Northwest Lineman College Electrical Systems Transmission Substation [Link]ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS Copyright © 2000-201 Nethuest Lena Calege ‘Aight esa, This bok ay vole dapat in ary way whout ie oxyece wren consat of he eto. Te reat ceraned ern forthe traning eer ue of le reader an may a be Inecrporatot any comer pogars, che: books, databases, o ary ‘i of swore wiht wien conser othe author. Maley copies of te bok or any porto oan furpos is itn of od Sits ‘copy iw. lors whe posed Units of Labity ond Disclaimer of Waranty ‘Tho suo ofthe bok has wee fe best rs n prepa he book sr ‘he cartel contre nk. Tess eft ince developer. reaeaah and ot fo tec apa to deter a ecveness, ‘The aur mates warary of kn, exrescad kp, wth ‘ego hee sao he dosumectaion cartanes Book. Te aur hel eb ate nth oven niet or adel cmeqvnt darages nconscten wie aring ot of, te {[Link], the use of ang, esac stuns, aio ces of ry Tradomatks ‘Tradomared ramee ay agpeer bvoughot is book. Raber tan it ‘heaves arenes ft om the tecemars or tz a tadeae ‘yl wh each mio cl ho Vedemarad rams, Be autor sakes et {ug the anes oredr oa the bona ofthe ‘adearkonno, wth ran ofr pen tt ede, Node Lineman Coege 7800 SMesidan Ra, Metin, 38842 augesedes7 fax 2068868275. Nie@ibenancon — wewlpenancan Authors ‘Alan Drew, Northwest Lineman College, member IEEE Russ Powell, Northwest Lineman College Special Contribution Rick Knori, Lower Valley Electical Cooperative, Ino. ‘Aaron Howell, Northwest Lineman CollegeTable of Contents Preface. A Look Back. SECTION ONE: ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS- AN OVERVIEW 14 Introduction 41.2 Generation. 13 Transmission 414 Sub Transmission 115 Distribution 18 Substations 117 Voltage Charge. SECTION TWO: GENERATION 2.1 Generation Staion Types, 225% 233 hydrosiectic 2.4 Combustion Engine 2.5 Combustion Turbine 25 Wind 21 Co-Generaion 2.8 Biomass. 2.9 Resoures Recovery. 2.40 Dispersed Micro Generation, SECTION THREE: TRANSMISSION and SUBTRANSMISSION 3.4 Introduction. 3.2 Basic Function of Transmission 3.3 Key Components of Transmission Lines 3.4 Votage 365 Lightning Protection 3.6 Underground Transmission 23.7 Riht of Way. SECTION FOUR: DISTRIBUTION 4.1 Inroducton, 42 Basie Function of Distbution 43 System Design. 44 Volage Levels. ‘45 Overhoad or Underground 448 Key Components of Overnoad 47 Key Components of Undereround, 48 Creul Design SECTION FIVE: SUBSTATIONS 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Substation Types. 9.3 Subetation Functions 8.4 Substation Equipment ‘9.5 Basle Substation Design 156 Environmental Considerations APPLYING YOUR KNOWLEDGE. wee 4 16 16 19 18 20 2 2 22 2 2B BBRRRRR 28 8 a7 a “a 44 50 2BR288 eePreface This section provides and overview of the extensive electrical system. Generation, transmission, distribution, and substations are discussed, The functions of each, types of each, and how they relate are well covered Electrical Systems is a broad and extensive subject. The focus here is to show current trends ‘and to discuss those areas that most affect a lineworker. If the reader has been working in the trade for some time, this section wil still proved useful information that is not readily found in other printed materials.A Look Back The first electrical systems were very simple. A generating station produced the power, a transmission line carried the power to the load center, and a distribution line distributed power throughout the customer service areas. If the generating facility went offline, all of the customers were without power. Today, the transmission systems are tied together in a “grid” of interconnected lines. When a generating facility goes offline, the other generating stations increase capacity to sustain the load, and customers do not ‘even see a flicker in their lights, Today, small-scale generation is tied into the distribution system near large industrial and commercial customer's facilities. Gece 1 tener The electrical system a8 t appeared in the 1942 ‘dition of the Lineman's Handbook. (Courtesy MoGraw-Hil)Electrical Systems - An Overview Objectives After completing this section, the reader will 1. List and define the key elements of the electrical system. 2. Identify the various operating voltages of each element of the electrical system 3. Identify which element of the electrical system ties the other elements together to deliver power.7 eLectRICAL SYSTEMS soinnsinn coe The Electrical System ‘Transmission (az 7840) Distribution onset (oes ri h | Joa...vera naman conpe ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS - AN oveRviEW 1.1 Introduction Today, life without power is nearly unconceivable. The computer industry, one of the fastest growing industries in the history of the world, is completely dependent upon electricity. As new technologies advance, the demands on power increase. Providing power to these industries, and to the growing number of residential customers, requires a vast and complex delivery system. This section will provide an overview of the various elements of the electrical system. The entire electrical system is comprised of five main elements: Generation Transmission Sub Transmission Distribution Substations enone These elements are sequentially connected to each other and perform critical functions in the overall electrical system. 1.2 Generation —»:.