2 E - Book ZONE TECH

CHAPTER - 1
(INTRODUCTION OF I.C. ENGINE)

Engine : useful form

Combustion devide
• Internal combustion engines (I. C engines)
• External combustion engine (E.C engines)

IC engine fuel combustion cylinder power cylinder

automobile engine)
E.C. engine working fluid combustion products cylinder

Heat Engines :-
fuel chemical energy heat energy
heat energy mechanical power

E.C. engine IC engine :-

•
• Boiler, turbine, condenser
•
• power to weight ratio
Different components of an engine :-
 3 Internal Combustion Engine ZONE TECH
Material selection
(1) Cylinder and Cylinder head :- Cast iron, Cast steel, Cast aluminium, Cast aluminium alloy
(2) Piston :- Cast aluminium, Cast aluminium alloy
(3) Piston Pin (Gudgeon pin) :- Hardened & forged steel
Note :- The gudgeon pin is hollow.
(4) Piston rings :- Silicon cast steel
(5) Connecting rod or Crank rod :- Forged alloy steel
Note :- For small engine aluminium alloy used
(6) Crank shaft :- Hardened & smooth high speed stainless steel (HSS) or alloy steel

Classification of IC engine
(1) According to type of fuel ignition :-
(a) Spark ignition engine (SI engine)
(b) Compression ignition engine (CI engine)
(2) According to type of fuel used :-
(a) Petrol engine
(b) Diesel engine
(c) Gaseous fuel engine
(3) According to type of cycle used :-
(a) Otto cycle engine
(b) Diesel cycle engine
(c) Dual cycle engine
(4) According to number of revolution per cycle :-
(a) 4-stroke engine
(b) 2-stroke engine
(5) According to type of cooling system used :-
(a) Air cooled engine
(b) Water cooled engine
(6) According to type of fuel injection :-
(a) Carburetor injection engine (petrol engine)
(b) Air injection engine
(c) Air less or solid injection engine
(7) According to type of cylinder position :-
(a) Horizontal cylinder engine
(b) Vertical cylinder engine
(c) Inclined engine
(d) Opposed cylinder engine
(e) V-type engine
(f) Opposed piston engine
(g) Radial engine
 4 E - Book ZONE TECH
(8) According to type of valve position :-
(a) Over head valve engine
(b) Side valve engine
(9) According to type of applications :-
(a) Stationary engine
(b) Auto motive engine
(c) Air craft engine
(d) Locomotive engine
(e) Marine engine

Engine Nomenculature :
(1) Top dead centre : dead center crack shaft engine
TDC inner dead centre (IDC)
(2) Bottom dead centre (BDC) :- dead center
engine BDC outer dead center
(3) Stroke or stroke length (L) : TDC BDC stroke stroke length

TDC

Piston BDC
Stroke (L)
Connecting
rod

Center of
crank shaft

(4) Displacement / Stroke / Swept Volume :- (V S)

stroke swept
 2
VS = D L
4
D = cylinder (inner dia)
L = stroke length

inner dia or Bore

cylinder k total swept volume

 2
VTotal = K × D L
4
(5) Clearance Volume (VC) :- cylinder TDC
Clearance volume, valve space damage
 5 Internal Combustion Engine ZONE TECH

Clearance volume (VC)

TDC
Stroke L swept volume (Vs)

BDC

(6) Compression Ratio (r) :- (compression)

1
V

VC + VS

V1

V1 = Volume before compression VC + VS

V2 = Volume after compression V2 = VC
1V VC  VS V
r= V   1 S
2 VC VC
Clearance ratio (C) :- clearance volume stroke volume clearance ratio (C)

Mean Piston Speed :-

revolution (180°) revolution 2L cover
2L N rev
= 
rev min
2LN
(mean speed) =
60

L
 6 E - Book ZONE TECH

CHAPTER - 2
(AIR STANDARD CYCLES)
Air Standard Cycles ( ) :-
Assumptions ( ) :-
(1) fluid
(2) CP & C V constant
(3) Working fluid mass fixed Closed system
(4) Working fluid
(5) (process) (reversible) ( reversible)
Note:- cp cv 25°C cold air cycle analysis

