 68-72
(a) To observe and plot the V-I characteristic of Zener diode.
(b) To find the Zener Break down voltage in reverse biased condition.
(c) To find the Static and Dynamic resistances of Zener diode in both
forward and reverse biased conditions.

16 Exp:7- 74-80
(a) Design a voltage regulator using zener diode for constant output
voltage of 12 V.
(b) Observe the effect of load resistance and determine load limits of the
12 V voltage regulator
17 Exp:8- 82-94
Plot V-I input-output characteristics of BJT in CB, CC and CE
configurations. Find their following h parameters.
(a) Input impedance (hie, hic, hib)
(b) Reverse voltage gain (hre, hrc, hrb)
(c) Output admittance(hoe, hob,hoc)
(d) Forward current gain (hfe, hfb, hfc)
18 Exp:9- 96-100
(a) Design a voltage divider biasing circuit using BJT with Q point
(IC=4.12 mA & VCE= 6.72V).
(b) Design a fixed base bias circuit using BJT with Q point (IC =7.15 mA
& VCE=7.85 V).
19 Exp:10- 102-107
Design a two stage RC coupled amplifier at lower cut off frequency of 27
Hz and upper cut off frequency of 20 kHz with mid band gain (Avm) of
32.15dB. Plot the frequency response of the amplifier.
20 Exp:11- 108-112
Design a two stage FET amplifier with a voltage gain (𝐴𝑉) = 102.5, lower
cut off frequency of 100 Hz and upper cut off frequency of 1kHz. Plot the
frequency response of the amplifier.
21 Exp:12- 114-119
Plot input-output characteristics of field effect transistor and measure Idss

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and Vp
(a) Transfer characteristics
(b) Drain characteristics of N-channel field effect transistor and measure
Idss & Vp.
Beyond Curriculum Experiments:

22 Exp:13- 121-127
Design a common emitter amplifier of voltage gain AV=6 dB using
Bipolar Junction Transistor.
23 Exp:14- 129-133
Design a Center tapped without filter rectifier of Vdc =13 volt and
IL(max)=100mA and with C- filter of Vdc =21 volt and IL(max)=100mA,
ripple factor ≤ 0.04.

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Vision, Mission and Quality Policy of the Institute

Vision of the Institute
To promote higher learning in advanced technology and industrial research to make our
country a global player

Mission of the Institute

To promote quality education, training and research in the field of Engineering by
establishing effective interface with industry and to encourage faculty to undertake
industry sponsored projects for students

Quality Policy of the Institute

“We are committed to „achievement of quality‟ as an integral part of our institutional

policy by continuous self-evaluation and striving to improve ourselves.”

Institute would pursue quality in:

 All its endeavors like admissions, teaching-learning processes, examinations,

extra and co-curricular activities, industry-institute interaction, research &
development, continuing education and consultancy.
 Functional areas like teaching departments, Training and placement cell, library,
administrative office, accounts office, hostels, canteen, security services,
transport, maintenance section and all other services.

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Vision and Mission of the Department

Vision of the Department: To evolve the department as a center of excellence in

the field of Electronics & Communication Engineering for enriched education,
higher learning, research and development

Mission of the Department: To empower students by imparting quality education

in Electronics and Communication Engineering for better employability and
preparing them to be competent in dealing with industrial and societal challenges

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Program Educational Objectives (PEOs)

1. The graduates will be able to pursue successfully in the relevant fields and
advance in their profession.
2. The graduates may excel in pursuing higher education and life-long learning.
3. Graduates will be able to hold high ethical standards and work effectively
in multidisciplinary teams with strong management and team work skills.

Program Outcomes (POs)

1. Engineering knowledge: Apply knowledge of mathematics, science, and
engineering fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of
complex engineering problems.
2. Problem Analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature and analyze
complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first
principles of mathematics, nature science, and engineering sciences.
3. Design/Development of Solution: Design solutions for complex engineering
problems and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs
with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural,
societal, and environmental consideration.
4. Conduct Investigations of Complex Problem: Use research-based knowledge
and methods to conduct experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and
synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Cerate, select, and apply appropriate technique, resources,
and modern engineering and IT tool including predication and modeling to
complex engineering activity with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual
knowledge to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the
consequent responsibility relevant to the professional engineering practices.
7. Environment and Sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional
engineering solutions in societal and environmental context, and demonstrate the
knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and
responsibilities and norms of the engineering practice.

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9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, or leader and as
a member or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with
the engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to
comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation, make
presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of
the engineering and management principles and apply theses to one‟s work, as s
member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary
environments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of
technological change.

Program Specific Outcomes(PSO’s)

1. Understand principles and applications of electronic components, circuits and
devices.
2. Develop proficiency in Electronics and Communication Engineering to enhance
employability skills.

Course Outcome:
Students will be able to:
3EC4-21.1: Discuss the functioning of common electronics lab equipment such as
CRO, function generator, analog and digital multimeter and regulated dc power
supply.
3EC4-21.2:Examine V-I characteristics of diode and its various applications like
clippers, clampers, rectifiers etc.
3EC4-21.3:Implement BJT & FET amplifiers for specific gain.
3EC4-21.4:Illustrate different biasing circuits of BJT for specific operating point.
3EC4-21.5:Analyze the input and output characteristics of various transistor
configurations.

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Mpping of course Outcomes with POs and PSOs:

P
PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PSO PSO
O
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2
1
3EC4-
21.1 2 2 - 2 - - - - 3 2 - 2 - 2
3EC4-
21.2 3 3 3 3 - - - - 3 3 - 3 3 2
3EC4-
21.3 3 2 3 3 - - - - 3 3 - 2 3 2
3EC4-
21.4 3 3 3 3 - - - - 3 3 - 3 3 2
3EC4-
21.5 3 3 3 3 - - - - 3 3 - 3 3 2

3: Strongly 2: Moderate 1: Weak

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RTU Syllabus
Subject Name/code: Electronics Devices Lab/3EC4-21A
Practical hrs - 2
Class:[Link]. II Yr. III Sem.
Branch: ECE
External Marks: 20 Internal Marks: 30 Total Marks: 50
Syllabus
[Link]. List of Experiments
1 Study the following devices: (a) Analog& digital multimeters (b) Function/
Signal generators (c) Regulated d. c. power supplies (constant voltage and
constant current operations) (d) Study of analog and digital CRO, measurement
of time period, amplitude,frequency&phase angle using Lissajous figures.
2 Plot V-I characteristic of P-N junction diode & calculate cut-in voltage, reverse
Saturation current and static & dynamic resistances.

3 Plot the output waveform of half wave rectifier and effect of filters on
waveform. Also calculate its ripple factor
4 Study bridge rectifier and measure the effect of filter network on D.C. voltage
output & ripple factor..
5 Plot and verify output wave forms of different clipper and clamper.
6 Plot V-I characteristic of Zener diode.
7 Study of Zener diode as voltage regulator. Observe the effect of load changes
and determine load limits of the voltage regulator.
8 Plot input-output characteristics of BJT in CB, CC and CE configurations. Find
their h- parameters.
9 Study of different biasing circuits of BJT amplifier and calculate its Q-point.
10 Plot frequency response of two stage RC coupled amplifier & calculate its
bandwidth.
11 Plot input-output characteristics of field effect transistor and measure Idss and
Vp.
12. Plot frequency response curve for FET amplifier and calculate its gain
bandwidth product.

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List of Experiment

[Link]. Experiments
Exp: 1 To study:
(a) Block diagram and working of the Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)
and Function Generator.
(b) To measure peak to peak voltage, time period, frequency, phase-
difference, Lissajous figures of a periodic signal using CRO.
(c) Analog and digital Multimeters
(d) Regulated D.C. power supplies (constant voltage an constant current
operations)
Exp: 2 (a) To observe and plot the V-I characteristic of Zener diode.
(b) To find the Zener Break down voltage in reverse biased condition.
(c) To find the Static and Dynamic resistances of Zener diode in both
forward and reverse biased conditions.
Exp: 3 Design a half wave without filter rectifier of Vdc = 7 volt, IL(max)=10mA
and with C- filter of Vdc =7 volt, IL(max)=10mA, ripple factor ≤ 0.05.
Exp:4 Design a Bridge without filter rectifier of Vdc =13 volt, IL(max)=100mA
and with C- filter of Vdc =21 volt, IL(max)=100mA, ripple factor ≤ 0.04.
Exp:5 (a) Design a Clipper circuit for a 4 V to -5V output signal.
(b) Design a Clamper circuit for a 2 V to -8 V output signals.
Exp:6 (a) To observe and plot the V-I characteristic of Zener diode.
(b) To find the Zener Break down voltage in reverse biased condition.
(c) To find the Static and Dynamic resistances of Zener diode in both
forward and reverse biased conditions.
Exp:7 (a) Design a voltage regulator using zener diode for constant output
voltage of 12 V.
(b) Observe the effect of load resistance and determine load limits of the
12 V voltage regulator
Exp:8 Plot V-I input-output characteristics of BJT in CB, CC and CE
configurations. Find their following h parameters.
(a) Input impedance (hie, hic, hib)
(b) Reverse voltage gain (hre, hrc, hrb)
(c) Output admittance(hoe, hob,hoc)

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(d) Forward current gain (hfe, hfb, hfc)

Exp:9 (a) Design a voltage divider biasing circuit using BJT with Q point
(IC=4.12 mA & VCE= 6.72V).
(b) Design a fixed base bias circuit using BJT with Q point (IC =7.15 mA
& VCE=7.85 V).
Exp:10 Design a two stage RC coupled amplifier at lower cut off frequency of 27
Hz and upper cut off frequency of 20 kHz with mid band gain (Avm) of
32.15dB. Plot the frequency response of the amplifier.
Exp:11 Design a two stage FET amplifier with a voltage gain (𝐴𝑉) = 102.5, lower
cut off frequency of 100 Hz and upper cut off frequency of 1kHz. Plot the
frequency response of the amplifier.
Exp:12 Plot input-output characteristics of field effect transistor and measure Idss
and Vp
(a) Transfer characteristics
(b) Drain characteristics of N-channel field effect transistor and measure
Idss & Vp.
Exp:13 Design an common emitter amplifier of voltage gain AV=6 dB using
Bipolar Junction Transistor.
Exp:14 Design a Center tapped without filter rectifier of Vdc =13 volt and
IL(max)=100mA and with C- filter of Vdc =21 volt and IL(max)=100mA,
ripple factor ≤ 0.04.

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Beyond Syllabus Experiments

3EC4-21.a Design an common emitter amplifier of voltage gain AV=6 dB using

Bipolar Junction Transistor.
3EC4-21.b Design a Center tapped without filter rectifier of Vdc =13 volt and
IL(max)=100mA and with C- filter of Vdc =21 volt and IL(max)=100mA, ripple factor ≤
0.04.

Mapping of beyond syllabus experiments with POs:

Beyond PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PSO 1 PSO

syllabus 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 2
3EC4- 3 3 3 3 - - - - 3 2 3 3 3 2
21.a
3EC4- 3 1 1 1 - - - - 3 2 2 3 3 2
21.b

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Lab Ethics:
DO’S
1. Student should get the record of previous experiment checked before starting the new
experiment.
2. Read the manual carefully before starting the experiment.
3. Before starting the experiment, get circuit diagram checked by the teacher.
4. Before switching on the power supply, get the circuit connections checked.
5. Get your readings checked by the teacher.
6. Apparatus must be handled carefully.
7. Maintain strict discipline.
8. Keep your mobile phone switched off or in vibration mode.
9. Students should get the experiment allotted for next turn, before leaving the lab.

DON’TS

1. Do not touch or attempt to touch the mains power supply wire with bare hands.
2. Do not overcrowd the tables.
3. Do not tamper with equipment‟s.
4. Do not leave the lab without permission from the teacher.

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Safety Measures
1. Avoid direct contact with any voltage source and power line voltage. (Otherwise,
and such contact may subject you to electrical shock).
2. Use insulating materials while working on electrical equipment.
3. Ensure that the power is OFF before you start connecting up the circuit.
(Otherwise you will be touching the live parts in the circuit).
4. Check power chords for any sign of damage and be certain the chords use safety
plugs and do not defeat the safety feature of these plugs by using ungrounded
plugs.
5. When using connection leads, check for any insulation damage in the leads and
avoid such defective leads.
6. Do not defeat any Safety devices such as fuse or circuit breaker by shorting across
it. Switch on the power to your circuit and equipment only after getting them
checked up and approved by the staff member.

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Introduction about the Labs

Electronic Devices Laboratory Manual covers those practical oriented electronic circuits
that are very essential for the students to solidify their theoretical concepts. This Manual
provides a communication bridge between the theory and practical world of the electronic
circuits. The knowledge of these practices is very essential for the engineering students.

.Some of the very useful diode based circuits are discussed in this section. Labs
concerning over this part of the Manual basically provide the elementary knowledge of
the subject. The second section of the Manual describes the Bipolar Junction Transistor
based circuits. Different configurations of BJT amplifier are discussed in this part of the
book. Each and every practical provides a great in depth practical concepts of BJT. Field
Effect Transistor (FET); one of the leading technology in electronics is discussed in third
and the final section of this Manual. It gives the introduction to the FET based electronic
circuits.

During this Lab course simple electronic circuits are designed using discrete components
like Resistors, Capacitors, Inductors, PN junction diodes and Transistors (BJT‟s, FET‟s,
etc.), etc.. These designed circuits are tested and verified for their performance under the
laboratory conditions using power sources like DC Power supply, AC sources like
function generators. Their input and output parameters like input waveforms, output
waveforms, input and output current and voltage readings, the impedance or resistance
offered by the circuit, etc are analyzed by using measuring instruments like multimeter
and CRO‟s. The captured values from the instruments are noted and used for further
calculations.

