1

Introduction

Antonio Moreno-Muñoz

Área de Electrónica,
Departamento de A. C., Electrónica y T.E,
Universidad de Córdoba,
Campus de Rabanales,
E-14071 Córdoba, Spain.
Email: amoreno@[Link].

1.1 Introduction
Nowadays, the growth of the digital economy implies a widespread use of
electronic equipment not only in the industrial and commercial sectors, but in the
domestic environment too. Studies undertaken in different countries on the
contribution of information and communication technology (ICT) to the
consumption of electricity conclude that office and telecommunication equipment
used in the nonresidential sector represents about 3 or 4% of the annual
consumption of electricity. This will not only bring about a greater demand for
power, but in addition a higher level of power quality and reliability (PQR), in
quantities and time frames that have not been experienced before. It has been
estimated that more than 30% of the power currently being drawn from the utility
companies is now heading for sensitive equipment, and this is increasing [1].

The reliability of the power supply delivered by utilities varies considerably

and depends on a number of external factors. Things like lightning, large switching
loads, nonlineal load stresses or accidents can disrupt the electric power grid. This
infrastructure was designed primarily to serve “analog electric devices” like lights
or motors. These devices are generally tolerant to voltage fluctuations in the power
supply. However, the electric power grid is unable to consistently provide the level
of digital quality power required by our digital manufacturing assembly lines,
information systems, and soon even our home appliances.

The electronic devices demand for higher PQR stems from the fact that
semiconductor components require low-voltage direct current and are highly
sensitive to short power interruptions, voltage surges and sags, harmonics, and
other waveform distortions.
2 A. Moreno-Muñoz

Today, for every microprocessor inside a computer, there are 30 more in stand-
alone applications, resulting in the digitization of society. In applications ranging
from industrial sensors to home appliances, microprocessors now number more
than 12 billion in the US alone [2].

1.2 Electromagnetic Compatibility

Any electromagnetic phenomenon that may degrade the performance of a device,
equipment or system, or adversely affect living or inert matter is considered an
electromagnetic disturbance. Equipment and systems performance can be
adversely impacted by electromagnetic disturbances and, conversely, any
electrotechnical equipment is, itself, more or less an electromagnetic-disturbance
generator. Disturbances cause undesirable problems, thus, avoiding
electromagnetic interference (EMI) became an important issue in electrical
engineering. In this sense, it is possible to consider “power quality” as a dedicated
subset of electromagnetic compatibility (EMC), limited to the area of low-
frequency conducted phenomena.

According to the International Electrotechnical Vocabulary (IEV161-01-07),

EMC is the ability of an equipment or system to function satisfactorily in its
electromagnetic environment without introducing intolerable electromagnetic
disturbances to anything in that environment.

Achieving EMC requires us to deal with two different aspects:

• The disturbance emission level: the level of an electromagnetic disturbance
of a given form, measured under particular conditions. The maximum
permissible electromagnetic disturbance level is denominated the
disturbance limit.
• The immunity level: the maximum level of a given electromagnetic
disturbance on a particular device, equipment or system for which it
remains capable of operating at a required degree of performance. The
electromagnetic susceptibility is the inability of a device, equipment or
system to perform without degradation in the presence of an
electromagnetic disturbance.

Reliable, trouble-free performance is usually equated with a supply of high

quality. However, equipment performance has as much to do with its susceptibility
to supply disturbances as it has with the actual characteristics of the supply that it
operates on. There is a growing need to ensure electric service compatibility
between end-user equipment and the utility power system. It is also the case that
supply characteristics will be influenced by the “quality” of the load connected to
it.

In the whole power system, interference inevitably occurs on some occasions

and therefore there is some overlapping between the distributions of disturbance
 Introduction 3

and immunity levels. Voltage characteristics may be equal to or higher than the
compatibility level; they are specified by the European Standard EN 50160 [3],
which will be analysed below. Planning levels may be equal to or lower than the
compatibility level; they are specified by the owner of the network. Immunity test
levels are specified by relevant standards or agreed upon between manufacturers
and users.