Otto cycle

P T 3
3 HA
HA 2
4
4
2
HR
HR 1
1
S
V

Process (1 - 2) = Reversible adiabatic compression

Process (2 - 3) = Constant volume heat addition
Process (3 - 4) = Reversible adiabatic expansion
Process (4 - 1) = constant volume heat rejection
v1
Compression ratio (r) = v
2

V3  V2 and V4  V1

Expansion ratio (re) :-

expansion expansion volume
V4 V1
  re
V3 V2
In process (1 - 2)
T1 V1   1  T2 V2   1
 –1
T2  V1   –1
   r .... (i)
T1  V2 
7 Internal Combustion Engine ZONE TECH
In process (3 - 4)
T3 V3   1  T4 V4   1 v 4 = v1 v 3 = v2
 –1  –1
T3  V4   V1 
    V 
T4  V3   2

T3  –1
 r .... (ii)
T4
from (i) and (ii)
T2 T3

T1 T4
T1T3 = T2T4
T4 T3 T4 T
  –1  3 –1 ... (iii)
T1 T2 T1 T2
process (2-3) constant volume heat addition i.e.
Heat addition (HA)  mcv  T3 – T2 
process (4-1) constant volume heat rejection i.e.
Heat rejection (HR)  mcv  T4 – T1 
Wnet
Thermal efficiency of otto cycle is  =
HA
We know that Wnet  HA – HR
HA  HR HR
so   1
HA HA
Put the value of HA & HR
mc v  T4 – T1 
  1
mc v  T3 – T2 

  1
 T4 – T1 
 T3 – T2 

T 
T1  4 – 1 
T
 1 –  1  ... (iv)
T 
T2  3 – 1 
T
 2 
From equation (iii) & (iv)
1
 = 1–  –1
... (v)
r
Equation (v) represent thermal efficiency of otto cycle
 8 E - Book ZONE TECH
Represent a graph between efficiency (  ) and compression ratio (r) :-


    = 1.67

 = 1.4

 = 1.33

0 r
1 2 3 4 5

Significance of Compression Ratio ( ) :-

• Engine
•
(Expansion) net work
• (compression ratio) (Efficiency)

Mean - Effective Pressure ( ) (Mep) :-

volume size net work

3
Wnet Pm
4 Pm (V1 – V2)
2 = work

1 V2 V1
V V
VS = V1 – V2
VS = V1 – V2

Wnet = Pm (V1 – V2)

Wnet = [Link]
Wnet
Pm = V
S

Significance of Pm :-
• size
• mean effective pressure net work heat input
Pm efficiency
9 Internal Combustion Engine ZONE TECH
Diesel Cycle

P HA T
3 3
2 e)
slop
ss C
(le P = 4

4 2
C e)
= slop
Vore
HR 1
1 (m
V S

Process (1 - 2) = Reversible adiabatic compression

Process (2 - 3) = Constant pressure HA
Process (3 - 4) = Reversible adiabatic expansion
Process (4 - 1) = Constant volume HR

Air standard efficiency of diesel cycle :-

V1
compression ratio (r) = V
2

cut off ratio (  ) :- heat addition heat addition

V3
 =
V2

Expansion ratio (re) :-

expansion expansion
V4
re = V
3

we know that V1 = V4

so re  V1  V1  V2  r
V3 V2 V3 
In process (1 - 2) :- In process 1 - 2 reversible adiabatic compression so
 1
T2  V1   1
   r
T1  V2 

 1
T2  T1  r  ... (i)
In process (2 - 3) :- In process 2 - 3 constant pressure heat addition takes place so
T3 V3
 
T2 V2
10 E - Book ZONE TECH
T3  T2  
 –1
T3  T1     r  ... (ii)
In process (3 - 4) :- In process 3 - 4 reversible adiabatic expansion takes place so
 –1
T4  V3 
 
T3  V4 

 –1

T4  T3   
r

1

T4   T1  r   1      
r

T4  T1    ... (iii)

process (2-3) constant pressure heat addition i.e.