-0 The electrical system originates with Xf W generation stations. Generating stations convert energy from coal, oil, TF gas, water, steam, and atoms into aaa i a electrical energy. Generation facilities S°% in are usually located long distances ree ee as from the load centers. bb RO The generation facilities across eu Fe regions of the United States are connected together by transmission systems. The transmission systems are interconnected and referred to as the g} There are many different types of generating facilities, such as nuclear, fossil fuel, wind, steam, solar, and others. These generating facilities however have one common purpose: To generate power as efficiently as possible. The raw materials used to generate power vaties from facility to facility. Many different companies own the generation stations. Investor- owned utilities, public power utilities, power marketing agencies, and independent power producers all own generating facilities.eLectmicaL SYSTEMS jor inonaicame Electricity is generated in the range of 13,800 to 24,000 volts. Although this voltage level is optimum for generation, itis too low for transmitting long distances over the transmission grid. The voitage therefore, stepped up to a higher voltage just outside the generating facility. This is the first of many voltage changes in the electrical cont Geese gee re [ifrme} me 3 5 a= in Be yes nels Electricity is generated at 13.8KV to 24kV and immediately stepped up to higher transmission voltage levels- inthis case, SDOKV. ‘Small-scale generation, or dispersed micro-generation, also occurs within the distribution system. Large industrial and commercial customers purchase micro-generation systems to offset the high cost of power during peak load. These systems are connected directly to the distribution lines near the customer's plant. Dispersed micro generation is used by some large commercial and Industrial customers and is ted directly into the distribution system.vom uenencoye ELECTRICAL SysTEMS-aN overview 10 1.3 Transmission Transmission systems move large quantities of power over long distances at high voltages and are most commonly energized at 765KV, 5OOKV, 345KV or 230kV. The conductors are usually large and require massive structures to support their weight, Because the voltage is high, the conductors must be spaced far apart to prevent short circuit conditions and to allow linemen to safely work on the systems. In addition, the insulators that support the conductors must be long to provide adequate insulation from the structures. In the beginning, single transmission circuits were connected between the generating station and the load center. As the number of transmission lines increased, it was easy to see an advantage to tying the transmission lines together. If one circuit needed to be deenergized, the other circuits could still deliver power to the load centers, Today, transmission ci are connected together in a grid. These transmission circuits begin at the generating facility and tie together at transmission substations, where power can be transformed, metered, and redirected. ‘Transmission Substation Power Is transformed, metered, and switched at transmission substations.11 erecteicar SYSTEMS tanenitnenencotce There are many transmission substations across the United States interconnected by the transmission circuits. These circuits and substations form the transmission system. The transmission system in the United States is planned and controlled regionally by reliability councils. There are nine reliability Councils in the United States and one in Canada. The North ‘American Reliability Council, ot NERC, oversees these ten councils. ‘The main function of each is to promote the reliabilty of electric supply. WSCC Wester Systems Coordinating Council MAPP Mid Continent Area Power Poo! MAIN Mid America Interconnected Network SPP _ Southwest Power Poo! ERCOT Electric Reliability Council of Texas FRCC Florida Reliability Coordinating Council SERC Southeastem Electric Reliability Council ECAR East Central Area Reliability Coordination Agreement MAAC Mid Atlantic Area Council NPCC Northeast Power Coordinating Council Power is produced, controlled, and delivered within each region. A person living in Oklahoma City for example, would receive power that ‘was produced, transmitted, and distributed within the Southwest Power Pool. That person’s power would not normally come from outside that region. tis important to note, however, that transmission lines tie the regions together.stoma! tienncoho> ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS aN oveRviEW 12 1.4 Sub Transmission ‘Sub transmission systems are most commonly energized at 44kV, 69KV, 115kV, and 138kV. Sub transmission becomes necessary when medium sized blocks of power need to be delivered to distribution substations at the load center. Also, building large transmission structures near populated areas is sometime impractical. Because sub transmission operates at a lower voltage range than transmission, the structures can be smaller and easier to install in populated areas. Sub transmission circuits originate at the generating facility or at sub transmission substations, which are fed by transmission circuits. Cireuit Bus? ‘Sub transmission is also used to deliver power to large industrial customers. Micron Technology, a large computer memory chip manufacturer, uses enough power in their Boise, Idaho, facility alone to light 20,000 homes. Customers of this size will have two sub transmission circuits feed into the substations outside their facility. Power can then be delivered from one of two directions should one circuit fail Cireuit ‘This Industrial customer could be fed from elther circult. If clrcult breaker #1 Is opened, and circult breakor #2 Is closed, the transformer remains energized.13 execrmicar SYSTEMS stuntman cite 1.5 Distribution Distribution systems operate at many different voltages. A distribution line is not usually energized below 2kV or above 34.5kV. Common operating voltages are 7200/12470 volts, 7620/13200 volts, 12000/20800 volts, 14400/24500 volts, and 19900/34500 volts. There are stil some 2400/4160 systems operating in the United States, but they are slowly being cut over to higher voltages. Distribution circuits most commonly originate at distribution substations and deliver power directly to the customer. Distribution voltages are stepped down with pole mounted or padmounted transformers near the customer's home or business. Common service voltages are 120/240 volts, 120/208 volts, 240/480 volts, 480, volts, and 277/480 volts, Distribution circuits can be installed on much smaller structures than sub transmission. Therefore, itis easier to install these systems within populated areas. Distribution systems are also commonly installed underground. Muttiple sub transmission circuits most commonly feed distribution substations. This arrangement allows power to be fed from one of two (or more) directions should one of the sub transmission circuits fail. Sub Transmission Wi \\ aw |reins tienancobos ELECTRICAL SvSTEMS- aN overview 14 1.6 Substations Substations are those locations within the electrical system that have three primary functions: 4. Change the voltage of circuits from one level to another. 