Electronics Devices laboratory course flow:

To start with this laboratory session, initially all students are trained to use the
measuring instruments like Multi-meter and CRO. Thorough understanding of CRO is
mandatory for proceeding with the courseware. The function or signal generators which
generate the analog signals of desired frequency and amplitude (frequency and voltage
levels) and usage of power supply etc. are made familiar to the students. Reading the
values of the passive components like resistor, capacitor, etc. using color code is taught.
After completing the above exercise, the design aspects of circuits are carried out. There

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after the conduction of the experiments are started to verify and test the performance of
the designed circuits. The input and generated output waveforms are sketched and the
results are noted for further calculations. Instructions to the students are given in the start
of this document which they are advised to read before they start conducting experiments.

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EXPERIMENT NUMBER-1

AIM:
To study:
(a) Block diagram and working of the Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) and
Function Generator.
(b) To measure peak to peak voltage, time period, frequency, phase-difference,
Lissajous figures of a periodic signal using CRO.
(c) Analog and digital Multimeters
(d) Regulated D.C. power supplies (constant voltage an constant current operations)

APPARATUS REQUIRED
 Function Generator
 CRO
 Analog and digital Multimeters
 Regulated D.C. power supplies kit

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
Different values of resistance and Capaictor, 1N4007 Diode, IC7805

THEORY:
The Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) is a common laboratory instrument that
provides accurate time and amplitude measurements of voltage signals over a wide range
of frequencies. Its reliability, stability, and ease of operation make it suitable as a general
purpose laboratory instrument. Fig. 1.1 shows the basic block diagram of a general
purpose CRO.

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Fig. 1.1: Block Diagram of CRO

A general purpose oscilloscope consists of the following parts:

1. Cathode Ray Tube

2. Vertical Amplifier
3. Delay Line
4. Time Base Generator
5. Horizontal Amplifier
6. Trigger Circuit
7. Power Supply
1. Cathode Ray Tube - It is the heart of the oscilloscope. When the electrons
emitted by the electron gun strikes the phosphor screen, a visual signal is
displayed on the CRT.
2. Vertical Amplifier - The input signals are amplified by the vertical amplifier.
Usually, the vertical amplifier is a wide band amplifier which passes the entire
band of frequencies.
3. Delay Line - As the name suggests, this circuit is used to delay the signal for a
period of time in the vertical section of CRT. The input signal is not applied
directly to the vertical plates because the part of the signal gets lost, when the
delay time is not used. Therefore, the input signal is delayed by a period of time.

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4. Time Base (Sweep) Generator - Time base circuit uses a uni-junction transistor,
which is used to produce the sweep. The saw tooth voltage produced by the time
base circuit is required to deflect the beam in the horizontal section. The spot is
deflected by the saw tooth voltage at a constant time dependent rate.
5. Horizontal Amplifier - The saw tooth voltage produced by the time base circuit
is amplified by the horizontal amplifier before it is applied to horizontal deflection
plates.
6. Trigger Circuit - The signals which are used to activate the trigger circuit are
converted to trigger pulses for the precision sweep operation whose amplitude is
uniform. Hence input signal and the sweep frequency can be synchronized.
7. Power supply - The voltages required by CRT, horizontal amplifier, and vertical
amplifier are provided by the power supply block. It is classified into two types -
(1) Negative high voltage supply (2) Positive low voltage supply

The voltage of negative high voltage supply is from -1000V to -1500V. The range
of positive voltage supply is from 300V to 400V.

Fig. 1.2: Construction of CRO

 The cathode ray is a beam of electrons which are emitted by the heated cathode
(negative electrode) and accelerated toward the fluorescent screen. The assembly
of the cathode, intensity grid, focus grid, and accelerating anode (positive
electrode) is called an electron gun.

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 Its purpose is to generate the electron beam and control its intensity and focus.
Between the electron gun and the fluorescent screen is two pair of metal plates -
one oriented to provide horizontal deflection of the beam and one pair oriented to
give vertical deflection to the beam. These plates are thus referred to as the
horizontal and vertical deflection plates
 The combination of these two deflections allows the beam to reach any portion of
the fluorescent screen. Wherever the electron beam hits the screen, the phosphor
is excited and light is emitted from that point. This conversion of electron energy
into light allows us to write with points or lines of light on an otherwise darkened
screen.
 The linear deflection or sweep of the beam horizontally is accomplished by use of
a sweep generator that is incorporated in the oscilloscope circuitry.
 In the most common use of the oscilloscope, the signal to be studied is first
amplified and then applied to the vertical (deflection) plates to deflect the beam
vertically, and at the same time, a voltage that increases linearly with time is
applied to the horizontal (deflection) plates, thus causing the beam to be deflected
horizontally at a uniform rate.
 The signal applied to the vertical plates is thus displayed on the screen as a
function of time. The horizontal axis serves as a uniform time scale.

Fig. 1.3: Front View of CRO

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Table:1 Basic function of key

S. Name of
Basic Function
No. Key

1. Power On Put the instrument to main supply with led indication.

2. Intensity Controls the brightness of the display.

3. Focus Controls the sharpness of the display

4. Time Base 18 step switch to enable selection of 18 calibrated sweep from 0.5
micro sec/div to0.2s/div in 1,2,5,….sequence

5. Time Base In calibrated position (cal) the selected sweep speed holds
Variable indicated calibration clockwise. it extends the sweep speed by 2.5
times approx. with the led indication.

6. Hold-Off Provides 4:1 hold off enhancing hf &complex signal triggering.

7.  Controls the horizontal position of the display. When this control

Position/X5 is pulled, it magnifies the sweep 5 times with led indication.

8. Level Variable control, selects the trigger point on the displayed

waveform.

9. Auto/Norm In auto mode trace is displayed in absence of any input signal. the
display is then automatically triggered for signals above 30 Hz
depending upon correct setting of trigger level controls.

10. Int/Ext Int; display triggers from signals derived from ch1, ch2 or
[Link]: triggering from any other external source fed through ext
trig bnc socket.

11. Line Triggers from power line frequency.

12. Tv Triggers from low freq. component of TV signal (TV-v or TV-h).

13. +/- Selects trigger point on either positive or negative slope of the
displayed waveform.

14. Ch1/Ch2 Select trigger signal in int mode derived from either ch1 or ch2
inputs.

15. Hf Rej Introduces low pass filter (20 kHz) in trigger.

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16. Ac/Dc Selects trigger signal coupling.

17. Swp/X-Y When pressed, converts ch2 input into x-channel and enable use
of the scope as on x-y scope (y-input via. ch1). in released
position, sweep operates.

18. 0.2, 1khz 200 mv p-p 1 kHz square wave calibration signal.

19.  Positions Controls the vertical position of the display

20. Ac/Dc/Gnd Selects input coupling / grounding (grounds the amplifier input
but input signal is open circuited)

21. Ext-Trig Input bnc for external trigger signal

22. Input Bnc Input terminals to ch1/y, ch2/x inputs

Ch1/Y
(Ch2/X)

23. Trace Screw driver control to adjust horizontal tilt of the trace.

24. Ch1/Ch2 12 steps compensated attenuator from 5 mv/div to 20 v/div in 1,

Attenuator 2, 5 sequence.

25. Vertical
Modes

A. selects switching mode for 2 channel while in dual operations

Alt/Chop

B. In dual, operates as a dual trace scope in alt or chop mode as

Dual/Mono selected.
(X-Y)

C. Channel In dual mode, when add switch is pressed signals of ch1 and ch2
Addition are algebraically added.
(Ch1-Ch2)

D. Channel In dual mode, when add and ch2 inv switches are pressed ch2
Subtraction signal is algebraically subtracted from ch1 signal.

(Ch1-Ch2)

E. Ch2 Inv When ch2 inv switch is pressed polarity of the signal to ch2 is
inverted.

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First Time Operation: Set Controls as Follows:

Power On : Switch In Off Position

Intensity : Mid Position

Focus : Mid Position

Attenuator Ch1/Ch2 : 50 Mv/Div

Vertical Shift Ch1/Ch2 : Mid Position

Dc/Ac : Dc (Release Position)

Gnd : Gnd (Pressed Position)

Alt/Chop : Alt

Dual/Mono X-Y : Mono X-Y

Add : Released Position

Ch2 Inv : Released Position

Variable : Cal Position (Fully Anticlockwise)

Hold Off : Cal Position (Fully Anticlockwise)

Level : Mid Position

Auto/Normal : Auto (Released Position)

Ch1/Ch2 : Ch1 (Released Position)

Int/Ext : Int (Released Position)

+/- : + (Released Position)

Ac/Dc : Ac (Released Position)

Tv : Released Position

Tv-H/Tv-V Hf Rej : Released Position

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Line : Released Position

Swp/X-Y : Swp (Released Position)

Horizontal Shift : Mid Position

Ctc : Released Position

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Function Generator
A function generator produces different waveforms of adjustable frequency. The
common output waveforms are the sine, square, triangular and saw tooth waves. The
frequency may be adjusted, from a fraction of a Hertz to several hundred kHz lie various
outputs of the generator can be made available at the same time. For example, the
generator can provide a square wave to test the linearity of a rectifier and simultaneously
provide a saw tooth to drive the horizontal deflection amplifier of the CRO to provide a
visual display.
Figure 1.4 shows the front view and block diagram of a function generator with two
outputs. Each block can be built in many different ways. It depends on the specification
of the design (the range of frequencies and amplitudes that can be produced). For the
generator in Figure, it contains the following components:
1. A Frequency Control Network to adjust the current supplies and the frequency of
the output.
2. Two different Constant Current Supply Sources.
3. An integrator, or basically an operational amplifier with a capacitor on the
feedback loop.
4. A Voltage Comparator that is used to form a square waveform.
5. Resistance Diode Shaping Circuit that is used to form a sin waveform.
6. Output Amplifiers to adjust the amplitude of the waveform.

Fig. 1.4: Front View and Block Diagram of Function Generator

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The Frequency Control Network- First step in using a function generator is to adjust its
frequency. Figure 1.5 shows a basic frequency control network. The input to this network
is a DC current source. When C1 and C2 are charging, the output of this network is going
to be zero. Then, when they are both fully charged, the resistors tend to dissipate the
charge and conduct a current at the output. How frequent this process happens depends
on the value of the resistor R3, which is an adjustable resistor. Furthermore, this process
is responsible for adjusting the frequency of the output and the Constant Current Supply
Sources of the function generator.

Fig. 1.5: Frequency Control Network

The Integrator- After adjusting the frequency of the current supplies, the integrator
comes into play. Its main function is to produce a triangular waveform that is going to be
directly used, or converted to a sin or a square wave. It basically performs a mathematical
integration to its input signal, which is a constant DC current. Hence, produces an output
voltage that rises linearly with time. In other words, the output is going to be a triangular
waveform. The slope of the waveform depends linearly on the magnitude of the Constant
Current Supply Sources. If the current supplied is positive, the output is going to be a
rising line. In contrast, if it was negative, the output is going to be a falling line. The
Frequency Control Network controls the polarity of the current sources.

The Voltage Comparator- The voltage comparator is used to produce a square

waveform. The comparator is a circuit that compares an input voltage to a fixed reference
voltage as shown in Figure 1.6. The comparator is supplied with two voltage constant

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voltage sources, V+ and V- that have the same magnitude but different signs. If the input
voltage (The output of the integrator) is larger than the reference voltage (Usually 0), it
outputs the value of the V+ source. However, if the input voltage is smaller than the
reference voltage, it outputs the value of the V- source. Since the V+ and V- have
constant values, the output will switch between the value of V+ and V-, which will
produce a square waveform.

Fig. 1.6: Comparator Circuit

Resistance Diode Shaping Circuit- The resistance diode network changes the slope of
the triangular wave as its amplitude changes and produces a sinusoidal wave with less
than 1% distortion. It has a very complicated operation that is hard to explain in few
paragraphs.
Measurement -
1. Method to Measure Voltage
1. The simplest way to measure signal is to set the trigger button to auto that means
oscilloscope start to measure the voltage signal by identifying the zero voltage
point or peak voltage by itself. As any of these two points identified in the
oscilloscope triggers and measure the range of the voltage signal.
2. Vertical and horizontal controls are adjusted so that the displayed image of the
sine wave is clear and stable. Now take measurements along the center vertical
line which has the smallest divisions. Reading of the voltage signal will be given
by vertical control.
2. Method to Measure Current
Electrical current cannot be measured directly by an oscilloscope. However, it could be
measured indirectly within scope by attaching probes or resistors. Resistor measures the

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voltage across the points and then substituting the value of voltage and resistance in
Ohm‟s law and calculates the value of electrical current. Another easy way to measure
current is to use a clamp-on current probe with an oscilloscope.
1. Attach a probe with the resistor to an electrical circuit. Make sure that resistor‟s
power rating should be equal or greater than the power output of the system.
2. Now take the value of resistance and plug into Ohm‟s Law to calculate the
current.