Heat addition (HA)  mc p  T3 – T2 

process (4-1) constant pressure heat rejection i.e.

Heat rejection (HR)  mcv  T4 – T1 

Wnet
Thermal efficiency of otto cycle is  =
HA

We know that Wnet  HA – HR

HA  HR HR
so   1
HA HA

Put the value of HA & HR

mc v  T4 – T1 
  1
mcp  T3 – T2 

1  T1   – 1 
  1
 –1  –1
  T1  r    – T1  r  
 

1    1 
  1 ... (iv)
 r  1    1 

Equation (iv) represent the air standard thermal efficiency of diesel engine
 11 Internal Combustion Engine ZONE TECH
Effect of cut off ratio (rc) on the efficiency of diesel cycle (Diesel cycle cut off
ratio (rc) )

31
P QS 31 T 3
3
2 QS 41
1
4
4
4 2

QR 1 QR
1
V S

V1,V2, (VC, VS)  fixed any given engine

R Q 
 = 1– Q 
S

QR constant volume slope



rc

• Cut off ratio heat supply heat rejection (QR) heat rejection
heat rejection constant volume heat supply constant
pressure slope constant pressure line constant volume line slope

The dual combustion cycle or the semi diesel cycle :-

constant volume heat add constant
pressure dual cycle features otto diesel

T HA
3
HA V=C
2' (P=C) 3 2' s l op
e

P HA
less
e
p
slo

(V=C) HA
4
e
or

V=C
m

2
4
2 HR
HR (V=C) V=C
1
1
V S

• Dual combustion cycle heat addition

• Heat addition
 12 E - Book ZONE TECH
• Range of compression ratio
• Petrol Engine (6 - 10)
• Dual Engine (12 - 16)
• Diesel Engine (16 - 20)
• dual engine size petrol engine diesel engine size
engine size compression ratio
• constant volume heat addition pressure ratio explosion ratio ()
P2a
In the fig. 
P2
• dual cycle heat addition constant pressure constant volume
P-V diagram area heat input

• Dual cycle engine diesel cycle

• Dual cycle engine constant volume heat addition constant pressure
heat addition 2 - 3
Air standard thermal efficiency of dual combustion cycle is
   1
  1
 r     1      1 
1

where r = compression ratio

 = Cut off ratio

 = explosion ratio or pressure ratio

Note :-
• If pressure ratio (  ) = 1, dual cycle becomes diesel cycle
• If cut off ratio (  ) = 1, dual cycle becomes otto cycle

Comparison of otto & diesel cycle :-

Case - I
Same compression ratio & Heat supply

3'
' 3
T3>T3
T
4'
4
2
excess rejection
in diesel cycle
1

1 - 2 - 3 - 4  otto cycle
1 - 2 - 31 - 41 - Diesel cycle
 13 Internal Combustion Engine ZONE TECH
RQ 
 = 1– Q QR 
S

• diesel cycle heat rejection otto cycle

diesel cycle
(QS)otto = mcv(T3 – T2)
(QS)diesel = mcp (T31 – T2)
mcv (T3 – T2) = mcp (T31 – T2)
cv (T3 – T2) = cp (T31 – T2)
T3 > T31
Case - 2 Same Compression ratio and heat rejection :-
T 3
2 excessive heat supply
3' in otto cycle
4
1 HR

S
1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - otto
1 - 2 - 31 - 41 - diesel
QR
 = 1– Q
S

• heat rejection otto cycle heat supply

otto cycle
Case - 3 Same Max. Temperature and Heat Rejection
T 3
2'
2
4

1
S
1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - otto
1 - 21 - 3 - 4 - Diesel
• maximum temperature heat rejection diesel cycle heat supply
diesel cycle efficient
• Otto cycle diesel cycle compression ratio
 14 E - Book ZONE TECH

CHAPTER - 3
(WORKING OF I.C. ENGINE & ENGINE PERFORMANCE
PARAMETERS)
IC engine :-
2 stroke petrol engine :-