2. Connect or disconnect lines or equipment from each other. 3. Control the flow of power by adjusting the voltage and current. Other important functions are performed at substations such as regulating current flows and voltage levels, controlling frequency, eliminating lightning and switching surges, metering power use, and connecting communications signals to the circuits. 1.7 Voltage Change The alternating current (AC) system has one substantial advantage cover the direct current (DC) system. Alternating current can be transformed, and direct current cannot. DC is most commonly associated with batteries. Think how many different sized batteries are available at a supermarket. Each battery provides a different voltage. In an AC system, the voltage is transformed to the desired level. This is necessary because the generating facility and the load center are many miles apart, The power must be transmitted at high voltages (pressure) to force current flow over the long distances. Imagine a garden hose miles long. f the faucet provides a forceful water pressure at the source, the water would trickle out at the other end— this is what would happen with a DC system. Voltage is stepped up at the generating facility and then stepped down through the remainder of the system.Generation Objectives After completing this section, the reader will 1. List the various types of generation stations. 2. List the advantages and disadvantages of the various types of generation stations.16 execreicat systems tries thanencotae 2.1 Generation Station Types Power is generated at facilities know as generating stations. These generating stations produce AC power. Alternating current means that the fiow of electrical energy changes direction at a certain rate. Electrical energy is most often generated at a voltage in the range of 13,800 to 24,000 volts. In order to generate power, energy from coal, oil, gas, steam, water, oF atom must be converted to electrical energy. The energy conversion turns the generator, thus producing electricity. Generation can be provided in the following ways: Steam Hydroelectric Combustion engine Combustion turbine Wind Cogeneration Biomass Resource Recovery Dispersed Micro-generation 2.2 Steam Generating stations use different methods to produce the steam required for generation. These include: 1. Fossil fired generating plants. 2. Nuclear fired generating plants. 3. Geothermal generating plants. 4, Solar generating facilities. © ONDARONA In each case, heat is used to boil water and create steam. This steam is produced at high pressure (2400-3500 psi) and is used to drive the blades of a turbine to provide mechanical motion. The turbine is directly connected to, and spins a generator producing electricity. Lets examine these methods of producing steam and discuss the advantages, disadvantages, and environmental impact of each, Fossil Fired Generation Historically, fossil fuels have supplied most of the world's supply of energy. Sources of fossil fuel can include coal, crude oil, or natural gas. There are several advantages to fossil fuel generation. They include:About 20 percent of today’s electrical energy is produced with nuclear- fired generation. nwereatnonan once GENERATION 17 4. Relatively cheap fuel 2. High production capacity. 3. Site location (limited by water availabilty). ‘Some disadvantages are: 1, Emits pollutants (carbon dioxide, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, particle matter) 2. Non-renewable resource (uses a fuel of limited supply). 3. Large site needed for facility. 4. Cost for fuel delivery can be high. Nuclear Fired Generation Approximately 20% of today's electrical ‘energy is produced with nuclear-fired generation facilities. Nuclear fission is accomplished by splitting the nucleus of an atom. When this is done, a small amount of energy in the form of heat is produced. Trillions of these reactions take place each second inside a nuclear reactor. This heat can be captured and used to produce steam. The steam can then be used in a manner similar to fossil fired plants. Nuclear power production also has advantages. They include: 1. High production capacity. 2. No air-born pollutants. Some disadvantages: 1, The need to be located near a water supply. 2. The disposal of waste materials. 3. Increased background radiation. 4, Poor public opinion. 5. Non-renewable resource.18 execteicar SYSTEMS sexteinenacohee Geothermal Generation Geothermal generation is accomplished by using the natural heat of the earth to produce steam. This can be done by using heat energy near the surface (geysers, hot springs), or by injecting water into the molten rock beneath the earth's surface, and pumping it out to extract the thermal energy. Advantages of geothermal generation are: 1, Its a renewable resource. 2, Geothermal areas are located throughout the United States. Tests are stil being conducted to determine the feasibility of large- scale geothermal generation. Solar Generation Solar generation can actually be ways. One includes the use of special cells designed to produce electricity when sunlight strikes them. This method is called . a photovoltaic. The other involves focusing the sun's energy, using large arrays of mirrors, on a central location (tank of water) to produce steam. Advantages of solar generation include: 1, itis a renewable resource. 2. Produces no pollutants. Disadvantages are: 1. Produces small amounts of electricity. 2. Costs exceed practical limits.ertuninannncabae GENERATION 19 Ras Hydroelectric There are two basic methods of obtaining mechanical motion using water pressure. These methods are referred to as hydroelectric generation. The first method is accomplished with falling water. This type of generating station is normally located near natural waterfalls. The falling water strikes the blades of a turbine providing mechanical motion. The turbine is directly connected to a generator. The second method involves the construction of adam. The dam allows water to be stored ina reservoir. This storage allows water to be released under pressure through a turbine. The pressurized water strikes the blades of the turbine and turns the generator. Of course there are advantages, disadvantages, and environmental considerations associated with this type of generation, The advantages include: 1, Low operation cost. 2. High production capacity 3, Itis a renewable resource. 