3. Method to Measure Frequency

Frequency can be measured on an oscilloscope by investigating the frequency spectrum
of a signal on the screen and making a small calculation. Frequency is defined as the
several times a cycle of an observed wave takes up in a second. The maximum frequency
of a scope can measure may vary but it always in the 100‟s of MHz range. To check the
performance of response of signals in a circuit, scope measures the rise and fall time of
the wave.
1. Increase the vertical sensitivity to get the clear picture of the wave on the screen
without chopping any of its amplitude off.
2. Now adjust the sweep rate in such a way that screen displays a more than one but
less than two complete cycles of the wave.
3. Now count the number of divisions of one complete cycle on the graticule from
start to end.
4. Now take horizontal sweep rate and multiply it with the number of units that you
counted for a cycle. It will give you the period of the wave. The period is the
number of seconds each repeating waveform takes. With the help of period, you
can simply calculate the frequency in cycles per second (Hertz).
4. Method to Measure Phase Difference
We have discussed that when two sinusoidal voltage signals of equal frequency having
some phase difference are applied to the deflection plates of CRO, a straight line or an
ellipse appears on the screen. In the case of straight line appearing on the screen, phase
angle difference would be zero or 180° but in case of an ellipse we will have to use a

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formula for determination of phase difference. Let there be two sinusoidal voltage signals
given by
vh = Vh Sin ωt

vv = Vv Sin (ωt+Ф), where Ф is the phase difference.

Since deflection is directly proportional to the amplitude of voltage

So dh = Dh Sin ωt

dv = Dv Sin (ωt+Ф)

At time t=0, values of dh and dv are dh0 = 0 and dv0 = Dv Sin Ф

So Sin Ф = dv0/Dv

Thus the phase difference between two sinusoidal voltages of equal frequency can be
determined by measuring dv0 and Dv. In the given problem Vv is shown by leading Vh by
a phase angle Ф. If the situation is reversed and Vh leads Vv by phase angle Ф, then again
same ellipse would appear on the screen. Because of this fact we can determine only the
phase angle between two sinusoidal voltages. It does not indicate which one is leading
and which one is lagging.
5. Method to Measure Frequency of Lissajous Figures
The patterns obtained on CRO screen are called the Lissajous patterns. A Lissajous
pattern is a pattern which is stationary on the screen of a CRO. It means that the spot
traces out the same pattern for every cycle of a voltage signal. As we have already stud-
ied that the ratio of frequencies of vertical and horizontal voltage signals should be a
rational or fractional number to have steady pattern. So the condition for having a
Lissajous pattern on the CRO screen is
Fy / Fx = A/B

where A and B are integers.

Lissajous patterns are usually of two types. First one is closed Lissajous pattern and has
no free end. Second one is open Lissajous pattern and has free ends. Both types of
Lissajous patterns are shown in Figure 1.7.

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Fig. 1.7: Closed and Open Liassajous Patterns

In a Lissajous pattern, ratio of frequency of vertical signal to the frequency of horizontal

signal is equal to the ratio of positive Y-peaks to positive X-peaks in that pattern.
Fy / Fx = Positive Y – peaks in pattern / Positive X – peaks in pattern
Thus by counting the positive Y-peaks and X-peaks on a Lissajous pattern, ratio of
frequencies of two voltage signals can be determined. In case of an open lissajous pattern,
free end is treated as half peak. This will be clear from the examples. Voltage signal of
unknown frequency is applied to the vertical deflection plates and horizontal deflection
plates
are supplied by an accurately calibrated variable frequency source. Frequency of the
variable frequency source is adjusted until a stationary pattern appears on the screen.
Now by reading the value of frequency of horizontal signal, with the help of calibrated
scale, frequency of voltage signal applied to vertical deflection plates can be known.
Observation Table
Table 1.2: measurement of voltage, time period and phase difference

Measure Measured
S. Type of Measured Phase
Measured d Time Frequency of
No Periodic Frequency Difference
Voltage (V) Period Lissajous
. Waveform (Hz) (Deg.)
(Sec) pattern (Hz)

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Analog Multimeters
Analog meter movements are inherently more fragile physically and electrically than
digital meters. Many analog meters have been instantly broken by connecting to the
wrong point in a circuit, or while on the wrong range, or by dropping onto the floor.
Many analog multimeters feature a switch position marked "transit" to protect the meter
movement during transportation. This feature works by placing a low resistance across
the movement winding, resulting in dynamic braking. Sensitive meter movements may be
protected in the same manner by connecting a shorting or jumper wire between the
terminals when not in use. Meters which feature a shunt across the winding such as an
ammeter may not require further resistance to arrest uncontrolled movements of the meter
needle because of the low resistance of the shunt.
Parallex error: It results when the person making the measurement is not directly viewing
the meter pointer.

Fig.1.8 Analog multimeter

Measurement of DC current: the D Arsonval movement described above can be directly

used. However the current to be measured should be lesser than the full scale deflection
current of the meter. For higher currents the current divider rule is applied. Using
different values of shunt resistors, the meter can also be used for multi range current
measurement. For current measurement the instrument is to be connected in series with
the unknown current source.
Measurement of DC voltage: A resistor is connected in series with the meter and the
meter resistance is taken into account such that the current passing through the resistor is
same as the current passing through the meter and the whole reading indicates the voltage
reading. For voltage measurement, the instrument is to be connected in parallel with the

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unknown voltage source. For multirange measurement, different resistors of different
values can be used, which are connected in series with the meter.
Measurement of resistance: the unknown resistance is connected in series with the meter
and across a battery, such that the current passing through the meter is directly
proportional to the unknown resistance.
AC voltage or current measurement: the same principle is applied, except for the fact that
the AC parameter to be measured is first rectified and filtered to get the DC parameter
and the meter indicates the RMS value of the AC signal.

Digital Multimeter:

`A Multimeter is an electronic device that is used to make various electrical

measurements, such as AC and DC voltage, AC and DC current, and resistance. It is
called a Multimeter because it combines the functions of a voltmeter, ammeter, and
ohmmeter. Multimeter may also have other functions, such as diode test, continuity test,
transistor test, TTL logic test and frequency test.
Parts of Multimeter
A Multimeter has three parts:
 Display
 Selection Knob
 Ports
The display usually has four digits and the ability to display a negative sign. A few
multimeters have illuminated displays for better viewing in low light situations.
The selection knob allows the user to set the multimeter to read different things such
as milliamps (mA) of current, voltage (V) and resistance (Ω).
Two probes are plugged into two of the ports on the front of the unit. COM stands
for common and is almost always connected to Ground or „-‟ of a circuit. The COM
probe is conventionally black but there is no difference between the red probe and
black probe other than color. 10A is the special port used when measuring large
currents (greater than 200mA). mAVΩ is the port that the red probe is
conventionally plugged in to. This port allows the measurement of current (up to
200mA), voltage (V), and resistance (Ω). The probes have a banana type connector

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on the end that plugs into the multimeter. Any probe with a banana plug will work
with this meter.
Input Jacks: The black lead is always plugged into the common terminal. The red
lead is plugged into the 10 A jack when measuring currents greater than 300 mA, the
300 mA jack when measuring currents less than 300 mA, and the remaining jack (V-
ohms-diode) for all other measurements.

Fig.1.9 Input jacks view of DMM

Range Fixing: The meter defaults to auto range when first turned on. You can choose a
manual range in V AC, V DC, A AC, and A DC by pressing the button in the middle of
the rotary dial. To return to auto range, press the button for one second.

Fig.1.10 Range selection view of DMM

Procedure for Measurement Voltage Measurement

A.C./D.C. Voltage Measurement
1. Connect the positive(red) test lead to the „V/mA‟ jack socket and the
negative(black) lead to the „COM‟ jack socket.
2. Set the selector switch to the desired mV D.C./D.C.V/A.C.V range.

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3. Connect the test leads to the circuit to be measured.
4. Turn on the power to the circuit to be measured, the voltage value should appear
on the digital display along with the voltage polarity(if reversed only).

Fig.1.11 Voltage measurement view of DMM

Current Measurement
1. Connect the positive (red) test lead to the „V/mA‟ jack socket and the
negative(black) lead to the „COM‟ jack socket(for measurements up to 200mA).
For measurements between 200mA and 10A connect the red test lead to the
„10mA‟ socket.
2. Set the selector switch to the desired uA/mA/A range.
3. Open the circuit to be measured and connect the test leads in SERIES with the
load in which current is to be measured.
4. To avoid blowing an input fuse, use the 10A jack until you are sure that the
current is less than 300 mA. Turn off power to the circuit. Break the circuit. (For
circuits of more than 10 amps, use a current clamp.) Put the meter in series with
the circuit and turn power on.

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Fig.1.12 Current measurement view of DMM

Resistance Measurement
1. Connect the positive (red) test lead to the „V/mA‟ jack socket and the
negative(black) lead to the „COM‟ jack socket.
2. Set the selector switch to the desired „OHM Ω‟.
3. If the resistance to be measured ia part of a circuit, turn off the power and
discharge all capacitors before measurement.
4. Connect the test leads to the circuit to be measured.
5. The resistance value should now appear on the digital display.
6. If the resistance to be measured is part of a circuit, turn off the power and
discharge all capacitors before measurement.

Fig.1.13 Resistance measurement view of DMM

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Continuity Test:
This mode is used to check if two points are electrically connected. It is often
used to verify connectors. If continuity exists (resistance less than 210 ohms), the
beeper sounds continuously.

1. Connect the positive (red) test lead to the „V/mA‟ jack socket and the negative
(black) lead to the „COM‟ jack socket.
2. Set the selector switch to the position.
3. Connect the test leads to two points of the circuit to be tested. If the resistance is
Ohms the buzzer will sound.
4. If the resistance to be measured is part of a circuit, turn off the power and
discharge all capacitors before measurement.

Fig.1.14 Continuity test by DMM

Diode Test
1. Connect the positive (red) test lead to the „V/mA‟ jack socket and the
negative(black) lead to the „COM‟ jack socket.
2. Set the selector switch tot he position
3. Connect the test leads to be measured.
4. Turn on the power to the circuit to be measured and the voltage value
should appear on the digital display.

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Fig.1.15 Diode test by DMM

Regulated Power Supply

There are many types of power supply. Most are designed to convert high voltage AC
mains electricity to a suitable low voltage supply for electronic circuits and other devices.
A power supply can be broken down into a series of blocks, each of which performs a
particular function. For example a 5V regulated supply:

Fig. 1.16 Block Diagram of Regulated Power Supply

Construction and working of regulated power supply
1. AC supply and transformer:
A power supply is used to provide the required amount of power at specific voltage
from a primary source which can be AC mains or a battery. A transformer changes
the AC mains (line) voltage to a required value and it is used to step the voltage up or
down. In a transistor radio it may be a step-down transformer and in a CRT it may be
a step-up transformer. The Transformer provides isolation from the power line. It
should be used even when any change in voltage is not necessary.
2. Rectifier:
A rectifier converts AC into DC. It may be a half-wave rectifier, a full-wave rectifier
using a transformer with center-tapped secondary winding or a bridge rectifier. But
the output of a rectifier may be fluctuating.

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3. Filter:
A filter circuit is used for smoothing out the AC variations from the rectified voltage.
There are four types of filters: 1) Capacitor filter, 2) Inductor filter, 3) L-C filter and 4)
R-C filter.
4. Voltage regulator:
A voltage regulator is necessary to maintain a constant output DC voltage by providing
line regulation and load regulation. For this purpose, we can user A Zener-regulator,
transistorized regulator or three terminal IC regulator. A switched mode power supply
(SMPS) is used to provide large load current with negligible power dissipation in the
series pass transistor.
Dual Supplies: Some electronic circuits require a power supply with positive and
negative outputs as well as zero volts (0V). This is called a 'dual supply' because it is like
two ordinary supplies connected together as shown in the diagram. Dual supplies have
three outputs, for example a ±9V supply has +9V, 0V and -9V outputs.

Fig. 1.17 Dual Supplies

RESULT: We have studied:

(a) The block diagram and working of the Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)
and Function Generator. Moreover, we have measured different electrical
quantities, e.g., voltage, time period, frequency, phase difference and frequencies
of lissajous patterns with the help of CRO.
(b) Analog and Digital multimeter and measured/Test different component and
verify it and also study about regulated power supply.

DISCUSSION:
1. How is CRO superior to ordinary measuring instruments?
2. For what a triggering circuit is provided in a CRO?
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3. What is sweep time?
4. How is focussing achieved?
5. How an ammeter can be changed to a voltmeter?
6. What are the shortcomings of a multimeter?
7. Indicate the various quantities that can be measured with a multimeter.