Figure 1.1. Illustration of basic voltage-quality concepts with time/location statistics

covering the whole system

In 1989, the European Council issued its so-called EMC Directive 89/336, which
came into force on 1 January 1996. The main features of this directive are:
• Application of the relevant standards is compulsory for all EU countries
and all other countries that intend to put their products on the EU market.
• The EMC Directive concerns emission from as well as immunity of
electrical and electronic devices, and it applies basically to product
standards.
• All the products must be tested and certified according to specific rules.

Table 1.1. Part 6 generic EMC standards

EMC Standard Europe International

Emission. Residential, Commercial, Light industry EN 61000-6-3 IEC 61000-6-3
environment
Emission. Industrial environment EN 61000-6-4 IEC 61000-6-4
Immunity. Residential, Commercial, Light industry EN 61000-6-1 IEC 61000-6-1
environment
Immunity. Industrial environment EN 61000-6-2 IEC 61000-6-2
4 A. Moreno-Muñoz

In order to support the EMC Directive with relevant technical standards, the
European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC), received a
mandate from the European Commission to ensure that all products and systems
coming within the scope of the directive were adequately covered. The CENELEC
standards assist in achieving adequate EMC. They achieve this by providing a
framework within which the supply environment (i.e. power quality), the
susceptibility of equipment and the emissions from equipment (which can
influence power quality) are all defined. Most of the international standards are set
by the International Electrotechnical Committee (IEC). And the CENELEC
introduced the practice of relying only on internationally published standards.
Thus, a coherent family of standards such as the EN 61000 series establishes a
means of promoting EMC as well as power quality. Essentially, they concern:
• general subjects like terminology and safety;
• descriptions of the electromagnetic environment: phenomena and levels;
• recommendations for the limitation of emission of electromagnetic
disturbances;
• guidance values for immunity tests;
• measurement techniques;
• testing techniques;
• installation guidelines;
• mitigation methods.

The EN 61000 consistes of nine parts and the present structure is as follows:
• Part 1. General: general considerations (introduction, fundamental
principles, safety), definitions and terminology.
• Part 2. Environment: description of the environment, classification of the
environment and compatibility levels.
• Part 3. Limits: emission limits, immunity limits (insofar as they do not fall
under the responsibility of product committees)
• Part 4. Testing and measurement techniques.
• Part 5. Installation and mitigation guidelines: Installation guidelines and
mitigation methods and devices.
• Part 6. Generic standards.
• Part 9. Miscellaneous.

Table 1.2. EMC–power-quality standards

EMC Standard Europe International

Characterisation of the supplied power EN 50160 IEC 50160
LF conducted disturbances. Compatibility levels in EN 61000-2-2 IEC 61000-2-2
public LV power systems
LF conducted disturbances. Limits for harmonic EN 61000-3-2 IEC 61000-3-2
current emissions (n ≤ 40), I ≤ 16 A, LV
 Introduction 5

Table 1.2. (continued)

LF conducted disturbances. Limitation of voltage EN 61000-3-3 IEC 61000-3-3

fluctuations & flicker, I ≤ 16 A

LF conducted disturbances. Limits for harmonic EN 61000-3-4 IEC 61000-3-4

current emissions (n = 40), I ≤ 6 A
LF conducted disturbances. Limitation of voltage EN 61000-3-5 IEC 61000-3-5
fluctuations & flicker, I > 16 A
LF conducted disturbances. Limits for harmonic EN 61000-3-6 IEC 61000-3-6
emissions in MV & HV power systems
LF conducted disturbances. Limitation of voltage EN 61000-3-7 IEC 61000-3-7
fluctuations & flicker in MV & HV power
systems
Overview of immunity tests EN 61000-4-1 IEC 61000-4-1
LF conducted disturbances. Voltage dips, short EN 61000-4-11 IEC 61000-4-11
interruptions AC
Electrostatic discharge immunity test EN 61000-4-2 IEC 61000-4-2
HF radiated disturbances. EM fields, 80 1000 EN 61000-4-3 IEC 61000-4-3
MHz