4, Does not require any fuel ‘The disadvantages’ 4. Usually located far from the load center. 2. Cost of construction (also taxes and interest associated with those costs) 3. Land lost to backwater (dam). 4. Impact on wildlife (fish migration). 2.4 Combustion Engine This method of generating power is probably the most familiar. An intemal combustion engine is used to spin a generator and provide mechanical motion. The generator can be as simple as a 5 KW generator used on camping trips. Advantages of combustion engine generation include: 1. Can be located in any area. 2. Can provide peak or emergency power. 3. Low capital cost 4, Automatic operation.20 erectricat SYSTEMS sin cone The disadvantages: 1. High fuel cost and pollution. 2. Limited capacity 3. Ituses a non-renewable resource. 2.5 Combustion Turbine ‘A combustion turbine generator works in much the same way as the engine on a jet airplane. A starting motor is used to drive the compressor to produce pressurized air, which is mixed with fuel in the combustor and ignited. The hot gasses flow through the turbine, causing it to accelerate. The starting motor is then disengaged and an electric generator is synchronized to the system through a gear reduction box, and connected to the load. Natural gas can be used as. the fuel to provide combustion. Advantages of combustion turbine ‘generation include: 1. Low capital cost. 2. Automatic operation, 3. Can be located in any area. 4. Can provide peak or emergency power. Disadvantages are: 1. High fuel cost and pollution. 2. Small capacity (15-95 MW) 3. Itis a non-renewable resource.net tronncstes GENERATION 27 2.6 Wind Wind propelled turbine generator Units can be used to provide the mechanical motion necessary for the production of electrical power. Natural prevailing winds are used to drive a large propeller that is connected to a generator. The advantages are 1, Itis a renewable resource, 2. No fuel cost The disadvantages: Construction costs. Wind velocity limits reliability. Birds of prey killed by flying into propellers. Limited capacity aeNe 2.7 Co-generation Cogeneration is the simultaneous generation of both electricity and useful thermal energy. In other words, the usage of otherwise wasted heat for productive purposes. Typically, cogeneration facilities burn fuel (usually coal or natural gas) to generate steam. This steam is then used to turn a turbine and generate electricity Finally, the cooler and lower pressure steam is sent off for use in industrial processes or space heating. Some cogeneration plants use so-called combined-cycle technology in which fuel is bumed in a gas turbine (essentially a jet engine) attached to a generator. The exhaust from the turbine is then used to generate steam. The advantages include: 1, Efficient use of resources. 2. High production éapacity. The disadvantages: 1, Emits pollutants. 2. Limited site locations. 3. Uses limited resource as fuel.22 exectRicaL SYSTEMS sicmnena cee 2.8 Biomass iomass projects use the ‘combustion of waste wood or methane generated by matter decaying in municipal lanafills to both produce steam and electricity or to fuel an internal combustion engine-generator set. Advantages include: 1. Renewable resource (wood products) 2, Many possible site locations. The disadvantages: 1. Fuel may be seasonal or dependent upon other industry demands. 2. Emits pollutants. 3. Small capacity 2.9 Resource Recovery Resource Recovery (also known as "Waste-to-Energy") facilities take municipal solid waste, or garbage, and burn it to produce steam, which in tum is used to generate electricity. Advantages include: 1. Landfill relief, 2, Public acceptance. Disadvantages include: 1. Requires large volumes of solid waste. 2. Emits pollutants.aaa | micro- \ generation is connected | directly to the | | distribution | systems. \ votes re Sgr GENERATION 23 2.10 Dispersed Micro- Generation Large commercial and industrial customers use dispersed micro- generation to offset the high cost of power during peak loads. This type of generation is also installed when customers are experiencing service reliability problems with their local utility company and the cost to upgrade their feeder line is substantial. Dispersed micro-generation is unique because itis located within the distribution system. There are many different types of micro generators, such as fuel cell generators that use a chemical reaction with hydrogen and oxygen to generate electricity. Other types of micro generation units include combustion engine, gas turbine, solar, and combined cycle. ‘Advantages include: 1. Easy installation and site location 2. Compact “packaged” unit. Disadvantages include: 1. Expensive for commercial and industrial customers. 2. Large supply of natural gas is required.Transmission & Sub Transmission Objectives After completing this section, the reader will 1. Explain the basic functions of a transmission line and system. 2. Identify common transmission structures and components. 3. State typical transmission and sub transmission voltage levels. 4. Explain how utilities obtain rights to construct a transmission line.25 evectrIcaL SYSTEMS sot inom sige The transmission system is similar to our system of inter- connected freeways. 3.1 Introduction The transmission system can be visualized as a series of interconnected lines similar to our highway system. Just as trucks deliver goods over our highway system, power is delivered over the transmission system. Like our highway systems some lines are more localized while others cross several states. Transmission lines are recognized by large, tall structures, which can either be steel or wood. The lines have large aluminum conductors, and the structures are about 1000 feet apart on the average. 