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EXPERIMENT NUMBER -2
AIM: -
(a) To plot V-I Characteristics of P-N Junction Diode in forward and reverse biased
conditions.
(b) To find cut-in voltage for P-N Junction diode.
(c) To find static and dynamic resistances in both forward and reverse biased
conditions of diode.
(d) To find the reverse saturation current of the diode.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
 DC Voltmeter Moving coil (0-2V, 0-20V)
 DC Ammeters Moving coil (0-50 mA, 0-20µA)
 Regulated Power Supply (RPS) (0-30V)
 Bread Board
COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
Resistors (1 kΩ), Diode (IN 4007)

THEORY:-
The diode is a device formed from a junction of n-type and p-type semiconductor
material. The lead connected to the p-type material is called the anode and the lead
connected to the n-type material is the cathode. In general, the cathode of a diode is
marked by a solid line on the [Link] primary function of the diode is rectification.
Donor impurities (pentavalent) are introduced into one-side and acceptor impurities into
the other side of a single crystal of an intrinsic semiconductor to form a p-n diode with a
junction called depletion region (this region is depleted off the charge carriers). This
region gives rise to a potential barrier called Cut-in Voltage. This is the voltage across the
diode at which it starts conducting. The P-N junction can conduct beyond this potential.
The P-N junction supports uni-directional current flow. If +ve terminal of the input
supply is connected to anode (P-side) and –ve terminal of the input supply is connected
the cathode. Then diode is said to be forward biased. In this condition the height of the
potential barrier at the junction is lowered by an amount equal to given forward biasing

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voltage. Both the holes from p-side and electrons from n-side cross the junction
simultaneously and constitute a forward current from n-side (injected minority current –
due to holes crossing the junction and entering P- side of the diode). Assuming current
flowing through the diode to be very large, the diode can be approximated as short-
circuited switch.
If –ve terminal of the input supply is connected to anode (p-side) and +ve terminal of the
input supply is connected to cathode (n-side) then the diode is said to be reverse biased.
In this condition an amount equal to reverse biasing voltage increases the height of the
potential barrier at the junction. Both the holes on P-side and electrons on N-side tend to
move away from the junction there by increasing the depleted region. However the
process cannot continue indefinitely, thus a small current called reverse saturation current
continues to flow in the diode. This current is negligible hence the diode can be
approximated as an open circuited switch.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-
Forward Bias:-

Fig. 2.1 P-N junction forward bias

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Reverse Bias:-

Fig. 2.2: P-N junction reverses bias

V-I Characteristics of the p-n diode

The V-I characteristics or volt-ampere characteristics of a diode explained by the
following equations.

I=I0 ( -1) ……… (2.1)

Where
I = current flowing in the diode,
I0 = reverse saturation current
VD = Voltage applied to the diode,
VT = volt- equivalent of temperature = k T/q = T/ 11,600 = 26mV (@ room temp),
η is the (exponential) Ideality Factor.
The value of η is typically considered to be 1 for germanium diodes and 2 for silicon
diodes. However, its exact value for the given diode depends on various factors like
electron drift, diffusion, carrier recombination, which occurs within the depletion region,
its doping level, manufacturing technique and the purity of its materials.

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Fig. 2.3:- V-I Characteristics of a p-n junction diode

PROCEDURE:-
Forward Bias:-
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. For forward bias, the positive terminal of supply is connected to the anode of the diode
and the negative terminal of supply is connected to the cathode of the diode.
3. Switch on the power supply and increases the input voltage (supply voltage) in Steps.
4. Note down the corresponding current flowing through the diode and voltage across the
diode for each and every step of the input voltage.
5. The reading of voltage and current are tabulated.
6. Graph is plotted between voltage and current.

OBSERVATION TABLE:-
Table 2.1: Observation table of PN Diode in forward bias
[Link] Applied voltage Voltage across Current through Diode(mA)
across Diode(V) Diode(V)

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1

10

Table 2.2: Observation table of P-N Junction diode in reverse bias

[Link] Applied voltage Voltage across Current through

across Diode(V) Diode(V) Diode(µA)
1

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Observation from the V-I Characteristic curve
Calculation for Cut in Voltage for given diode:
It is the minimum voltage required by the diode after which current flows into the P N
junction Diode.
Cut in Voltage for given diode:………
Calculation for Static and Dynamic Resistance for a given diode:
In forward bias condition:
Static Resistance, Rs = Vf/If =
Dynamic Resistance, Rd = ΔVf/ ΔIf =
In Reverse bias condition:
Static Resistance, Rs = VR/IR =
Dynamic Resistance, RD = ΔVR/ ΔIR =
Calculation for reverse saturation current for a given diode:
Reverse saturation current (from eq.2.1)=……………………..

RESULT:-
The V-I characteristics of PN junction diode in forward and reverse bias condition is
ploted. From the V-I characteristics the cut in voltage, static and dynamic resistance and
reverse saturation current are calculated for given diode. The observed values for given
pn diode are as below
Cut in Voltage =………………
Reverse saturation current = …..
In forward bias condition:
Static Resistance =……………
Dynamic Resistance =………
In Reverse bias condition:
Static Resistance =…………….
Dynamic Resistance= ………

DISCUSSION:
1. Define depletion region of a diode?
2. What is meant by transition & space charge capacitance of a diode?

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4. Define cut-in voltage of a diode and specify the values for Si and Ge diodes?
5. What are the applications of a p-n diode?
6. Draw the ideal characteristics of P-N junction diode?
7. What is the diode equation?
8. What is the break down voltage?
10. What is the effect of temperature on PN junction diodes?

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EXPERIMENT NUMBER -3

AIM: - Design a half wave without filter rectifier of Vdc = 7 volt, IL(max)=10mA and
with C- filter of Vdc =7 volt, IL(max)=10mA, ripple factor ≤ 0.05.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:-
• Function generator
• CRO
• Multimeter
• Power Supply with Bread Board (+12V & -12V)
COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
Diode (IN4007), resistors of desired values,

THEORY:- The conversion of AC into DC is called Rectification. Electronic devices

can convert AC power into DC power with high efficiency. During the positive half
cycle, the diode is forward biased and it conducts and hence a current flow through the
load resistor. During the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased and it is
equivalent to an open circuit, hence the current through the load resistance is zero. Thus
the diode conducts only for one half cycle and results in half wave rectification.
Circuit Diagram:

Fig. 3.1 Half Wave rectifier without filter

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Fig. 3.2 Half Wave rectifier with filter

Design procedure

1. Half wave rectifier without filter

For a half wave rectifier Vdc =

Therefore Vm = π Vdc

Given : Vdc = 7V,

Vm= 22 volt

Transformer secondary voltage

Vrms =

So Vrms = = 11 volt

Choose 230V/ 11 V step down transformer

RL =

RL = = 700 Ω
And PL = Vdc * IL(max)
PL =7 * 10*10-3 = 0.07 Watts
So we can choose RL = 1K Ω & 0.5 W
2. Half wave rectifier with filter

For a half wave rectifier Vdc =

Therefore Vm = π Vdc

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Since Vdc = 7 V,

So Vm= 22 volt

Transformer secondary voltage

Vrms =

So Vrms = = 11 volt

Choose 230V/ 11 V stepdown transformer

RL =

= = 700 Ω

PL = Vdc * IL(max)
= 7 * 10*10-3 = 0.07 watts
So choose RL = 1 KΩ & 0.5 W
For a half wave rectifier with C filter
f=50Hz,
Ripple factor = = 0.05
√

Therefore C= 100 µf

PROCEDURE:-
1. Half wave rectifier without filter
1. To design a half wave rectifier of Vdc =7 volt and IL(max)=10mA, calculate the
value of Vm using Vdc.
2. Calculate the value of Vrms and RL using Vm, Vdc and IL(max).
3. Calculate the value of PL also using Vdc and IL(max).
4. Connect the circuit as shown in figure.
5. Connect the AC main to the primary side of the transformer and secondary side to
the bridge rectifier.
6. Measure the AC voltage at the input of the rectifier using the multi meter.
7. Measure both the AC and DC voltages at the output of the Half wave rectifier.
8. Determine ripple factor.

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2. Half wave rectifier with filter
1. To design a half wave rectifier with filter of Vdc =7 volt and IL(max)=10mA,
calculate the value of Vm using Vdc.
2. Calculate the value of Vrms using Vm.
3. Calculate the value of RL and PL using Vdc and IL(max).
4. Calculate the value of C using ripple factor, f and RL.
5. Connect the circuit as shown in figure.
6. Connect the AC main to the primary side of the transformer and secondary side to
the bridge rectifier.
7. Measure the AC voltage at the input of the rectifier using the multi meter.
8. Measure both the AC and DC voltages at the output of the half wave rectifier.
9. Determine ripple factor.
Calculations:-
Theoretical calculations:-

(i)Without filter: Ripple facto r=√ =1.21

(ii)With filter: Ripple factor = =0.0577

√

Where f =50Hz, C =100µF, RL=1KΩ

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Table 3.1: Observation table of half wave rectifier with and without filter

Rectifier Vm Vac(v) Vdc(v) Ripple factor

r = Vac/ Vdc

Half-wave rectifier
without Filter

Half-wave rectifier
with C Filter

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Model waveform:-

Figure 3.3 Input and Output Waveforms

RESULT: - The Ripple factor of half wave rectifier is with and without filter
calculated. We conclude that it is a basic rectifier in which only half part is converted
into DC .Its ripple factor depends on RL & C .It also depends on Input Frequency. The
output of half wave rectifier after filter is a dc signal.

DISCUSSION:
1. What is the Peak Inverse Voltage of the rectifier?
2. What is the efficiency of the P-Ndiode rectifier?
3. What are the advantages of the half wave rectifier?

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EXPERIMENT NUMBER-4
AIM: - Design a Bridge without filter rectifier of Vdc =13 volt, IL(max)=100mA and
with C- filter of Vdc =21 volt, IL(max)=100mA, ripple factor ≤ 0.04.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:-
• Function generator
• CRO
• Multimeter
• Power Supply with Bread Board (+12V & -12V)
COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
Transformer 230V / 15V, Silicon diode : 1N5402(04 no.), capacitor and resistors of
desired values

THEORY:-
The Bridge rectifier is a circuit, which converts an ac voltage to dc voltage
using both half cycles of the input ac voltage. The Bridge rectifier has four diodes
connected to form a Bridge. The load resistance is connected between the other two
ends of the bridge. For the positive half cycle of the input ac voltage, diode D1 and D3
conducts whereas diodes D2 and D4 remain in the OFF state. The conducting diodes
will be in series with the load resistance RL and hence the load current flows through
RL . For the negative half cycle of the input ac voltage, diode D2 and D4 conducts
whereas diodes D1 and D3 remain in the OFF state. The conducting diodes will be in
series with the load resistance RL and hence the load current flows through RL in the
same direction as in the previous half cycle. Thus a bidirectional wave is converted into
a unidirectional wave
We can improve the average DC output of the rectifier while at the same time reducing
the AC variation of the rectified output by using a capacitor to filter the output
waveform. A capacitor connected in parallel with the load across the output of the full
wave bridge rectifier circuit increases the average DC output level even higher as the
capacitor acts like a storage device as shown in fig. 1(b).

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Here the capacitor is charged to the peak voltage of the output DC pulse, but when it
drops from its peak voltage back down to zero volts, the capacitor can not discharge as
quickly due to the RC time constant of the circuit.
This results in the capacitor maintaining the voltage across the load resistor until the
capacitor re-charges once again on the next positive slope of the DC pulse. In other
words, the capacitor only has time to discharge briefly before the next DC pulse recharges
it back up to the peak value. Thus, the DC voltage applied to the load resistor drops only
by a small amount.
Circuit diagram:-

Fig. 4.1: Circuit Diagram of Bridge Rectifier

Design Procedure:
1. Bridge rectifier without filter

For a full wave bridge rectifier Vdc =

Therefore Vm =

Since Vdc = 13V,

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Vm= 20.41 volt
Consider Vm= 20 volt
Transformer secondary voltage

Vrms =
√

So Vrms = = 14.14 V
√
Consider Vrms= 15 V
Choose 230V/ 15V step down transformer

RL = = =130 Ω

And PL = Vdc * IL(max)

= 13 * 100*10-3 = 1.3 Watts
So we can choose RL = 150 Ω/ 5W

2. Bridge rectifier with filter

For a full wave bridge rectifier Vdc = Vm
Therefore transformer secondary voltage

= = = 14.85 V
√ √
Consider Vrms= 15 V
Choose 230V/ 15V stepdown transformer

RL = =210 Ω

PL = Vdc * IL(max)
= 21 * 100*10-3 = 2.1 watts
So choose RL = 220 Ω/5W
For a full wave bridge rectifier with C filter

Ripple factor = = 0.04

√

Therefore C= 328 µf
So choose C= 500 µf/ 50 V
PROCEDURE:-

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Bridge rectifier without filter
1. To design a Bridge rectifier of Vdc =13 volt and IL(max)=100mA, we have to
calculate the value of Vm.
2. Calculate the value of Vrms and RL using Vm, Vdc and IL(max).
3. Calculate the value of PL also using Vdc and IL(max).
4. Connect the circuit as shown in figure.
5. Connect the AC main to the primary side of the transformer and secondary side to
the bridge rectifier.
6. Measure the AC voltage at the input of the rectifier using the multi meter.
7. Measure both the AC and DC voltages at the output of the Bridge rectifier.
8. Determine ripple factor.
Bridge rectifier with filter
1. To design a Bridge rectifier with filter of Vdc =21 volt and IL(max)=100mA, choose
the value of Vm= Vdc.
2. Calculate the value of Vrms using Vm.
3. Calculate the value of RL and PL using Vdc and IL(max).
4. Calculate the value of C using ripple factor, f and RL.
5. Connect the circuit as shown in figure.
6. Connect the AC main to the primary side of the transformer and secondary side to
the bridge rectifier.
7. Measure the AC voltage at the input of the rectifier using the multi meter.
8. Measure both the AC and DC voltages at the output of the Bridge rectifier.
9. Determine ripple factor.
Calculations:-
Theoretical calculations:-
(i)Without filter:

Ripple facto r=√ =0.482

(ii) with filter:

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Ripple factor = = 0.04

√

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Table 4.1: Observation table of Bridge rectifier with and without filter

Rectifier Vm Vac(v) Vdc(v) Ripple factor

r = Vac/ Vdc

Bridge rectifier
without Filter

Bridge rectifier
with C Filter

Model waveform:-

Figure 4.2 Input and Output Waveform

RESULT:-The Ripple factor of Bridge rectifier is with and without filter calculated.
Bridge rectifiers convert AC signal to DC but not pure DC so output of bridge rectifiers
is transferred to filters. Circuits by choosing different R-C Components which can be
converted as ripple DC into pure DC. The inverse voltage is VM.