Spark plug
Crowning

Outlet or Exhaust
port
Inlet or suction
transfer
port
port

Counter
Weight

(1) 2-stroke engine 3-part inlet ports, outlet ports transfer ports
(2) Fresh air fuel mixture (AFM)
(3) exhaust port
(4) ports fresh air fuel mixture (AFM)

(5) (BDC) transfer port side

transfer port
(6) curve crowing
transfer port exhaust port open AFM exhaust
port crowing, exhaust port
AFM fresh AFM
exhaust gas exhaust port cleaning
scavenging
 15 Internal Combustion Engine ZONE TECH

Transfe
port

Scavenging

(1) heat addition

(2) Heat addition TDC current spark plug heat addition
heat addition
(3) Heat addition power

Spark plut

Deflector

Transfe
port

inlet valve

crank case

Exhaust blowdown

(1) 60 65% down stroke complete inlet port

piston downward motion fresh air AMF
 16 E - Book ZONE TECH
(1) downward stroke 80% complete exhaust port
(2) cylinder downward stroke

(3)
Calculation of power and engine performance parameters
(a) Calculation :-
(i) 2 stroke engine :-
= 1 rotation = VS
N rotation = N × VS
N rotation = N × VS
N
Volume of air/sec =  VS
60
(ii) For 4 stroke engine :-
Volume of air/cycle = 2 rotation = V S
VS
Average volume of air/rotation =
2
N
N rotation per minute, volume of air =  VS
2

(b) I.C. Engine Brake Power Indicated Power :-

P-V diagram piston input indicator diagram
indicated work done
indicated power
output brake
mechanism brake work done
brake power
rb brake drum work done
BWD = Brake Fb × Brake mechanism
1 rotation
BWD = Fb × 2 rb
1 , BWD = Fb × 2 rb × N
N
Brake power = BWD/sec. = Fb × 2 rb ×
60
We known as brake torque is
T = Fb × r b
2 NT
brake power =
60
(c) Indicated Power ( ) [IP] :-
• Engine cylinder power indicated power
• 2-stroke engine piston 2-stroke cycle
cycle
 17 Internal Combustion Engine ZONE TECH
• 4-stroke engine piston 4-stroke 2-revolution cycle

• 2-stroke engine power 4- stroke engine

power
Indicated power of a 2-stroke engine
P P
3
Pm
4
2
1

V V
VS VS

Wnet = PmVS/cycle
Pm VS
Wnet =
rev
Pm Vs Nrev Pm Vs N
power =  
rev min  60 sec 60
Pm LAN
..... Power (IP) =
60
cylinders K
Pm LAN
IP = k 
60

(d) Mechanical efficiency ( m ) :-

output input
BWD
Thus m =
IWD
(e) Thermal efficiency ( th ) :-
work done  WD 
th 
Heat adition  HA 

Brake thermal efficiency ( bt ) is

brake work done  BWD 
th 
Heat adition  HA 

Indicated thermal efficiency ( it ) is

Indicated work done  IWD 
it 
Heat adition  HA 
(f) Heat added :-
Heat addition/Kg = Calorific value
heat addition/sec = Calorific value × mass/sec.
 18 E - Book ZONE TECH
(g) Specific fuel consumption (SFC) :-
power (in kw)
mass of fuel / hr
SFC =
Power  kw 
Brake specific fuel consumption is
mass of fuel / hr
b SFC 
Breake Power  in kw 
Indicated specific fuel consumption is
Mass of fuel / hr
I SFC 
Indicated power  in kw 
(h) Volumetric efficiency : (vol)
• cylinder breathing capacity indicate
• actual cylinder fluid swept volume

actual vol./ cycle

vol 
swept volume

Actual [Link]
vol = [for 2 - stroke]
 2 N
D L K
4 2

Actual [Link]
vol =   N [for 4 - stroke]
DL K
4 2
 19 Internal Combustion Engine ZONE TECH

CHAPTER - 4
(COMPARISON OF 2-STROKE AND 4-STROKE ENGINE)