3.2 Basic Function of a Transmission Line and System In some locations a single transmission line may originate at a generating station and transmit power to given customers or a service area. | The basic function of the transmission line Is to take large amounts of bulk power from a source and transmit it over a distance toa given point where it can be used.) The main objective for all transmission lines is to deliver power with a minimum of loss. This objective is the key consideration in the engineering design of the transmission line and has a major bearing on what voltage level is chosen. In the beginning, it was common to have one or two transmission lines deliver power directly from the generating plants to the area where the power was needed. The same company owned the lines and the generating station, and the system was not very complex. As the use of electricity evolved, it became practical to interconnect lines and generating stations owned by different companies. This evolved into the complex grid of interconnected lines and generating stations we have today. In today’s system, power is purchased and sold on a daily basis making the scheduling for the delivery of power critical. The transmission lines will carry varying amounts of power depending upon scheduled and emergency deliveries. The transmission lines of today still have the main function of delivering the power to where it is needed; however, the system is very dynamic with changes occurring frequently. The term sub transmission is a commonly used term in the industry to identify lines that typically operate at a lower voltage and take power from the main grid and deliver it to distribution substationsThe main | objective for | all transmission | lines is to deliver power with a minimal loss of power. won 26 thas thenancolege TRANSMIS They are not part of the main transmission grid and are normally localized near the load centers. Transmission lines can be alternating current or direct current lines depending upon the system. The majority of the transmission lines are alternating current. Direct current, which has less line losses and only takes two conductors (+ and -), can be economical for large amounts of power over long distances. It is very expensive to install equipment to convert from AC to DC and from DC to AC. There are several direct current lines in the United States and more in foreign countries, segs TS Nae DC to AC Inverter ADC transmission line: electricity is generated and transformed AC, converted to DC, transmitted DC. Inverted back to AC, and stepped down. Notice that a DC line has ‘only two wires-positive and negative. 3.3 Key Components of Transmission Lines Structures Transmission structures are chosen based many considerations, which typically include the voltage of the line, the right of way size, geographical terrain, weather, size of conductor, and construction considerations. There are many different types of structures commonly used today. One of the key considerations in the choice of the structure is whether two circuits are required immediately or in the future.27 exectricat SYSTEMS jweitnenn cone Wood Pole Structures Wood structures remain popular for transmission lines with an operating voltage of 345Kv and below. Construction requirements are relatively simple and components are easily assembled. Wood pole structures have maintenance requirements of testing and treating the pole butts. Wood pole structures are used on transmission systems In two pole (leh) or single pole installations.vacttrenmcanon TRANSMISSION 2B Tubular Steel Pole ‘Tubular steel poles are popular, as they tend to be more aesthetically acceptable and have a long life span. There is no decay that is encountered with wood structures. Construction is more complicated with the steel poles that use a poured cylindrical base. Some steel poles are direct buried. Mounting components can be more difficult than wood. Steel poles are more expensive than wood poles. WAX ‘Stee! poles are considered more aesthetically pleasing and have longer life spans than wood poles.29 evectRicaL SYSTEMS scmes henen cote Lattice Type Steel There are many variations of this type of structure as lattice generally refers to a structure built with pieces of angle steel bolted together in a lattice arrangement of some sort. Lattice type towers tend to remain the choice for 345Kv and above. They have good strength characteristics and work well for double circuit configurations. They take more time to assemble because of the number of parts. They also require more extensive footings, which take considerable time to construct. In many cases installation of the footings is a task, which is performed by a specialized crew, A single circult 00kV ine lef) and a double circuit 230KV line, both on lattice towers.| Insulators must insulate the line and have the strength to support the conductors. sotweunmancatne TRANSMISSION 3O Insulators Insulators are critical to the reliability of the transmission line. As the voltage levels increase so does the physical size of the insulators. Since the first transmission lines were built, glass and porcelain were the main materials that were used for insulators. In the last twenty years, there has been a continuing trend towards the use of polymer for transmission insulators. The following types of insulators are commonly used on transmission lines. + Porcelain suspension insulators, + Porcelain line post insulators + Polymer suspension insulators + Polymer line post insulators Polymer suspension Insulators (top le) used in a deadend configuration and polymer post insulators (top righ). Porcolain suspension insulators (bottom fet) and ‘porcelain fine post insulators (bottom righ)37 execteicaL SYSTEMS sinwnntnen coe The conductor must have the capacity to carry the power and strong enough to ‘support itself under high tension. The term suspension insulator is used to define an insulator that would be used to support the full ine tension in a deadend configuration or to support the span weight in a true suspension configuration. Insulators are manufactured with different mechanical ratings and an insulator in a deadend configuration would typically have a higher rating that one in a suspension configuration Conductors The conductors for the line are typically made in strands from aluminum or some form of aluminum alloy. in most cases they are reinforced with steel strands to add strength. Again, there are many different sizes and types of conductors used on transmission lines. The selection of the size and type of conductor is typically based upon how much power the line needs to carry, the length of the line, the span lengths, weather environment, line losses, and the cost of the conductor, For transmission lines that are required to deliver large amounts of power at extra high voltages over long distances, the use of bundled conductors is typical. The term “bundled” is understood to mean more than one conductor per phase. Conductor bundles commonly have from two to four conductors per phase. Bundled conductors are used to increase the capacity of the transmission line and to reduce radio Noise and corona loss} Corona loss refers to a phenomenon that ‘occurs at high voltages, which is the result of the ionization of the air around the conductor. Corona effects are audible and visible at night. the conductors used can be up to 1% inch in diameter and weigh 2% Ibs. per foot) This photo illustrates bundled conductors. Both conductors serve as the same phase.