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DISCUSSION:
1. What is the Peak Inverse Voltage of Bridge rectifier?
2. What is the efficiency of Bridge rectifier?
3. What are the advantages of Bridge rectifier ?

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EXPERIMENT NUMBER-5

AIM: (a) Design a Clipper circuit for a 4 V to -5V output signal.

(b) Design a Clamper circuit for a 2 V to -8 V output signals.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:-
• Function generator
• CRO
• Bread board with power supply (±12V).

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:-
Capacitor, resistors and diode of desired values

THEORY:-
Clipper:
Clippers, limiters or clipping circuits make use of non-linear properties of diode, that is
the diode conducts the current in the forward direction and does not conduct in the
reverse direction. These circuits are primarily are wave shaping circuits. They clip or
remove a certain portion of AC voltage applied to the input of the circuit. Clipping circuit
is used to select for transmission that part of an arbitrary waveform which lies above or
below some reference level. Clipping circuits are also referred to as voltage limiters.
Clamping circuit preserves shape of the waveform while clipping circuit does not
preserve the shape of the waveform. Clipping circuit uses some reference level.
Waveform above or below this reference level is clipped. Clipping circuits are also
known as the voltage limiter or an amplitude limiter or slicers.
Positive Diode Clipper
In a positive clipper, the positive half cycles of the input voltage will be clipped out. A
biased clipper comes in handy when a small portion of positive or negative half cycles of
the signal voltage is to be removed. When a small portion of the positive half cycle is to
be removed, it is called a biased positive clipper.
In a biased clipper, when the input signal voltage is positive, When the input signal
voltage is positive but does not exceed battery the voltage „V‟, the diode „D‟ remains

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reverse-biased and the input signal appears across the output. When during the positive
half cycle of input signal, the signal voltage becomes more than the battery voltage V, the
diode D is forward biased and so diode conducts. The output voltage is equal to „V+0.7V‟
and stays at „V+0.7V‟ as long as the magnitude of the input signal voltage is greater than
the magnitude of the battery voltage, „V‟. When during the negative half cycle of input
signal, the signal voltage becomes more than the battery voltage V, the diode D is reverse
biased and so the diode is behaves as an open switch. Thus the entire negative half cycle
appears across the load, as illustrated by output waveform .Thus a biased positive clipper
removes input voltage when the input signal voltage becomes greater than the battery
voltage

Fig.5.1 Positive Biased Clipper

Design Calculation:

If the circuit (Fig 5.1)is in forward biased then apply the KVL in given circuit and find
out the value of battery voltage V

Let us : Si diode VD=0.7V, VO=4V, VI=5 V

Where: VD=Cut in voltage of the diode

Vo=output voltage
VI=input voltage
V=Battery voltage
V0-VD-V=0

4-0.7-V=0

V=3.3 V

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So we apply the battery of 3.3 V for the maximum 4 V output at the positive half cycle
and in the negative half cycle the output are same as input that is -5V.

Waveforms:

Fig 5.2 Input and output waveform of Positive biased clipper

PROCEDURE:
 Calculate the Biased battery voltage for the given output signal..
 Connect the circuit as shown in figure.
 Apply AC input signal in positive cycle and negative cycle.
 Observe the output on CRO by changing the amplitude of the input signal.
 Trace input signal and output signal.
Clamper:

Clamping circuits are used to change DC level (average level) of the signal which adds or
subtracts DC value to the signal. In clamping, the shape of waveform remains same only
offset value (DC level) will change. Positive clamping adds a positive DC level in the
signal while negative clamping adds a negative DC level in the signal. The Capacitor is
widely used in the clamping circuit. Typical clamping waveforms of the sinusoidal signal
are shown below for positive clamping and negative clamping.

Clamping circuit is used in video amplifier of television receiver to restore DC level of

video signal to preserve the overall brightness of the scene. Clamping circuit is also used
in offset control of a function generator. Zero offsets means no DC value is added in the
AC signal.

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The circuit will be called a positive clamper , when the signal is pushed upward by the
circuit. When the signal moves upward, as shown in figure (a), the negative peak of the
signal coincides with the zero level. The circuit will be called a negative clamper, when
the signal is pushed downward by the circuit. When the signal is pushed on the negative
side, as shown in figure (b), the positive peak of the input signal coincides with the zero
level.
Design Calculation:
Let us:
Input voltage : 10 Volt peak to peak or 5 sin 2πt
Required output voltage:2 V (peak)to -8V(peak)
So First, it is required to calculate the voltage of the biased battery in the circuit,
Apply the KVL in Circuit:
Vin-Vc-V1=0
The maximum voltage is Vm then equation is
Or Vm-Vc-V1=0
Vc=Vm-V1------------------(1)
Apply the KVL in output circuit
Vin-Vc-Vo=0……………..(2)
Put equation (1) to equation(2)
Vin-Vm+V1=Vo
If Vin=0 then Vo=-Vm+V1
If Vin=Vm then Vo=V1……………..(3)
If Vin=-Vm then Vo=-2Vm+V1…………………..(4)
From equation (3) If V0=2 V then We get V1=2 V
Negative Biased Clamper:

Fig.5.3 Negative Biased Clamper

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Waveform:

Fig.5.4 Input and output waveform of Negative biased clamper

PROCEDURE:
 Calculate the Biased battery voltage for the given output signal..
 Connect the circuit as shown in figure.
 Apply AC input signal in positive cycle and negative cycle.
 Observe the output on CRO by changing the amplitude of the input signal.
 Trace input signal and output signal.

RESULT: We have successfully designed:

(a) Positive clipper circuit for an output signal of 4 V in the positive half cycle and same
as the input signal in negative half cycle for a 5 V peak input signal.
(c) Clamper circuit of peak value of 2 V to -8 V output signals for a sinusoidal input of 5
Volt peak value.

DISCUSSION:
1. How to affect the RC time constant to the clamper circuits.
2. What are the applications of clamper circuits.
3. What are the applications of clipper circuits.
4. What is the difference in the circuit diagram of clipper and clamper?
5. How the waveform affects by ideal and practical diode.
6. How the output signal affects by silicon and germanium diode.

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EXPERIMENT NUMBER-6
AIM: -
(a) To observe and plot the V-I characteristic of Zener diode.
(b) To find the Zener Break down voltage in reverse biased condition.
(c) To find the Static and Dynamic resistances of Zener diode in both forward and
reverse biased conditions.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
 DC Voltmeter Moving coil (0-20V, 0-2V)
 DC Ammeters Moving coil (0-50 mA)
 Regulated Power Supply (RPS) (0-30V), Bread Board
COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
Zener diode, Resistors 1 kΩ, 10 kΩ.

THEORY:-
A zener diode is heavily doped p-n junction diode, specially made to operate in the
break down region. A p-n junction diode normally does not conduct when reverse
biased. But if the reverse bias is increased, at a particular voltage it starts conducting
heavily. This voltage is called Break down Voltage. High current through the diode can
permanently damage the device. To avoid high current, we connect a resistor in series
with zener diode. Once the diode starts conducting it maintains almost constant voltage
across the terminals whatever may be the current through it, i.e., it has very low
dynamic resistance. It is used for voltage regulation.
Circuit Diagram:

Fig. 6.1: Circuit diagram of Zener Diode in Forward Bias

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Fig. 6.2: Circuit diagram of Zener diode in Reverse Bias

PROCEDURE:-
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. The Regulated power supply voltage is increased in steps.
3. The zener current and the zener voltage are observed and then noted in the tabular
form.
4. A graph is plotted between zener current on y-axis and zener voltage on x-axis.

OBSERVATION TABLE:-
Table no.6.1: Forward biased
[Link] Applied Voltage Zener voltage(Vf) Zener Current (mA)If
Across Diode (V)
(Volts)

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7

10

Table no.6.2: Reverse biased

[Link] Applied Voltage Zener voltage (VR) Zener Current (µA) Ir

Across Diode(V)
(Volts)

10

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Model Characteristics:

Fig. 6.3: V-I Characteristics of Zener diode

CALCULATIONS:
Zener Break down Voltage is ___________________________
Static and Dynamic Resistance for a given diode:
In forward bias condition:
Static Resistance, Rs = Vf/If =
Dynamic Resistance, Rd = ΔVf/ ΔIf =
In Reverse bias condition:
Static Resistance, Rs = VR/Ir =
Dynamic Resistance, RD = ΔVR/ ΔIr =

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RESULT:-
The V-I characteristics of a zener diode are observed. The Zener Break down voltage in
reverse biased condition, Static and Dynamic resistances of Zener diode in both forward
and reverse biased conditions are calculated.
Zener break down voltage =………………
In forward bias condition:
Static Resistance =……………
Dynamic Resistance =………
In Reverse bias condition:
Static Resistance =…………….
Dynamic Resistance= ………

DISCUSSION:
1. If the impurity concentration is increased, how the depletion width effected of a
diode?
2. Explain briefly about avalanche and zener breakdowns?
3. Draw the zener equivalent circuit?
4. In which region zener diode can be used as a regulator?
5. How the breakdown voltage of a particular diode can be controlled?
6. What type of temperature coefficient does the Avalanche breakdown has?
7. By what type of charge carriers the current flows in zener and avalanche breakdown
diodes?

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EXPERIMENT NUMBER-7
AIM:
(a) Design a voltage regulator using zener diode for constant output voltage of 12
V.
(b) Observe the effect of load resistance and determine load limits of the 12 V
voltage regulator.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
 DC Voltmeter Moving coil (0-20V)
 Power Supply (0-30V)
 Bread Board
COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
Zener diode (12 V)-1N4742A, Resistors ( 100 Ω to 10 kΩ ), 1.2 KΩ, 220 Ω

THEORY:
The function of a regulator is to provide a constant output voltage to a load
connected in parallel with it in spite of the ripples in the supply voltage or the
variation in the load current and the zener diode will continue to regulate the voltage
until the diode fails below the minimum Iz(min) value in the reverse breakdown
region. It permits current to flow in the forward direction as normal, but will also
allow it to flow in the reverse direction when the voltage is above a certain value
-the break down voltage known as the zener voltage.
The purpose of a voltage reulator is to maintain a constant voltage acrocss a load
regaddless of variations in the applied input voltage and and vaiation in the load
current.A typical Zener diode shunt regulator is shown in fig. [Link] registor is
selected so that when the input voltage is at Vin(min) and the load current is IL(max)
that the current through the Zenor diode is at least Iz(min).Then for all other
combination of input volatge and load current the zener diode conducts the excess
current thus maintaning a constant voltage across the load.

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Breakdown
Voltage regulation is a measure of a circuit's ability to maintain a constant output
voltage even when either input voltage or load current varies, A zener diode, when
working in the break down region, can serve as a voltage regulator. In Fig., Vin is the
input voltage whose variations are to be regulated. The load resistance, across which
a constant voltage Vout is required, is connected in parallel with the Zener diode.
When potential difference across the diode is greater than VZ, it conducts and draws
relatively large current through the series resistance R.
Calculation for Vi Variable and constant RL:

Fig. 7.1 Zener voltage regulator for variable input voltage

For fixed values of RL, the voltage Vi must be sufficiently large to turn on zener
diode .The minimum turn on voltage Vi=Vi(min) is determined by:

VL=VZ=

Or Vi(min)= ………………….(1)

The maximum value of Vi is limited by the maximum Zener current [Link]

IZM=IR-IL
IRmax=IZM+IL
Since IL is fixed at VZ/RL and IZM is the maximum value of IZ, the maximum Vi is
defined by
Vi(max)=VR(max)+VZ

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Vi(max)=IR(max)R+VZ…………………………………..(2)
Let us Vo=Vz=12V, R=220Ω , RL=1.2KΩ
Zener diode rating Vz=12V, IZM=21mA
From equation (1), calculate the minimum voltage for constant output of 12V

Vi(min)= = = 14.2 V

Calculate the maximum voltage for constant output of 12V

IL= = = = .01 A= 10 mA

IR(max)=IZM+IL=21+10=31 mA
From equation (2)
Vi(max)=IR(max)R+VZ = 31 x 0.22 + 12=18.82 V
Where:
R is the resistance in series
Vz is the Zener breakdown voltage
Vin is the input voltage applied
RL=Maximum load resistance
IZM=zener diode current
IR=current in series resistor
So the for the constant output voltage we find the input voltage range is 14.2 V to 18.82
V.

PROCEDURE:-
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. The input voltage change as per given range.
3. The load voltage is observed and then noted in the tabular form.