2-stroke 4-stroke
1. 2- stroke rotation 4-stroke
rotation
2. 4-stroke outlet valve 2-stroke port
replace
3. single cylinder 4-stroke fly wheel 2-stroke
4. 2-stroke (lubricating oil) fuel fuel tank 4-
stroke lubricating oil fuel mix
5. 2-stroke power losses 70%
4-stroke 90%
6. 2-stroke transfer port exhaust port AFM (Air
Fuel Mixer) exhaust port
7. 2-storoke lubricating oil work output

8. 2-stroke 4-stroke
2-stroke 4-stroke
 20 E - Book ZONE TECH

CHAPTER - 5
(COMPARISON OF SI AND CI ENGINE)

Petrol Engine Diesel Engine :-

1. compression ratio compression fuel self
ignition temperature fuel spark plug
diesel compression ratio
fuel self ignition temperature fuel
spark plug
2. Petrol engines air fuel engine cylinder carburettor mix
diesel engine air and fuel engine cylinder diesel engine
carburettor
3. Diesel engine fuel separate compression engine cylinder inject
nozzle petrol engine nozzle
air and fuel engine cylinder
4. Diesel engine (constant pressure) petrol engine
(constant pressure process)
5. compression ratio petrol engine diesel engine

6. diesel engine compression ratio 1.5 3 petrol engine

diesel engine
7. Diesel compression ratio  r  16 to 20
Petrol engine compression ratio  r  6 to 10
8. Cruising condition speed Normal speed petrol engine air-fuel (AF) ratio 16
diesel engine AF ratio 25 35
 21 Internal Combustion Engine ZONE TECH

CHAPTER - 6
(DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THEORETICAL AND ACTUAL
P-V DIAGRAM)
4-stroke petrol engine P-V diagram :-
Theoritical P-V diagram :-

4
2
P
0 a 1
b

assumption
• Suction Exhaust
• Suction, compression, expansion exhaust 180°
• Compression expansion adiabatic
• Compression constant volume
• Expansion cylinder
assumption 4-stroke petrol engine P-V diagram
Theoritical P-V diagram
indicate

Actual P-V diagram :-

3'
d
e

P 2' c 4'
b'
1'
f
0 1
a'

V
 22 E - Book ZONE TECH
• Combustion
combustion constant
• Expansion stroke exhaust valve

• Valve

(1) PV diagram, theoritical PV diagram

(2) Suction exhaust process (0-a'-1-1'-b'-0) engine pumping loss

(negative)
(3) Pumping loss net work done

(4) Net indicated work done net actual area theoritical indicated work done theoritical
area diagram factor (DF)
net indicated work done
diagram factor = Theoritical indicated work done
 23 Internal Combustion Engine ZONE TECH

CHAPTER - 7
(DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THEORETICAL AND ACTUAL
VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM)
Valve Timing Diagram :-
• I.C. engine inlet exhaust valve fuel
ingnition valve timing diagram
• inlet exhaust valve

4-stroke petrol engine valve timing diagram

4-stroke petrol engine valve timing diagram

E
TDC
C

B
D BDC theoretical valve
timing diagram

TDC = Top Dead Center

BDC = Bottem Dead Center
valve timing diagram inlet outlet valve T.D.C. B.D.C.
actual valve timing diagram
Actual valve timing diagram
• actual valve timing
diagram valve piston T.D.C. B.D.C.

suction stroke inlet valve

open piston start inlet valve
suction inlet valve suction stroke
suction stroke inlet valve open
exhaust valve exhaust stroke open
exhaust stroke
 24 E - Book ZONE TECH

E E'

C
C1 – C2 - Only sparking
C'
C2 7° C"
C1
A' A
C' – C" - Only ignition
°
8° 12

C2 – C1 - sparking and
°
6 °° 40
20

ignition (both)

°
20°

25
°
15

B' B
D1 D'
D
Actual valve timing diagram

(1) Actual valve timing diagram cycle T.D.C.