\ The main |function of the shield wires is to provide a path to ground for lightning surges. vec noancolge TRANSMISSION SZ 3.5 Voltage The voltage level of the transmission line depends on several factors including the length of the line, the amount of power to be delivered, the voltage of the existing system, and cost of losses. Generally speaking, the larger the amount of power that has to be delivered, and the farther in distance to where it is needed, the higher the voltage. Voltages are commonly referred to in kilovolts where 1 kilovolt = 1000 volts. A 500KV line would be operating at 500,000 volts. Common voltage levels that are associated with transmission lines are: Main grid ~ 765kV, 500kV, 345KV, and 230kV ‘Sub transmission ~ 138kV, 115kV, 69KV, and 44kV Higher voltages required a larger right of way, larger structures, more insulation and generally more overall expense per mile of line. 3.6 Lightning Protection Transmission lines are typically long and subject to lightning strikes, which can cause an interruption or damage to the line of equipment. The majority of the transmission lines have some form of “shielding” or “static wires.” This is recognized by one or two smaller conductors fastened to the top structures above the phase conductors. These conductors are grounded and provide a path to ground from lightning surges, With the increased need for communications these shield wires are manufactured with a fiber optic cable in the center so that the conductor can perform two functions: 1) The outer portion of the conductor will conduct the lightning surges to ground. 2) The inner fiber optic conductor will provide capacity for voice and data communications,33 exectRIcAL SYSTEMS sna irre tye 3.7 Underground Transmission In many of the large cities, substations are located in the heart of the downtown areas to serve the loads. In this case, the transmission lines are placed underground in special type cables. This is an extremely expensive process and is time consuming to install. New York is an example of a city, which has an extensive underground transmission system with voltages up to 345Kv. Their sysiem uses pipe-type, oil-filled cable, where three insulated cables are in one pipe. The pipe is filled with oil for cooling purposes. 3.8 Right-of-Way When building a transmission line, one of the first considerations is the route of the line. The selection of the route is based on such things as the terrain, existing development, etc. ‘[Link] must obtain legal rights to construct and maintain the line. This may take the form of an easement or in some cases the land is actually purchased. In general, this element is referred to as a right- [Link]. Right-of-ways are difficult to obtain because of the objections encountered by property owners. Ifa landowner grants an easement on their property for a power line, the use of the land underneath the line is very restricted. Agricultural and certain recreational activities are examples of acceptable uses. Buildings are usually not allowed. ‘The width of the right-of-way depends upon the voltage of the line and the type of structure and the conductor spacing. In general, the right- ‘of-way must be wider than the entire structure by a margin that accounts for some horizontal movement of the phase conductors. Another consideration is the levels of electromagnetic fields that occur from the transmission line. Some states have established limits for levels of electromagnetic. fields that are allowed at the edge of the right-of-ways. This may require a wider right- of-way or a change in the design of the line.It can take 3 | to 5 years to secure rights- | of-way to build a major transmission; line. / tortwtnenmcaboe TRANSMISSION 34 For a major transmission line. it may take as long as 3 to 5 years to secure rights to build the line along an acceptable route. It many cases litigation occurs to determine the value associated with purchasing these rights. Utilities legally have the power Magnetic fetds can be a factor when of Eminent Domain, which ee eee aeereeeeren allows them to condemn and secure property over the owner's objection when constructing a transmission line that serves the good of the general public. They must provide the owner reasonable compensation to obtain these rights. The right-of-way must be kept clear of trees, vegetation, and anything else that could cause an outage.Distribution Objectives After completing this section, the reader will 1. Explain the basic design and functions of a distribution line. 2 Identify key components of the distribution system. 3. State the typical voltage levels that are common with distribution systems, 4. Explain why lines may be constructed either overhead or underground.36 evectricaL SYSTEMS sinmitmnnconce } Distribution lines are typically not Jonger than fifty miles, while transmission lines may be several hundred miles long. Y 4.1 Introduction {The distribution system can be visualized as a ‘series of local "streets" that can be used for delivering power directly to the customers. )The distribution system is different from the transmission system because the direct delivery of power is more localized. Transmission lines may be several hundred miles long, while distribution lines are typically not longer than fifty miles. Distribution lines are recognized by shorter poles located closer together with more equipment mounted on the poles. The lines typically have aluminum conductors, and the structures are about 300 feet apart on the average. 