(b) Observe the effect of load changes and determine load limits of the
12 V voltage regulator.
Fixed input voltage Vin and variable Load resistance R L. In this case Vin is fixed but RL
hence IL is changed. When IL increases, diode current IZ decreases, thereby keeping I
and hence IR drop constant. In this way Vout remains unaffected. When IL decreases,

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diode current IZ increases thereby keeping I and hence IR drop constant. In this way
again Vout remains unchanged. Due to the offset voltage Vz, there is a specific range of
resistor values (and therefore load current) which will ensure that the Zener is in the 'on'
state. Too small a load resistance RL will result in a voltage VL across the load resistor
less than VZ and the Zener device will be in the 'off‟ state. To determine the minimum
load resistance that will turn the Zener diode „on‟ is given by

Fig. 7.2 Zener voltage regulator for variable load change

VL=VZ

RLmin=

Let us: Vi=50 V, R=1 KΩ, Vz=12V, IZM=21 mA

RLmin= =315 Ω
The voltage across the resistor R is then determined by:
VR=VI-VZ=50-12=38 V
IR= = = 38 mA

The minimum level of IL is then determined by:

ILmin = IR - IZM=(38-21)mA=17 mA

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Any load resistance value greater than the RL obtained from above equation will ensure
that the zener diode is in the „on‟ state and the diode can be replaced by its VZ source
equivalent. Similarly, maximum load resistance is given by

RLmax = =

Where:
R is the resistance in series
Vz is the Zener breakdown voltage
Vin is the fixed input voltage applied
RL= load resistance
IZM=zener diode current
IR=current in series resistor
PROCEDURE:-
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. The load resistance is increased in steps.
3. The load voltage is observed and then noted in the tabular form.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Load resistance RL = 1.2 kΩ
Table 7.1: Observation table for output voltage change with respect to input voltage
[Link] Applied input voltage Output voltage Vout
1

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8

10

Table 7.2: Observation table for Effect of load changes of the voltage regulator

[Link] Load Resistance RL Output voltage Vout at constant input voltage

Vin=50 volt

1 100 Ω

2 200 Ω

3 300 Ω

4 350 Ω

5 400 Ω

6 450 Ω

7 500 Ω

8 550 Ω

9 600 Ω

10 650 Ω

11 700 Ω

12 800 Ω

13 900 Ω

14 1000 Ω

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RESULT:
We have successfully designed a voltage regulator using a zener diode for constant output
voltage of 12 V, if the supply voltage changes from 14V to 19 V.
We also observed the effect of load changes and determine load limits that is RLmin = 315
Ω, RLmax = 705 Ω for a regulator of 12V.

DISCUSSION:
1. What type of temperature Coefficient does the zener diode have?
2. If the impurity concentration is increased, how the depletion width effected?
3. What are the differences between avalanche and zener breakdowns?
4. In which region zener diode can be used as a regulator?
5. How the breakdown voltage of a particular diode can be controlled?
6. What type of temperature coefficient does the Avalanche breakdown has?
7. By what type of charge carriers the current flows in zener and avalanche breakdown
diodes?

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EXPERIMENT NUMBER-8
AIM: Plot V-I input-output characteristics of BJT in CB, CC and CE configurations.
Find their following h parameters.
a) Input impedance (hie, hic, hib)
b) Reverse voltage gain (hre, hrc, hrb)
c) Output admittance(hoe, hob,hoc)
d) Forward current gain (hfe, hfb, hfc)

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
 DC Ammeters (0-100mA) ( Moving Coil)
 DC Voltmeter (0-20V) ( Moving Coil)
 Power Supply 0-30V
COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
S. No. Component Name Value/Specification Quantity
1. Resistors 1kΩ/ ½ watt 1
2. Transistor BC 107(NPN) 1

THEORY:
A BJT is a three terminal two – junction semiconductor device in which the conduction
is due to both the charge carrier. BJT is classified into two types – NPN or PNP. A NPN
transistor consists of two N types in between which a layer of P is sandwiched. The
transistor consists of three terminal emitter, collector and base. The emitter layer is the
source of the charge carriers and it is heavily doped with a moderate cross sectional
area. The collector collects the charge carries and hence moderate doping and large
cross sectional area. The base region acts a path for the movement of the charge carriers.
In order to reduce the recombination of holes and electrons the base region is lightly
doped. Normally the transistor operates with the EB junction forward biased.

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Common emitter Configuration:
The input characteristics resemble that of a forward biased diode curve. This
is expected since the Base-Emitter junction of the transistor is forward biased. As
compared to CB arrangement IB increases less rapidly with VBE . Therefore input
resistance of CE circuit is higher than that of CB circuit.
The output characteristics are drawn between Ic and VCE at constant IB. the
collector current varies with VCE upto few volts only. After this the collector current
becomes almost constant, and independent of VCE. The value of VCE up to which the
collector current changes with VCE is known as Knee voltage. The transistor always
operated in the region above Knee voltage, IC is always constant and is approximately
equal to IB.
Common Base Configuration:
In this configuration the base is made common to both the input and out. The emitter is
given, the input and the output is taken across the collector. The current gain of this
configuration is less than unity. The voltage gain of CB configuration is high. Due to the
high voltage gain, the power gain is also high. In CB configuration, Base is common to
both input and output. In CB configuration the input characteristics relate IE and VEB for
a constant VCB. Initially let VCB = 0 then the input junction is equivalent to a forward
biased diode and the characteristics resembles that of a diode. Where VCB = +VI (volts)
due to early effect IE increases and so the characteristics shifts to the left. The output
characteristics relate IC and VCB for a constant IE. Initially IC increases and then it levels
for a value IC = αIE. When IE is increased IC also increases proportionality. The increase
in VCB causes an increase in α, since α is a fraction, it is negligible and so IC remains a
constant for all values of VCB once it levels off.
Common Collecter Configuration:
The common collecter configuration is used primarily for impedance matching in a
[Link] the common collector the output characteristics are plot in between IE vs VCE
for a range of values of IB and Input chacteristics are plot in between VBE and IB when
VCE constant.

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Circuit Diagram for Common Base Configuration and characteristics:

Fig. 8.1: Circuit of Transistor in Common Base Configuration

PROCEDURE:
Input Characteristics:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram(Fig. 8.1).
2. For plotting the input characteristics, the output voltage VCE is kept constant at 1V
and for different values of VEB note down the values of IE.
3. Repeat the above step, keeping VCB at 2V and [Link] the readings are tabulated.
4. A graph is drawn between VEB and IE for constant VCB.
Output Characteristics:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram (Fig. 8.1).
2. For plotting the output characteristics, the input IE is kept constant at 10m A and for
different values of VCB, note down the values of IC.
3. Repeat the above step for the values of IE at 2 mA, 4 mA, and 6 mA, all the
readings are tabulated.
4. A graph is drawn between VCB and Ic for constant IE

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OBSERVATION TABLE:

Table-8.1: For Input Characteristics of CB

[Link] VCB=1V VCB=2V VCB=3V

VEB(V) IE(mA) VEB(V) IE(mA) VEB(V) IE(mA)

Table-8.2: For Output Characteristics of CB

[Link] IE= 2mA IE=4mA IE=6mA

VCB(V) IC(mA) VCB(V) IC(mA) VCB(V) IC(mA)

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MODEL GRAPH :

Fig. 8.2: Input Characteristics of CB amplifier

Fig. 8.3: Output Characteristics of CB amplifier

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Common Emitter Configuration:

Circuit Diagram:

Fig. 8.4: Circuit for Transistor in Common Emitter Configuration

PROCEDURE:
Input Characteristics:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram (fig. 8.2)..
2. For plotting the input characteristics the output voltage VCE is kept constant at 1V
and for different values of VBE . Note down the values of IB
3. Repeat the above step by keeping VCE at 2V and 4V.
4. Plot the graph between VBE and IB for constant VCE
Output Characteristics:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram (fig. 8.2).
2. Plotting the output characteristics when the input current IB is kept constant at
50μA and for different values of VCE, note down the values of IC.
3. Repeat the above step by keeping IB at 75 μA and 100 μA.
4. Plot the graph between VCE and IC for constant IB.

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OBSERVATION TABLE:

Table 8.3 For Input Characteristics of common emitter amplifier

VCE = 1V VCE = 2V VCE = 3V

[Link]
VBE(V) IB(μA) VBE(V) IB(μA) VBE(V) IB(μA)

Table 8.4 For Output Characteristics of common emitter amplifier

IB = 50μA IB = 75μA IB = 100μA

[Link]
VCE(V) IC(mA) VCE(V) ICmA) VCE(V) IC(mA)

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MODEL GRAPH:

Fig. 8.5: Input Characteristics of CE amplifier

Fig. 8.6: Output Characteristics of CE amplifier

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Common Collector Configuration:

Fig. 8.7 Circuit diagram of Common Collector Configuration

PROCEDURE:
INPUT CHARECTERISTICS:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram(fig.8.7).
2. Set VCE=0V, vary VBC in regular interval of steps and note down the corresponding IB
reading. Repeat the above procedure for VCE=5V.
3. Plot the graph: VBC Vs IB for a constant VCE.
OUTPUT CHARECTERISTICS:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram(fig.8.7).
2. Set IB=20µA, Vary VCE in regular interval of steps and note down the corresponding IC
reading. Repeat the above procedure for different values of IB=40µA, 60µA.
3. Plot the graph: VCE Vs IC for a constant IB.

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Fig. 8.8: Input Characteristics of CC amplifier

Fig. 8.9: Output Characteristics of CC amplifier

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OBSERVATION TABLE:

Table 8.5 Input Characteristics of CC amplifier:

VCE = 1V VCE = 2V VCE = 3V

[Link]
VBC(V) IB(μA) VBC(V) IB(μA) VBC(V) IB(μA)

Table 8.6 Output Characteristics of CC amplifier:

IB = 50μA IB = 75μA IB = 100μA

[Link]
VCE(V) IE(mA) VCE(V) IE(mA) VCE(V) IE(mA)

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CE Configuration: H Parameter
Calculations from Graph:

1. Input Characteristics: To obtain input resistance find VBE and IB for a

constant VCE on one of the input characteristics.
Input impedance = hie = Ri = VBE / IB (VCE is constant)
Reverse voltage gain = hre = VEB / VCE (IB = constant)

2. Output Characteristics: To obtain output resistance find IC and VCB at a

constant IB.
Output admittance 1/hoe = Ro = IC / VCE (IB is constant)
Forward current gain = hfe = IC / IB (VCE = constant)
Common Base configuration:
Calculations from Graph:
The h-parameters are to be calculated from the following formulae:

1. Input Characteristics: To obtain input resistance, find VEB and IE for a

constant VCB on one of the input characteristics.
Input impedance = hib = Ri = VEB / IE (VCB = constant)
Reverse voltage gain = hrb = VEB / VCB (IE = constant)

2. Output Characteristics: To obtain output resistance, find IC and VCB at a

constant IE.
Output admittance = hob = 1/Ro = IC / VCB (IE = constant)
Forward current gain = hfb = IC / IE (VCB = constant)
Common collector configuration:
Calculations from Graph:
The h-parameters are to be calculated from the following formulae:
1. Input Characteristics: To obtain input resistance, find VBC and IB for a
constant VCE on one of the input characteristics.
Input impedance = hic = Ri = VBC / IB (VCE = constant)
Reverse voltage gain = hrc = VBC / VEC (IB = constant)

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2. Output Characteristics: To obtain output resistance, find IC and VCB at a
constant IE.
Output admittance = hoc = 1/Ro = IE / VCB (IB = constant)
Forward current gain = hfc = IE / IB (VCE = constant)

RESULT: We have successfully implemented the CB,CE and CC configuration and

draw the V-I input and output characteristics of a transistor in all configurations. The H
parameter of a transistor is in CB, CC and CE configurations are calculated.

DISCUSSION:
1. Among CE,CB,CC configuration which one is more popular and why?
2. Draw the h-parameter equivalent circuit of a CE BJT configuration.
3. What are hybrid parameters?
4. Which of the BJT configuration is suitable for impedance matching applications?
5. Why CE configuration is considered to be the most versatile one?
6. Why transistor (BJT) is called current controlled device ?
7. Why h-parameters are called hybrid parameters?

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EXPERIMENT NUMBER-9

AIM:-
(a) Design a voltage divider biasing circuit using BJT with Q point (IC=4.12 mA & VCE=
6.72V).
(b) Design a fixed base bias circuit using BJT with Q point (IC =7.15 mA & VCE=7.85
V).

APPARATUS REQUIRED:-
• Function generator, CRO
• Power Supply with Bread Board (+12V & -12V)
COMPONENT REQUIRED:-
Capacitors and resistors of desired values, BJT (BC 107).

THEORY:
Biasing is the process of providing DC voltage which helps in the functioning of the
circuit. A transistor is based in order to make the emitter base junction forward biased and
collector base junction reverse biased, so that it maintains in active region, to work as an
amplifier.
(i)Voltage Divider Bias Circuit: Voltage divider bias is the most popular and used way
to bias a transistor. It uses a few resistors to make sure that voltage is divided and
distributed into the transistor at correct levels. One resistor, the emitter resistor, RE also
helps provide stability against variations in β that may exist from transistor to transistor.

Fig. 9.1: Voltage Divider bias circuit

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DESIGN PROCEDURE:
Since we need to design a voltage divider biasing circuit using BJT with Q point (IC
=4.12mA & VCE=6.72V)
Let β=100, α=0.99, VCC =15V

=> => 41.2µA

=> => 4.16 mA

Let RC =1kΩ
𝑉 𝑉 RE
6.72= 12 (4.12 10-3) (1 103) (4.16 10-3) RE
RE = 1kΩ
Let VBE =0.7 V, VBB =5V
𝑉 𝑉

RB=3.3kΩ

Fig. 9. 2: (a)Voltage Divider bias circuit (b)Thevenin equivalent circuit

(ii) The Fixed Bias Circuit
In this condition a single power source is applied to the collector and base of the
transistor using only two resistors. Applying KVL to the circuit
𝑉 𝑉
𝑉 𝑉

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Thus by merely changing the value of resistor the base current can be adjusted to the
desired value and by using the current gain (β) relationship, IC can be found out
accordingly. Hence the Q point can be adjusted just by changing the value of resistor
connected to the base. The circuit shown is called as “fixed bias circuit” because the
transistor base current (IB) remains constant for given value of VCC, Therefore the
transistor operating point must also remain fixed. This two resistor biasing network is
used to establish the initial operating point of the transistor using a fixed current bias.