Open
(angular displacement) (valve overlap)
(2) Cylinder exhaust gas fresh AFM cylinder
12°-15° (valve overlap)
(3)

• valve timing diagram suction 7° + 180° + 15° = 202°-230°

• valve timing diagram exhaust 20° + 180° + 6° = 206°-235°
 25 Internal Combustion Engine ZONE TECH

CHAPTER - 8
(TESTING OF I.C ENGINE)
1. M or se T est :- Morse test multi cylinder engine applicable engine
required speed run ouput measure cylinder
spark plug short circuit injector disconnect case , cut
speed original value constant output measure
output difference cut out cylinder indicated power measure
cylinder indicated power engine total
indicated power
4 cylinder petrol engine consider cylinder
Indicated power/cylinder = I
Break power/cylinder = B
Friction power/cylinder = F

4 cylinder work
4 I  4B + 4F ... (i)
engine cylinder cut off test diesel engine fuel
supply cut petrol engine spark plug short circuit
working cylinder break power cylinder
cylinder time) cut off working cylinder different
different reading reading 3B1, 3B2, 3B3 3B4 reading
average
3B 1  3B 2  3B 3  3B 4
3B 
4

We have 3 cylinder, 3I  3B + 4F ... (ii)

By equation (i) - equation (ii) I  4B - 3B
4-cylinder engine indicated power 4I  4 (4B - 3B)
Given data test average value
2. Motoring Test :- test engine power desired speed run
speed load condition oil, water
engine component temperature stable condition engine
power swinging field type electric dynamometer absorb test
suitable Fuel supply suitable electric switching devices
cut off Motor power supply measure engine
friction power measure motoring test water supply cut
actual operating temperature maintain
26 E - Book ZONE TECH

CHAPTER - 9
(COMBUSTION IN SI ENGINE)
Stoichiometric Air Fuel Ratio :-
combustion exhatu gases
form NO, O2 combustion perfect combustion
perfect combustion air fuel ratio stoichiometric air fuel ratio

Equivalance Ratio () :- Actual condition FAR stoichiometric condition FAR

equivalance ratio
Actual FAR

Stoichiometric FAR
equivalance ratio 1.1 1.2, maximum power flame front
40 cm/sec

P –  Diagram :-
Theoritical diagram :- (Pressure V/S shaft rotatation)

(HA) II stage
of combustion
P C

B III
-s
n ta
io ion ge
ecx
e ss ust opm (PD > PA and
pr m b abn
uss
om co it
oion PD > PB)
c eg n
A ta D
I-s

180° 360° 

Actual P –  Diagram :-

c
T Motoring
d curve
b
a

A
160° 172° 180° 192° 220° 360° 
27 Internal Combustion Engine ZONE TECH
st
I stage of combustion (a to b) :-
At a :- compression 160° rotation sparking

a to b :- Sparking
At b :- Ignition
propagation

IInd stage of combustion (b to T & T to c) :-

At b :- sparking ignition a b b T rise in pressure

At T :- Piston TDC (compression ) sparking ignition T

b T rise in pressure expansion
pressure At c :- Shaft TDC 12° 13° sparking
combustion ignition

IIIrd stage of combustion (c to d) :- combustion IIIrd stage c

combustion pressure
TDC 40° D combustion

Motoring curve :- compression

expansion combustion
curve rise in pressure combustion
significant pressure rise efficiency piston TDC
motoring curve pressure
Flame
front

Propagation
End of flame front
charge

Flame front :- sparking spark plug ignite

ignited flame front

Propagation of flame front :- flame front flame front

flame front flame front
flame front flame
front flame front movement propagation of flame
front

End charge :- Flame front propogation air fuel mixture end charge
 28 E - Book ZONE TECH

Normal and Abnormal combustion :- spark plug end charge flame front
combustion combustion normal combustion


Normal Combustion

Detonation


Abnormal Combustion

End charge flame front propagation

(i) Flame front expand end charge end charge

(ii) end charge

(iii) Flame front end charge

end charge self ignition end
charge flame front flame front origional flame
fornt end charge combustion smooth normal combustion