4.2 Basic Function of a Distribution Line and System ‘The primary function of the distribution system is to receive electric power from the transmission system and distribute it to customers at, voltage levels that can be utilized by the various types of customers.) ‘The system needs to function in a manner that results in the power being delivered safely with acceptable quality and reliability. It also must have equipment that allows the amount of electrical energy consumed by customers to be accurately measured so that the serving utilities can bill the customers. (nother function of the system isto deliver power with a minimum of loss of power) This objective is the key consideration in the engineering design of the distribution line and has a major bearing on what voltage level is chosen. The distribution system is almost entirely an alternating current system. In the larger cities, there is some distribution of direct current for special applications such as elevators in high-rise buildings.| The design of the circuit can havea big impact on the reliability _ to customers. twsttnenncoese DISTRIBUTION 37 4.3 Distribution System Design The distribution systems starts at the substation in the form of individual circuits leaving the station and going out in the service area to deliver power to the customers. It is very similar to a house where there is a main panel with several circuits delivering power to various parts of the house. Each circuit has its own breaker, and some circuits deliver more power than others. Some houses have more circuits than others, and the same is true for substations. S BeOS Two distribution circuits starting atthe substation.38 evectnicat SYSTEMS sstnenstenencnive ‘An energized wire is referred to as a phase. A main line distribution circuit is composed of three phases and a neutral, or just three phases. Circuits consist of main lines and tap lines. Main lines are also referred to as feeder mains. They are always three-phase and start at the station and radiate to the end of the line or tie to another circuit. The main line is the main route used to supply power to the tap lines and customers along the main line, Main lines will have larger conductors than tap lines. ‘Main lines and tap lines are easily distinguished by conductor size and destination. Circuit Types Most circuits are four wire, three phase with a neutrai conductor, which are called WYE or star systems. It is common for both single phase and three phase lines to be tapped off the main line. On WYE systems it is also common to tap two phases and the neutral to serve light three-phase loads. This is sometimes referred to as “V" phase construction. WYE Circuit Configurations ‘Single Phase Tap 2 Phase, or “V" Phase Main Line Tapcoca Cate DISTRIBUTION 3D) In some locations, there exist three wire circuits with no neutral conductor. These systems can be from a WYE or DELTA source, On these lines, single-phase transformers require two phases for the proper connection. Three-wire circuits are easily distinguished by the lack of@ neutral wire and transformers are connected phase '0 phase.40 exectaicar systems sixes nerncosve A distribution line consists of three main elements that are widely understood and referred to as: Primary The primary is the high voltage portion of a distribution fine. 2, Secondary The secondary is low voltage (120-480 volts) and runs from the pole to pole on overhead systems or padmount to pedestal in underground systems. 3. Services Services are also low voltage, but run from pole to customer on overhead systems or pedestal to customer in underground systems. The following graphics illustrate these three main elements. Think of Primary as the higher voltage and secondary /services as the lower voltage. Secondary ‘tina vote rompers topo) Services “2200 ta (oompat oboe)virraetimoancotee pistriBuTion 47 Primary Secondary —Services LUnserground Cireut Showing Primary, Secondary, and Services42 exectricat SYSTEMS sirmetinenn cece The number of customers on the circuit is determined by the density of the area, the type of customers, and the capability of the circuit. Underground systems that serve many customers or commercial customers are normally designed in a manner in which each transformer can be served from two directions. This is commonly known as a loop design. It improves the reliability and makes it more convenient for line crews to work on the system. Overhead Line Normal Open Tr T Tr T Underground loop feed Loop feed design, which allows any section of cable or transformer tobe taken out of service without affecting the adjacont customers Number and Type of Customers The number of customers on the circuit is determined by the density of the area, the type of customers, and the capability of the circuit. Again think of the house system — we do not want to overload the circuit so that it trips off. It is not desirable to have a problem on one circuit to trip out the entire house. Customers are typically classified by utilities as follows: Residential ~ customer dwellings Commercial - stores, shopping centers, medical facilities, etc. Agricultural - irrigation pumps, grain storage, dairies, etc. Industrial — large manufacturing plants, refineries, etc. Residential and commercial customers make up the bulk of utiliy's customer base.Utilities are obligated to provide voltage at the meter in an acceptable range so that customer's equipment will run efficiently and not be damaged. srewatinenncange pisTRBUTiON 43 ‘The number of customers on a given circuit can vary based upon the type of customers and the population density. There are many installations where a single circuit might serve just one industrial customer while another circuit might serve 5,000 residential customers. 