HF conducted disturbances. Fast transients EN 61000-4-4 IEC 61000-4-4

(bursts), 5/50 ns

HF conducted disturbances. Surges 1.2/50 µs EN 61000-4-5 IEC 61000-4-5

8/20 µs

HF conducted disturbances. Induced currents, EN 61000-4-6 IEC 61000-4-6

0.15 80 (230) MHz

LF conducted disturbances. Guide on harmonics EN 61000-4-7 IEC 61000-4-7

and interharmonics measurements and
instrumentation

Flickermeter – functional and design EN 61000-4-15 IEC 61000-4-15

specification
Power-quality measurement EN 61000-4-30 IEC 61000-4-30

Product standards have reached a state of development where equipment survival

in the field is adequately addressed, but the more subtle immunity to unavoidable
disturbances is not addressed. Conversely, efforts to limit emissions of
disturbances into the power system caused by normal operation of the equipment
have faced a difficult challenge in achieving consensus, nationally as well as
internationally [4].
6 A. Moreno-Muñoz

1.3 Power Quality

The European Council directive on Product Liability (85/374/EEC) explicitly
qualifies electricity as a product and, like any other product, should satisfy the
proper quality requirements. However, electrical energy is a very specific product.
The possibility for storing electricity in any significant quantity is very limited so it
is consumed at the instant it is generated. Measurement and evaluation of the
quality of the supplied power has to be made at the instant of its consumption.

There are many approximations to the term “power quality”. A well-known

definition based on the principle of EMC, is as follows [5]. The term “power
quality” refers to a wide variety of electromagnetic phenomena that characterize
voltage and current at a given time and at a given location on the power system. It
is possible to link it with power-supply reliability, service quality and supply
quality. Usually it has been sufficient to distinguish between: “voltage quality”
and “continuity of supply” [6].

Voltage quality (internationally used term: “power quality” (PQ)) is concerned

with the technical characteristics of the electricity at a given point on an electrical
system, evaluated against a set of reference technical parameters [7]. In this term
the deviations of the voltage (or the current) from the ideal are analyzed,
considering electricity as a single frequency sine wave of constant amplitude and
frequency.

Continuity of supply is concerned with the probability of satisfactory operation

of a power system over the long term. It denotes the ability to supply adequate
electrical service on a nearly continuous basis, with few interruptions over an
extended period of time. It is covered by reliability indices; the three most common
are referred to as SAIFI, SAIDI, and CAIDI, defined in [8].

These definitions can be complemented by the following [9]:

• Quality of supply, which is a combination of voltage quality and the non-
technical aspects of the interaction from the power network to its
customers.
• Quality of consumption, as the complementary term to quality of supply.

In contrast to the term “reliability” applied to intervals of minutes, typical power

quality issues include short-term events such as voltage sags, swells or even
transients with a duration of less than a few seconds. Power system harmonic and
flicker issues also fall into the category of power quality, even though these issues
tend to occur over much longer intervals than sags and transients.

Thus, the PQ requirements can be divided into two categories: steady-state

variations and disturbances. The first category refers to the deviations of the
normal voltage or current supplied to a facility. It is basically a measure of the
magnitude by which the voltage or current may vary from the nominal value, plus
 Introduction 7

distortion and the degree of unbalance between the 3 phases. The second category
refers to the events. Events are larger deviations that only occur occasionally, e.g.
voltage interruptions or load-switching currents. Events are disturbances that start
and end with a threshold crossing. Table 1.3 defines the PQ deviations.