Fig. 9.3: Fixed Base Bias Circuit

DESIGN PROCEDURE:
Since we need to design a fixed bias circuit using BJT with Q point (IC =7.15 mA & VCE
=7.85 V)
Let β=100, VCC =15V and VBE=0.7 V

=> => 71.5µA

=> RB =

RB=200kΩ
𝑉 𝑉 => 7.85 = 15 (7.15 )
RC =1kΩ

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PROCEDURE:
(a) To design a voltage divider biasing circuit using BJT, we need to find out the
value of IB & IE from the given value of IC and by using IE, IC, RC & VCE, RE
will be calculated then by using the formula of IB, RB will be calculated.
(b) To design a fixed bias circuit using BJT, we need to find out the value of IB
from the given value of IC and by using the formula of IB, RB will be calculated
then by using the formula of VCE, RC will be calculated.
(c) Connect the circuit according to the biasing arrangement.
(d) Apply input to the circuit by using function generator.
(e) Observe the output on CRO.
(f) Measure the value of IC &VCE and compare the practical and Theoretical value
of Q point.

PRACTICAL CALCULATION:
IC= & VCE=

RESULT:-
We have successfully designed a (i) voltage divider biasing circuit using BJT with Q
point (IC =4.12mA & VCE=6.72V). (ii) fixed base bias circuit using BJT with Q point (IC
=7.15 mA & VCE=7.85 V).
Further we calculated the value of IC & VCE from the designed biasing circuits and
Compare the practical and Theoretical value of Q point. We conclude that fixed base bias
provides extremely poor bias stability, and voltage divider bias provides a reasonable
degree of bias stability.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Table 9.1 Q point for Voltage divider and Fixed bias circuit
Voltage divider Fixed bias circuit
biasing circuit
Theoretical value of Q
point

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Practical value of Q
point

Error

DISCUSSION:-
1. What the factors effects on the selection operating point (Q-point).
2. What the effect of decrease the values of R1 and R2 on the stability factors.
3. What the disadvantage of using small values of R1 and R2.
4. . Why we need stable operating point.
5. By using load line and Q-point, explain how the change in ICO effect on the
amplifier output

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EXPERIMENT NUMBER-10

AIM:-Design a two stage RC coupled amplifier at lower cut off frequency of 27 Hz and
upper cut off frequency of 20 kHz with mid band gain (Avm) of 32.15dB. Plot the
frequency response of the amplifier.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:-
• Function generator
• CRO
• Power Supply with Bread Board (+12V & -12V)
COMPONENT REQUIRED:-
Capacitors and resistors of desired values, BJT (BC 107).

THEORY:
When ac signal is applied to the base of the transistor, its amplified output appears
across the collector resistor RC .it is given to the second stage for further amplification
and signal appears with more strength. Frequency response curve is obtained by plotting
a graph between frequency and gain in db. The gain is constant in mid frequency range
and gain decreases on both sides of the mid frequency range. The gain decreases in the
low frequency range due to coupling capacitor Cc and at high frequencies due to
junction capacitance CBE.
This is most popular type of coupling as it provides excellent audio fidelity. A
coupling capacitor is used to connect output of first stage to input of second stage.
Resistances R1, R2, RE form biasing and stabilization network, Emitter bypass capacitor
offers low reactance paths to signal, Coupling Capacitor transmits ac signal & blocks
DC. Cascade stages amplify signal and overall gain is increased. Total gain is less than
product of gains of individual stages. Thus for more gain coupling is done and overall
gain of two stages equals to A=A1×A2
A1=voltage gain of first stage, A2=voltage gain of second stage.

Voltage Gain in (dB) : A(dB) =20 log10 ( )

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-

Fig. 10.1: Two Stage RC Coupled Amplifier

DESIGN PROCEDURE:
Given mid band gain (Avm)= 32.15dB
Let =1.1kΩ, = 50 Ω
20log10(x) = 32.15 dB
X= 40.15

40.51=

RC= 4.7kΩ
Since we need to design a filter with lower cut off frequency ( ) of 27 Hz and upper cut
off frequency( ) of 20kHz

27=

CC= 1×10-6

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Let operating point Q (IC = 2mA, VCE = 2V), VCC = 12V, β=200, CE=1µF
Determine the values of R1, R2 and RE.

IC =β IB=> IB= => IB= 10×

I1 = 10 × IB

I1 =100×10-6

I1 =

100×10-6=

R1+R2=120×103
VCE = VC-VE
𝑉 𝑉 RE …………(IC=IE)
VCE = VCC IC (RC+RE)
2= 12 2×10-3(4.7×103+RE)
RE= 300Ω

Fig. 10.2: Two Stage RC Coupled Amplifier (as per design parameter)

PROCEDURE:
1. To design an amplifier, find the value RC & CC from the given values of mid band
gain (Avm) & lower cut off frequency(fL)

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2. Next we have to calculate the values of R1, R2 and RE from VCE & IC.
3. Apply input to the circuit by using function generator.
4. Observe the output on CRO by varying the frequency of input signal from function
generator.
5. Calculate gain in dB using given equation.
6. Plot the frequency response curve between gain and frequency.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Table 10.1 Voltage gain with respect to frequency
Vin: 30 mV
[Link]. Frequency Vout(V) Voltage Voltage Gain
(Hz) Gain(Vo/Vi) in dB (20 log10Vo/Vi)

1 27

2 50

3 70

4 100

5 500

6 1 ×103

7 10 ×103

8 100 ×103

9 300 ×103

10 500 ×103

11 700 ×103

12 1 ×106

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Bandwidth=Upper cut of frequency (fL)-Lower cut off frequency (fH)

FREQUENCY RESPONSE:

Fig.10.2 Frequency response of Two stage amplifier

RESULT:-
We have successfully designed a two stage RC coupled amplifier using BJT (BC 107) at
a lower cut off frequency 27 Hz and upper cut off frequency of 20 kHz with mid band
gain of 32.15dB.
Designed parameters are as follows:
RE= 300Ω, CC= 1×10-6, RC= 4.7kΩ, R1+R2=120×103
We have plotted the frequency response curve for the designed amplifier. As per the
frequency response curve, the gain is constant in mid frequency range and gain decreases
on both sides of the mid frequency range. Thus Bandwidth is calculated with the help of
upper and lower cut off frequency.
Lower cut off frequency Upper cut off frequency

Theoretical value

Practical value

Error

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DISCUSSION:
1. What is the necessity of cascading?
2. Why RC coupling is preferred in audio range?
3. In RC coupled amplifier why gain is decreased at high and low frequency ranges?
4. What do you mean by operating point?
5. Define what is the effect of removal of bypass capacitor in a CE amplifier circuit?
6. Why common collector circuit is known as an emitter follower?

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EXPERIMENT NUMBER-11

AIM:-Design a two stage FET amplifier with a voltage gain (𝐴𝑉) = 102.5, lower cut off
frequency of 100 Hz and upper cut off frequency of 1kHz. Plot the frequency response
of the amplifier.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:-

• Function generator
• CRO
• Power Supply with Bread Board (+12V & -12V)
COMPONENT REQUIRED:-
Capacitors and resistors of desired values, FET.

THEORY:
FET amplifier provides an excellent voltage gain with the added feature of a high input
impedance. They are also low power consumption configurations with good frequency
range. The device can amplify analog or digital signals. In the FET, current flows along a
semiconductor path called the channel. At one end of the channel, there is an electrode
called the source. At the other end of the channel, there is an electrode called the drain.
The physical diameter of the channel is fixed, but its effective electrical diameter can be
varied by the application of a voltage to a control electrode called the gate. Field-effect
transistors exist in two major classifications. These are known as the junction FET (JFET)
and the metal-oxide- semiconductor FET (MOSFET). The junction FET has a channel
consisting of N-type semiconductor (N-channel) or P-type semiconductor (P-channel)
material; the gate is made of the opposite semiconductor type. In P-type material, electric
charges are carried mainly in the form of electron deficiencies called holes. In N-type
material, the charge carriers are primarily electrons. In a JFET, the junction is the
boundary between the channel and the gate.
The FET has some advantages and some disadvantages relative to the bipolar transistor.
Field-effect transistors are preferred for weak-signal work, for example in wireless,
communications and broadcast receivers. They are also preferred in circuits and systems
requiring high impedance. The FET is not, in general, used for high-power amplification,

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such as is required in large wireless communications and broadcast transmitters. Field-
effect transistors are fabricated onto silicon integrated circuit (IC) chips. A single IC can
contain thousands of FETs, along with other components such as resistors, capacitors, and
diodes.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-

Fig. 11.1: FET Amplifier

DESIGN PROCEDURE:

Given: Amplifier gain (AV)=102.5

Let IDSS= 15mA, VP= - 4V, CS=1µF

=> =>7.5

Let VGS=-2V

=>7.5 (1- ) => 3.75

AV= AV1 × AV2=102.5V

AV1=AV2= - gmRD

-(3.75×10-3RD)= 10.125

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RD= 2.7kΩ

Rin=RG=2MΩ (Because FET has high input impedance)

( ) 15× ( ( ))

Vin= VGS+ iDRS

500×10-3 = (-2) + 22.5×10-3RS

RS = 111.1Ω

Find out the values of coupling capacitors Cin & Cout from given values of lower cut off
frequency and upper cut off frequency.

RG>>RSignal

7.95×

Rout>>RL and Rout=RD

5.89×

PROCEDURE:
1. To design an amplifier, find the value RD from the given values of mid band gain
Av.

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2. Next we have to calculate the value of RS from VGS & ID.
3. Find out coupling capacitor values Cin & Cout by using lower cut off frequency(fL)
& upper cut off frequency(fH).
4. Apply input to the circuit by using function generator.
5. Observe the output on CRO by varying the frequency of input signal from function
generator.
6. Calculate gain in dB using given equation.
7. Plot the frequency response curve between gain and frequency.
OBSERVATION TABLE1:
Vin: 500mV
[Link]. Freq. Vout(V) Voltage Voltage Gain
Gain(Vo/Vi) in dB (20 log10Vo/Vi)

1 20 Hz

2 50 Hz

3 70 Hz

4 100 Hz

5 500 Hz

6 1 ×103

7 10 ×103

8 100 ×103

9 300 ×103

10 500 ×103

11 700 ×103

12 1 ×106

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Bandwidth=Upper cut of frequency(fL)-Lower cut off frequency (fH)
FREQUENCY RESPONSE:

Fig. 11.2 Frequency response of FET amplifier

RESULT:-
We have successfully designed a two stage FET amplifier with a voltage gain 𝐴𝑉 = 102.5
and at a lower cut off frequency of 100Hz and upper cut off frequency of 1kHz.
Designed parameters are as follows:
RD= 2.7kΩ, RS = 111.1Ω, RG=2MΩ, CS=1µF, F, 5.89× F
We have plotted the frequency response curve for the designed amplifier. As per the
frequency response curve, the gain is constant in mid frequency range and gain decreases
on both sides of the mid frequency range. Thus Bandwidth is calculated with the help of
upper and lower cut off frequency.
DISCUSSION:
1. What are the advantages of FET over BJT?
2. Mention the methods used for biasing circuits in FET.
3. Why MOSFET is called IGFET?
4. What is a drain current equation for a FET?
5. What is pinch off voltage in FET?

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EXPERIMENT NUMBER-12
AIM:- Plot input-output characteristics of field effect transistor and measure Idss and Vp
(a) Transfer characteristics
(b) Drain characteristics of N-channel field effect transistor and measure Idss & Vp.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:-
 DC Voltmeter 0-2V (Moving Coil)
 DC Ammeter 0-20mA (Moving Coil)
 Power Supply 0-30V

COMPONENT REQUIRED:-

 Resistors of desired values, FET.

THEORY:
The Field Effect Transistor (FET) is a three terminal device. Three terminals are Drain
(D), Source (S) and Gate (G). In FET, current flow is due to only one type of charge
particles, either electrons or holes. So FET is known as unipolar device. The name “field
effect” is derived from the fact that the current is controlled by an electric field set up in
the device by an externally applied voltage. Thus FET is a voltage controlled device
while bipolar transistor is current controlled device The FET differs bipolar transistor in
the following important characteristics.

1. Its operation depends on the flow of majority carriers only. It is therefore a unipolar
device (one type of carriers).
2. It is simple to fabricate and occupies less space in integrated form.
3. It exhibits a high input resistance typically many Mega-ohms.
4. It is less noisy than bipolar transistor.
5. It exhibits no offset voltage at zero drain current and hence makes an excellent
signal chopper.