Origional flame front end charge end charge flame front

flame front move flame front
knocking detonation

Disadvantage
(i) Sitting of the mechanical vibration
(ii) Cracking of cylinder or piston
(iii) Develpment of a large mechanical sound. which is metallic this sound is known as pinging
sound, thus the other name of knocking or detonation is pinging.
29 Internal Combustion Engine ZONE TECH
Temperature time graph during chemical action of fuel particles :-

ignition temp A2 (end of chemical action)

(Temp )
Where
temp (Temp ) A3(exit of UBHC with
exhaust gas) UBHC = Unburnt hydro carbon
A1

Time
First Fuel

(end of chemical action)

ignition temp
B2 B3 (ignition of fuel)

temp
B1

Time
Chemical leg or
long chemical leg
Second Fuel

C2 C3
(end of chemical action)
ignition temp

temp
C1

Time
Chemical leg
Third Fuel or short chemical leg

Figure 1 chemical action end fuel particles temperature ignition temperature

fuel particle ignite
Figure 2 particle B chemical action temperature ignition
temperature Chemical action fuel time ignite
case end charge chemical action fuel ignite temperature
rise
 30 E - Book ZONE TECH
Fuel particle C figure 3 chemical action end temperature
igniton temperature case figure chemical leg C
particle B chemical leg

Conclusion :- Ignition point temperature chemical leg

" Petrol engine knocking chemical leg
chemical delay longer clear combustion starting temperature,
ignition temperature close "
Factor affecting detonation in petrol engine
1. Compression ratio :-
Higher compression ratio will result in higher temperature of charge. Knocking will increase.
Due to this reason compression ratio for SI engine is limited to between 6 to 10.
The effect will be the same when inlet valve temperature is higher or supercharger is used.
2. Work output :-
For higher work output (higher load or higher power), more fuel will be supply temperature
of the charge will increase knocking will be higher. Hence SI engines must be run at part
load condition only.
3. Advancing the spark :-
Advancing the spark will result in more duration for sparking. Additional energy will be
supplied to the charge. Tendency to knock will increase. Hence sparking should be retarded
and not advance.
4. Location of the spark plug :-
If we install spark plug in middle then same heat for inlet valve & outlet valve but we want
to same temperature at inlet valve so spark plug near to center & farther to inlet valve.
The spark plug must be located nearest to the center of the cylinder head and away from
inlet valve.
5. Distance of flame travel :-
To avoid knocking, the distance travelled by the flame front must be less such that the time
taken for it must be less than the chemical leg of end charge. For this reason the cylinder
diameter of SI engine is limited to a maximum of 15 cm.
6. Speed of the engine :-
When engine is increase turbulence will be more the flame front will more in all direction
at A higher speed hence tendency of knocking will decrease.
7. Octane Number :-
Fuel quality fuel testing result standard fuel
compare
Petrol standard fuel isoctane (zero knock) normal heptane
Standard fuel high percent octane antiknock quality fuel
fuel quality
31 Internal Combustion Engine ZONE TECH
standard fuel 70% octane petrol match petrol octane
number 70
India petrol octane number 70-80 quality fuel speed, extra premium
etc. octane number 94
 32 E - Book ZONE TECH

CHAPTER - 10
(COMBUSTION IN CI ENGINE)
(2) Combustion phenomenon of C.I Engine :-
 Compression ignition (C.I) stage

P
D AB = Ignition delay
BC = Uncontrolled
C E Combustion
CD = Controlled
B Combustion
DE = After Burning

A
y

x Accumulated
Fuel

TDC Crank angle

(i) 1st stage combustion / Ignition delay :-

 air particle, fuel spray cross heat air partical fuel partical transfer
fuel partical temperature chamical action start
 Air fuel partical physical content physical delay
 Chemical action chemical delay
Ignition delay = Physical delay + Chemical delay
 1st stage combustion combustion chamber temperature
fuel ignition stage ignition delay period