Table 1.3. Classification of power quality variation

Characteristic Denomination Description

of the voltage
wave
Frequency Frequency Deviation of the power system fundamental
deviations frequency from its specified nominal value (e.g. 50
Hz or 60 Hz).
Amplitude Long-duration Measured voltage having a value greater or less
voltage than the nominal voltage for a period of time greater
variations than 1 min. The first one is called overvoltage,
typical values are 1.1 to 1.2 pu., and the second one
undervoltage, typical values are 0.8 to 0.9 pu.
Voltage Systematic variations of the voltage envelope or a
fluctuations series of random voltage changes, the magnitude of
which does not normally exceed the voltage ranges
of 0.95 to 1.05 pu.
The impact of the voltage fluctuation on lighting
intensity and the subsequent impression of
unsteadiness of visual sensation induced is
denominated flicker.
Sag (dip) A decrease to between 0.1 and 0.9 pu in rms voltage
at the power frequency for durations of 0.5 cycle to
1 min. When the decrease is to essentially zero
volts (less than 0.1 pu) it is considered a short
interruption.
Swell An increase in rms voltage or current at the power
frequency for durations from 0.5 cycles to 1 min.
Transient A sudden, nonpower frequency change in the
steady-state condition of voltage. When
unidirectional in polarity it is an impulsive transient,
when it includes both positive and negative polarity
values it is an oscillatory transient.
Waveform Harmonic The presence of frequencies at integer multiples of
distortion the fundamental system frequency (usually 50 Hz or
60 Hz). Harmonics combine with the fundamental
voltage or current, and produce waveform
distortion.
Symmetry of Voltage The maximum deviation from the average of the
the three-phase unbalance three phase voltages, divided by the average of the
system three phase voltages, expressed as a percentage.
8 A. Moreno-Muñoz

500

-500
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
500

-500
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
500
Voltage (V)

-500
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
500

-500
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
500

-500
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
500

-500
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
Time (s)

Figure 1.2. Example of the most usual power disturbations

Probably the most exhaustive classification can be found in the North American
Standard IEEE 1159 [5], as shown in Table 1.4. However, the limits have all been
quantified only in the EN 50160 [3]. This is not another EMC standard, but rather a
product standard that defines the quality of electricity. Being mandatory in all
European countries since 2003, it is used as a base for utility client contracts in the
European Union and for small power-generation contracts. The Standard EN
50160 [3] defines maximum acceptable levels at the customer’s supply terminals
for medium (≤ 35 kV) and low (≤ 1 kV) voltage electricity distribution systems
under normal operating conditions. These are quasi-guaranteed limits (at least for
some parameters) covering any location of the power system. These limits are
equal to or slightly higher than the compatibility levels.
 Introduction 9

Table 1.4. Categories of power-quality variation according to IEEE 1159

Categories Spectral content Duration Magnitudes

1.0 Transients
1.1 Impulsive
1.1.1 Nanoseconds 5 ns rise <50 ns
1.1.2 Microseconds 1 µs rise 50 ns to 1 ms
1.1.3 Miliseconds 0.1 ms rise > 1 ms
1.2 Oscillatory
1.2.1 Low frequency < 5 kHz 0.3 to 50 ms 0 to 4 pu
1.2.2 Medium frequency 5 to 500 kHz 20 µs 0 to 8 pu
1.2.3 High frequency 0.5 to 5MHz 5 µs 0 to 4 pu
2.0 Short duration variations
2.1 Instantaneous
2.1.1 Sag 0.5 to 30 cycles 0.1 to 0.9 pu
2.1.2 Swell 0.5 to 30 cycles 1.1 to 1.8 pu
2.2 Momentary
2.2.1 Interruption 0.5 cycles to 3seg < 0.1 pu
2.2.2 Sag 30 cycles to 3seg 0.1 to 0.9 pu
2.2.3 Swell 30 cycles to 3seg 1.1 to 1.4 pu
2.3 Temporary
2.3.1 Interruption 3 seg to 1 min < 0.1 pu
2.3.2 Sag 3 seg to 1 min 0.1 to 0.9 pu
2.3.3 Swell 3 seg to 1 min 1.1 to 1.2 pu
3.0 Long duration variations
3.1 Interruption, sustained > 1 min 0.0 pu
3.2 Undervoltage > 1 min 0.8 to 0.9 pu
3.3 Overvoltage > 1 min 1.1 to 1.2 pu
10 A. Moreno-Muñoz