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In this experiment we will obtain output characteristics of N-channel FET using CS
(Common source) Configuration. It is also known as drain characteristics. Basic
construction of N-channel FET and its symbol are shown in the following figure. When
gate to source voltage VGS is zero, N type channel is open so drain current will flow
through it. As we increase negative voltage on the gate terminal, V GS=-1V, -2V, -3V etc.,
drain current reduces. The reduction in drain current is due to reduction in width of
channel. As we increase negative gate voltage, width of depletion region spreads in the
channel. Depletion region (generated field due to reverse bias) does not have charge
carriers so width of channel will reduce. As we increase negative value of V GS,
penetration of depletion region (field) will be more and more due to which channel
becomes narrower. At one point drain current reduces to zero when entire channel will be
closed due to penetration of depletion region. The value of VGS at which drain current
reduces to zero is called cut-off voltage VGS(off). Normally Drain current reduces to zero
at VGS= -Vp. Thus VGS(off) = -VP where VP is pinch-off voltage. Pinch-off voltage VP is
the value of voltage VDS at which drain current becomes constant

There are two types of FETs:

1. Junction Field Effect transistor (JFET).

2. Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET (MOSFET)
The common source configuration of an N-channel JFET is shown in figure 1. Some
important definitions about FET are given below:

1. Drain resistance (rd) = when Vgs constant.

2. Trans conductance (g) = when Vds constant.

3. Amplification factor (µ) = (rd× g) when Id constant.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig. 12.1: FET Circuit

Fig. 12.2: Drain characteristics

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Fig 12.3: Transfer characteristics

PROCEDURE:
1. All the connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. To plot the drain characteristics, keep VGS constant at 0V.
3. Vary the VDD and observe the values of VDS and ID.
4. Repeat the above steps 2, 3 for different values of VGS
5. All the readings are tabulated.
6. To plot the transfer characteristics, keep VDS constant at 5V.
7. Vary VGG and observe the values of VGS and ID.
8. Repeat steps 6 and 7 for different values of VDS
9. The readings are tabulated.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Table 1: Measurement of Drain Characteristics
[Link]. VGS= 0V VGS= 1V VGS= 2V

VDS(Volt) ID (mA) VDS(Volt) ID (mA) VDS(Volt) ID (mA)

1.
2.
3.

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4.
5.
6.
7.

Table 2: Measurement of Transfer Characteristic

[Link]. VDS= 0.5V VDS= 1 V VDS= 1.5 V

VGS(Volt) ID (mA) VGS(Volt) ID (mA) VGS(Volt) ID (mA)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

RESULT:-
The Pinch Off voltage (VP) on Drain Characteristics is ---------------------and Drain to
Source Saturation current (IDSS) on Transfer Characteristics is ----------------------.
In FET the current is controlled by electric field set up in the device. FET works as a
unipolar device, because current flow is only due to one type of charge carrier. As the
negative voltage on gate terminal increases drain current reduces by increasing the
negative values of VGS (Gate current) and penetration of depletion region will be more
and more due to which channel become narrow and at one point reduce to zero.

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DISCUSSION:-
1. What is the difference between UJT & FET?
2. What is pinch off voltage?
3. What is drain to source saturation current?
4. What is the difference between enhancement & depletion type MOSFET?
5. What is substrate bias effect?

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Beyond Curriculum Experiment

EXPERIMENT NUMBER-13

AIM:-
Design an common emitter amplifier of voltage gain AV=6 dB using Bipolar Junction
Transistor.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:-
• Function generator
• CRO
• Bread board with power supply (±12V).
COMPONENTS REQUIRED:-
Capacitor and resistors of desired values

THEORY:-
Bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a two junction, bi-polar, 3-terminal device. Transistor
is the main component in amplifiers, switching circuits, oscillators and logical circuits. It
is also used to match the impedances of source and load.
Depending upon the nature of biasing, the transistor works in one of the three
operating regions, which are as follows:
• Active region: J1 junction is forward biased
J2 junction is reversed biased
• Cut off Region: J1 junction is reversed biased
J2 junction is reversed biased
• Saturation region: J1 junction is forward biased
J2 junction is forward biased
For operating transistor as an amplifier, the junctions are so biased that it must be
operated in active region, while for switching purpose the transistor is biased in cut-off
and saturation region.
The transistor is generally used in common emitter configuration(CE) to design
the amplifier since it shows the highest voltage gain. In common emitter configuration the

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input signal is applied between input terminal base B and common terminal emitter E and
output is collected between output terminal collector C and common terminal E.
To use the common emitter configuration as an amplifier we require proper
biasing of the transistor to keep it in active region. Biasing establishes the steady value of
collector current (IC) and collector to emitter voltage (VCE).This steady value of voltage
and current is known as Q point or operating point. The circuit that provides transistor
biasing is known as biasing circuits. There are four type of biasing:
• Base bias or fixed bias.
• Voltage divider bias or self-bias.
• Collector feedback bias.
• Split supply bias.
The most common technique for biasing is a voltage divider biasing technique for the
amplifier. The voltage divider bias configuration is a network which is almost
independent of β of the transistor. This configuration is most stable configuration among
all the biasing configurations.

The voltage gain of common emitter amplifier is given as

𝐴 =
Where:
V0=output voltage of amplifier
VI=input signal of the amplifier
AI=Current gain of an amplifier
RC=load resistance of the amplifier
RI=Input resistance of the amplifier
hfe=Small signal current gain
hie=input impedance of the amplifier

If (1+ And then,

………………..(1)

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Subject to the above approximations, Av is completely stable since it is independent of all
transistor parameters.

Choosing the Collector and Emitter Resistors:

The purpose of the collector resistor RC is to set the collector current Ic as well as the

emitter collector voltage Vce. In other words, RC helps to set the transistor at the operating

point" of the amplifier.

The purpose of the emitter resistor RE is to prevent "thermal runaway". If the emitter

resistor is not present, the collector current might increase as the transistor heats up. As a

result of Ib = Ic /β there is then an increased base current which further heats up the

transistor until the transistor burns up. At the very least, this effect is a cause of amplifier

instability.

As per given:

If Av=6 dB then

So 20 log Av = 6
Av = 2
We consider RE=1KΩ then RC=2 KΩ

The Choice of the Bias Resistors R1 and R2

The bias resistors R1 and R2 essentially work as a voltage divider for the battery voltage

VCC. The values of R1 and R2 are chosen so that the base-emitter junction is biased in the

forward direction at least 0.7 volts since otherwise the transistor will not work.

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Fig.13.1 CE base circuit

A current I0 goes through resistors R1 and R2 and a current Ib just goes through R1 and
enters the base from the connection with R1 and R2. Conservation of current allows us to
conclude the current in R1 is the sum of these currents that is I0 + IB.

The voltage between the transistor base and the ground is VBE=0.7 volts plus the voltage
across the emitter resistor. From the diagram above, it should be clear this is also the
voltage across the resistor R2.
VE+VBE=I0R2
I0R2=IERE+0.7V
I0R2 =4x1+0.7V=4.7V………(i)
R1(I0+IB)+I0R2=VCC
R1(I0+0 .002)+I0R2=12 V…………(ii)
It is a good idea to choose I0 >> IB since in this case changes in IB (due to, for example, an
input AC voltage) will not change the bias voltage. Our cookbook rule is I0 = 25 IB
although many other choices will also work. (Later you should try say I0 = 50 IB and see
if your amplifier still works. Also try I0 = IB and see what happens.)
Assuming following parameter:
VBE=0.7V, IC=4mA, VCC=12V,β=200
IB = = =.002mA

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Since IB = 0.002 mA in our example means that I0 is
I0=25IB
I0=25 x 0.002=0.5 mA
From equation (i)
R2=4.7/0.5= 9.4 KΩ
From equation (ii)

R1= =14.54 KΩ

Where: Av=2, RE=1 KΩ, RC=2 KΩ, R1=15 KΩ, R2=10 KΩ,C1=10µF ,CC= 10 µF

VCC=12V

Fig.13.2 BJT as an amplifier

PROCEDURE:
 Calculate the value of RC and RE from the given gain value of AV.

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 Calculate the value of R1 and R2 Register in voltage divider bias by using KVL in
base and emitter circuit.
 Connect the circuit as shown in figure.
 Apply AC input signal in between emitter- base circuit in BJT.
 Observe the output on CRO by changing the amplitude of the input signal.
 Note the output voltage for given input signal.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Table 13.1 Output voltage change with respect to input voltage
Av= Vo/Vi
[Link]. Vin(V) Vout(V)

1
2
3
4
5

OUTPUT WAVEFORM:

Fig. 13.2 Input and output waveform of an amplifier

RESULT:-
We have successfully designed a common emitter amplifier circuit of voltage gain 6 dB
using bipolar junction transistor.

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Designed parameters are as follows:
Av=6 dB, RE=1KΩ, RC=2 KΩ, R1=15 KΩ, R2=10 KΩ,
We have plotted the waveform for the designed value. We observed the output signal for
the given input signal.

DISCUSSION:-
1. What the parameter that are affecting the amplification factor of the
transistor.
2. What are the needs of biasing? Why voltage divider biasing used in circuits.
3. Define the different operating region of the transistor and application of that
region.
4. What is Q-point or operating point?

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EXPERIMENT NUMBER- 14

AIM: - Design a Center tapped without filter rectifier of Vdc =13 volt and
IL(max)=100mA and with C- filter of Vdc =21 volt and IL(max)=100mA, ripple factor ≤
0.04.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:-
• Function generator
• CRO
• Multimeter
• Power Supply with Bread Board (+12V & -12V)
COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
Transformer 230V / 15V, Silicon diode : 1N5402(02 no.), capacitor and resistors of
desired values

THEORY:-
The center tape rectifier is a full-wave rectifier in which two p-n diodes are
connected. The center tape rectifier has high efficiency when compared to half-wave
rectifier. During every half cycle of the input, only single diode will be conducting while
other diode are in reverse bias The center tape rectifier is a circuit, which converts an ac
voltage to dc voltage using both half cycles of the input ac voltage.
In the case of center tape rectifier, both the half cycles of the input are utilized with the
help of two diodes working alternately. For full wave rectification, need of transformer is
essential (though it is optional for half wave rectification). When input ac supply is
switched on, the ends M and N of the transformer secondary become +ve and –ve
alternately. During the positive half cycle of the ac input, terminal M is +ve , G at the
zero potential. Hence , being forward biased diode D1 conducts but D2 is reverse biased
and current flow along resistor, as a result , positive half cycle of the voltage appears
across load resistance.
In the –ve half cycle, when terminal N becomes +ve , then D2 conducts but D1 did not
conduct as it in reverse biased and current flow through load resistance, negative half

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cycle of the input voltage appears across load resistance. Hence for both the diodes the
direction of the current across load is same so will get the full rectified wave at the output.
Difference between bridge or center tapped rectifier:
1. No. of diode in center tapped is two.
2. Peak Inverse Voltage in Center tapped is 2Vm.
Circuit diagram:-

Fig.14.1 : Circuit Diagram of Center tapped Rectifier

Fig. 14.2 : Circuit Diagram of Center tapped Rectifier with C filter

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DESIGN PROCEDURE:
1. Center tapped rectifier without filter

For a Cente tapped rectifier Vdc =

Therefore Vm =

Since Vdc = 13V,

Vm= 20.41 volt
Consider Vm= 20 volt

Transformer secondary voltage

Vrms =
√

So Vrms = = 14.14 V
√
Consider Vrms= 15 V
Choose 230V/ 15V stepdown transformer

RL = = =130 Ω

And PL = Vdc * IL(max)

= 13 * 100*10-3 = 1.3 Watts
So we can choose RL = 150 Ω/ 5W
2. Cente tapped rectifier with filter
For a Cente tapped rectifier Vdc = Vm
Therefore transformer secondary voltage

= = = = 14.85 V
√ √
Choose 230V/ 15V stepdown transformer

= RL = =210 Ω

PL = Vdc * IL(max)
= 21 * 100*10-3 = 2.1 watts
So choose RL = 220 Ω/5W

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For a Cente tapped rectifier with C filter

Ripple factor = = 0.04

√

Therefore C= 328 µf
So choose C= 500 µf/ 50 V
PROCEDURE:-
Center tapped rectifier without filter
1. To design a Center tapped rectifier of Vdc =13 volt and IL(max)=100mA, we have
to calculate the value of Vm.
2. Calculate the value of Vrms and RL using Vm, Vdc and IL(max).
3. Calculate the value of PL also using Vdc and IL(max).
4. Connect the circuit as shown in figure.
5. Connect the AC main to the primary side of the transformer and secondary side to
the bridge rectifier.
6. Measure the AC voltage at the input of the rectifier using the multi meter.
7. Measure both the AC and DC voltages at the output of the Center tapped rectifier.
8. Determine ripple factor.
Center tapped rectifier with filter
1. To design a Center tapped rectifier with filter of Vdc =21 volt and IL(max)=100mA,
choose the value of Vm= Vdc.
2. Calculate the value of Vrms using Vm.
3. Calculate the value of RL and PL using Vdc and IL(max).
4. Calculate the value of C using ripple factor, f and RL.
5. Connect the circuit as shown in figure.
6. Connect the AC main to the primary side of the transformer and secondary side to
the bridge rectifier.
7. Measure the AC voltage at the input of the rectifier using the multi meter.
8. Measure both the AC and DC voltages at the output of the Center tapped rectifier.
9. Determine ripple factor.

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Calculations:-
Theoretical calculations:-

(i)Without filter:

Ripple facto r=√ =0.482

(ii) With filter:

Ripple factor = = 0.04

√

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Table 14.1 Ripple factor calculation
Rectifier Vm Vac(v) Vdc(v) Ripple factor

r = Vac/ Vdc

Cente tapped
rectifier without
Filter

Cente tapped
rectifier with C
Filter

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Model waveform:-

Fig. 14.3 Input and Output Waveform

RESULT:-In Center Tapped the peak inverse voltage is 2VM which is more than half
wave and Bridge Rectifier. It is bulky circuit because in this circuit we use Center
Tapped Transformer if center wire is not middle than output is not Symmetrical. Ripple
factor of center tapped rectifier with and without filter is calculated.

DISCUSSION:
1. What is the Peak Inverse Voltage of the double diode rectifier?
2. What is the efficiency of the center tapped rectifier?
3. What are the advantages of the double diode rectifier?
4. What are the advantages of Center tapped rectifier over bridge rectifier.

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