 Ignition delay period chemical delay

(ii) 2nd stage combustion / uncontrolled Ignition :-
 stage combustion chamber temp chemical delay

 ignition delay combustion chamber fuel

diesel knock
detonation
 Diesel knock detonation stage uncontrol ignition
 33 Internal Combustion Engine ZONE TECH
 diesel knock fuel ignition delay
(iii) 3rd stage combustion / controlled combustion:-
 Combustion 2nd stage 3rd stage inject fuel
inject fuel
stage controlled combustion period
(iv) 4th stage combustion / after burning :-
 combustion air stage after burning

Factors affecting knocking in CI engine

1. Compression ratio :-
Higher compression ratio will result in the higher temperature of the charge tendency to
knock will decrease. Hence the compression ratio for CI engine is as high as between 16 to
20.
The effect will be the same when the inlet valve temperature is higher or supercharger is
used.
2. Speed :-
For higher speeds more fuel will enter the engine cylinder during the first stage of
combustion. Hence the fuel supply during second stage will be less. Tendency to knock
will increase. Hence diesel engines must be run at normal speeds.
3. Atomisation :-
For better atomisation the fuel sprayed will sprayed for more space. The physical leg will
be more air will carry more fuel with it knocking during 2 nd stage will be lesser. For this
purpose in the range of 16 to 20 comp. ratio should be near to 16.
4. Power output :-
For higher power output more fuel must be supply. Hence temperature of charge will be
higher. The knocking tendency will decrease.
5. Quality of fuel :-
Higher the cetane number, better the quality of fuel, knocking will be less.

Cetane Number :-
 petrol engine petrol ignition quality octane number
diesel fuel ignition quality cetane number
 normal cetane 2- normal cetane cetane number
100 2-
 cetane number knock tendency
 diesel fuel cetane no in India - 40 - 50
34 E - Book ZONE TECH

CHAPTER - 11
(AIR POLLUTION FIRING ORDER, SUPERCHARGING,
DIESEL FUEL INJECTION)
Firing order
cylinder good balancing firing firing
order
Good balancing :-
1. mechanical vibration
2. Cooling system effective cooling
3. back effect (Back flow Back pressure)
4-cylinder engine Ideal firing order 1 - 3 - 4 - 2 and 1 - 2 - 4 - 3
6-cylinder engine Ideal firing order 1-5-3-6-2-4
or
1-2-4-6-5-3
or
1-2-3-6-5-4
Superchargers
rotary compressor use engine air
compress supercharger rotary compressor
Note :-
If rotary compressor is operated by engine shaft then it is called supercharger but if rotary
compressor is operated by turbine then it is called turbocharger
Superchargers Advantages:-
1. Engine overall efficiency
2. Specific fuel consumption
3. Supercharged engine volumetric efficiency higher
Superchargers disadvantages:-
1. Higher pressure air turbocharge engine engine
various parts thermal load
2. Super charging loss
3. Supercharged engine valve overlap
Clorific value :-

Lower calorific valve :-

35 Internal Combustion Engine ZONE TECH

Higher calorific valve :- 15°C 60°F

Lower calorific value = Total calorific value –

Pollution
IC engine pollution substance produce :-
1. Carbon mono-oxide (CO):- CO formation

2. Hydro carbon:- Exhaust gases unburnt hydro carbon

photochemical smog lungs skin cancer

3. NOX:- NOX, hydro carbon similar effect create

Engine cylinder high temperature
oxygen supply fluid incomplete combustion NOX
Pollution method:-
1. Slightly less compression ratio use
2. Slightly lean mixture use
3. Thermal converter use :-
Thermal converters exhaust gases path thermal converter
CO HC CO2 H2O
4. Catalytic converter use :-
Catalytic converter stainless steel box box alumina (Al2O3)
honeycomb shape
Catalytic agent use quick reaction platinum use
hydro carbon palladium use CO rhodium use NOX

Note:-
• NOX detect instrument use non-dispersive analyser

• device use CO exhaust gases detect orsat

apparatus
Orsat Gas Analysis:-
Orsat gas analysis CO2, CO O2 dry fuel gas volume mole fraction
measure
Orsat analysis pipettes chemical solution
36 E - Book ZONE TECH

KOH, CO2 absorb Pyrogallol solution, O2 absorb CuCl2, CO

absorb