Table 1.4. (continued)

4.0 Voltage imbalance Steady state 0.5 to 2%

5.0 Waveform distortion
5.1 DC offset Steady state 0 to 0.1%
5.2 Harmonics 0 to 100th H Steady state 0 to 20%
5.3 Interharmonics 0 to 6 kHz Steady state 0 to 2%
5.4 Notching Steady state
5.5 Noise Broadband Steady state 0 to 1%
6.0 Votage fluctuations < 25 Hz Intermittent 0.1 to 7%
7.0 Frequency variations <10 seg

In order to confirm that the disturbances in a power supply remain within

allowable boundaries, the results of the power-quality measurements must be
evaluated against the limits defined in the EN 50160 [3]. Voltage variation is
characterized in two different ways: descriptive indices for events and statistically
obtained values for steady-state variations.

Descriptive indices are used for power-quality events that have a highly random
nature, can vary in time and are highly dependent on the topology of the system.
Those events happen occasionally. They cannot be ascribed limits and only
approximate figures are given. This approach is applied for describing: a rapid
voltage change, voltage dips (sags), voltage swells, short interruption, long
interruption and transient overvoltage.

The assessment method of the actual characteristics at a given point of the

network (to be compared to the specified characteristics) is based on time statistics
exclusively. Statistically obtained values are used for the assessment of a
phenomenon that can be measured for a specific time period: power frequency,
magnitude of supply voltage, supply-voltage variations, flicker severity, supply-
voltage unbalance, harmonic voltage and interharmonic voltage. In these cases,
cumulative frequency is the method used for statistical evaluation of the measured
values. For example, considering harmonic voltage magnitudes under normal
operating conditions, the measurement period is one week and 95% of the RMS
values of individual harmonics on successive 10-min periods shall not exceed the
specified limits.
 Introduction 11

Table 1.5. Supply-voltage characteristics according to EN 50160

Parameter Low voltage (LV) Medium voltage (MV)

Frequency 50 Hz ± 1% (10 s/95% of week)
50 Hz +4%/6% (10 s/ 100% of week)
Magnitude of the Nominal voltage of the Declared supply voltage Uc
supply voltage system Un (rms) (1 ≤ Uc ≤ 35 kV) (rms)
Supply voltage Un±10% 10 m/95%/week) Uc ±10% (10 m/95%/week)
variations
Rapid voltage 5% of Un normal; 10% of 4% of Uc normal; 6% of Uc
changes Un infrequent. infrequent.
Flicker: Plt ≤ 1 Flicker: Plt ≤ 1 (10 m/95%/week)
(10 m/95%/week)
Voltage dips Majority: depth <60%, Majority: depth < 60%,
duration < 1s. duration < 1 s.
Some locations: 1000/year, Some locations: 1000/year,
depth 10 ≤ 50% depth 10 ≤ 15%
Harmonics voltages U3 ≤ 5%; U9 ≤ 1.5%; U15 ≤ 0.5%; U21 ≤ 0.5%;
U5≤6%, U7 ≤ 5% ,U11 ≤ 3.5%, U13 ≤ 3%, U17 ≤ 2%, U19,...
U23 ≤1.5%;
U2 ≤ 2% U4 ≤ 1% U6...U24 ≤ 0.5%; THD ≤ 8%;
(10 m/95%/week)
Voltage unbalance 2% for 95% of week, 10min rms. 3% in some locations
Short interruptions 20 to 500/year. 20 to 500/year. Duration 1 s; 100%
of supply voltage Duration 1 s; 100%
Long interruptions (longer than 3 min) <10 to 50/year
of supply voltage
Temporary 1.5 kV rms 170% (solidly or impedance earth)
overvoltage 200% (unearthed or resonant earth)
Transient 6 kV rms
overvoltage

According to standard EN 50160 [3], the supplier is the party who provides
electricity via a public distribution system, and the user or customer is the
purchaser of electricity from a supplier. The user is entitled to receive a suitable
quality of power from the supplier. In practice, the level of PQ is a compromise
between user and supplier.

Table 1.6 list the causes, effects and solutions for the majority of perturbations.
12 A. Moreno-Muñoz

Table 1.6. Causes, effects and solutions for the PQ perturbations

Perturbation Causes Typical effects Solutions

Voltage Load variations and Premature ageing, preheating Line-voltage
variations other switching events or malfunctioning of regulators
that cause long-term connected equipment
changes in the system UPS
voltage Motor–generator
set

Voltage Arcing condition on the Disturbing effect in lighting Installation of

fluctuations power system (e.g. systems, TV and monitoring filters, static
(Flicker) resistance welder or an equipment. VAR systems, or
electric arc furnace) distribution static
compensators

Transients Direct lightning strike to Upsets barely noticeable, Transient

the building with self-recovery like a click suppressors
in a sound system or a flash
Induced in the on a video screen; upset
distribution circuits by a permanent and noticeable,
nearby lightning strike. requiring, manual reset:
Switching events (e.g. blinking, clocks and VCRs;
capacitor, load upset permanent but not
switching) readily noticeable: data
corruption
Switching from fault
clearing Damaged components,
repairable or too costly to
repair and irreparable damage
requiring complete
replacement of the
equipment, such as internal
equipment fire (that could set
other objects afire)
Sag (dip) Fault in the network or Malfunctions of electronic UPS
by excessively large drives, converters and
Short inrush currents equipment with an electronic Constant-voltage
interruptions input stage. transformer
of supply
voltage Relays and contractors can Energy storage in
drop out. electronic
equipment
Asynchronous motor can
draw a current higher than its New energy-
starting current at dip recover storage
technologies
(SMES,
flywheels...)
 Introduction 13

Table 1.6. (continued)

Swell Single-line ground Trip-out of protective UPS

failures (SLG), upstream circuitry in some power-
failures, switching off a electronic systems Power
large load or switching conditioner
on a large capacitor
Long Distribution faults Current data can be lost and UPS
interruptions the system can be corrupted
of supply Installation failures Distributed
voltage After interruption is over, the energy sources
reboot process, especially on
a large and complex system,
can last for several hours.

Harmonic Nonlineal industrial Overheating and fuse Passive and

distortion loads: variable-speed blowing of power-factor- active filter
drives, welders, large correction capacitors
UPS systems, lighting
systems Overheating of supply
transformers
Non lineal residential
and commercial loads: Tripping of overcurrent
Computers, electronic protection
office equipment, Overheating of neutral
electronic devices and conductors and transformers
lighting
Voltage Less than 2% is Overheating of motors To reassess the
unbalance unbalanced single-phase allocation of
loads on a three-phase Skipping some of the six single-phase
circuit, capacitor bank half-cycles that are expected loads from the
anomalies such as a in variable-speed drives three-phase
blown fuse on one phase system
of a three-phase bank.
Severe (greater than 5%)
can result from single-
phasing conditions.

The increasing trends in the consumption of power-disturbance-mitigation

equipment reflects the growing consumer implication in this issue, which must be
encouraged with education through the distribution of guidelines and related
information. Before considering any further levels of power protection, consumers
should know that the power supply in his system could already afford him a
substantial amount of protection. What is more, consumers must have a basic
knowledge about the power-protection devices available and under what
circumstances they should be used.
14 A. Moreno-Muñoz

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[3] EN 50160. Voltage Characteristics of Electricity Supplied by Public Distribution
System (1994).
[4] Martzloff FD. Performance criteria for power-system compatibility. Proceedings of
the Applied Power Electronics 1992; 1: 287–292
[5] IEEE Std.1159. IEEE recommended practice for monitoring electric power quality
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