4.4 Voltage Levels The voltage level of the circuit is typically based upon the existing system voltages. Voltage levels are normally higher on longer circuits, Voltage levels on the distribution system are normally referred to by two numbers: a phase to ground voltage and a phase-to-phase voltage, With the transmission system, there is no neutral so one phase-to-phase voltage is used. 115,000¥ (hace wo phase) 7,200/12,470 volt system 415,000 volt system The sequence of the numbers has no significance. For example, a circuit voltage may be designated as 2400/4160 or 4160/2400. Either way, the smaller number is the voltage from phase to neutral. The most common voltage levels in the United States are: 7200/12470 7620/13200 12000/20800 14400/24500 19900/34500 Utilities are obligated to provide voltage at the meter in an acceptable range (114 to 126 volts) so that customer's equipment will run efficiently and not be damaged. The voltage may be regulated automatically at the substation or somewhere on the distribution circuit.44 erectaicar SYSTEMS wsswestnorancohge Underground remains approximately four times more expensive than overhead construction per mile of line. 4.5 Overhead or Underground The circuits may be installed entirely overhead or underground; however, most circuits have both types of construction. Customers prefer underground systems because they can't be seen. Underground remains approximately four times more expensive than ‘overhead construction per mile of line. Many cities have passed ordinances that require all new lines to be underground, Almost ail residential subdivisions are installed underground jointly with other ulilities. Utilities may also choose to install lines underground in areas where extreme weather is commonly encountered, 4.6 Key Components of an Overhead Distribution Line Overhead lines are still installed and maintained, particularly in the rural areas. One of the common projects is to upgrade or increase the capability of a line so that more power can be delivered to the customers. All distribution lines share similar components as listed as follows: Poles Wood poles remain the most popular choice for pole lines although other materials are gaining in popularity. Fiberglass and steel poles, are being used in various applications where the long-term benefits outweigh their higher initial cost. The majority of distribution poles are in the 35 to 55 foot height range. Fiberglass poles are lightweight, can be set like wood poles, and allow ‘easy installation of standard line hardware. (Photos courtesy. ‘Shakespeare Composites & Electronics).Distribution systems are designed to minimize outage time to customers. tthecstnencatge DISTRIBUTION 45 Transformers The pole-mounted distribution transformer is the key element used to reduce the voltage to a level that can be used by the customers. The ultimate destination of nearly all power lines is to a transformer or transformer bank. The single-phase unit is the most popular unit as it can be used to provide single- phase and three-phase service when two or three units are connected in a bank. Protective Equipment i‘ i ‘ i Single-phase Service reliability is extremely important transformers are versatile because they can be to customers given the importance and eeausetey can be convenience and use of electricity. banks (above) fo supply Commercial and industrial customers. the proper voltage. can experience significant monetary losses when the power goes out. Most faults that occur on a circuit are minor and temporary in nature, such as birds flying into a line. Some faults are obviously more serious, such as a car pole accident or a tree falling through a line. The protective equipment is designed and coordinated in a manner, which distinguishes temporary faults from permanent faults. Distribution systems are designed so that when an outage occurs as few of a number of customers are affected as possible, and outage time to those affected customers is minimized. Protective equipment consists mainly of fused cutout switches, reclosers, sectionalizers, and lightning arresters.46 evectricar systems sexmestnerencomce Fused Cutout Switches Fused cutout switches are installed to protect equipment such as transformers and to protect the main line from faults that occur on a tap line. Cutout switches have a fuse holder, which houses the fuse. When a fault occurs, the fuse burns and the fuse holder automatically falls open. This allows linemen to quickly locate the fault. Current Flow, Reclosers Most faults are temporary. A squirrel can cause a fault but is usually cleared from the line after making contact. The contact, however, does shut the line down, Reclosers are devices that can “reclose” the line after a temporary fault, which minimizes outage time. A recloser has the ability to reciose up to four times to determine if a fault is permanent or temporary. Reclosers are typically coordinated with fuses or sectionalizers. A recloser is an in-line device meaning the current must pass through it. ‘A recloser can keep temporary faults from ‘becoming permanent faults.etvestnenacotee DISTRIBUTION 47 Sectionalizers Sectionalizers are devices that are installed to clear faulted sections from the line and are coordinated with a recloser. It sectionalizes the line if a permanent fault occurs. The sectionalizer opens during a momentary period when the line has been deenergized by the recloser thereby sectionalizing the faulted section of line. Sectionalizers are similar in appearance to reclosers. This sectionalizer is coordinated with a recloser on the overnead line. The sectionalizer hoops the recloser from reclosing into an underground fault, which is almost always a ‘permanent fut. Voltage Regulator Voltage levels can be automatically controlled out on the line with the Use of voltage regulators. They automatically adjust the voltage up or down depending upon conditions. Installations can be either single phase or three phase depending upon the need. As mentioned before, utilities are required to maintain a given voltage range so customers’ equipment is not damaged. Voltage regulators allow tities to maintain voltage levels within acceptable limits, The desired voltage level is set in a control box that is connected to the regulator unit. Once set, the regulator automatically increases or decreases the voltage. It can increase or decrease the input voltage by 10 percent. A dial indicator mounted at the top of the unit shows the lineman the current position of the regulator. Regulators are easily ideatifed ~ by the dial indicator located at the top of the unit.48 erectRicar syStEMS tories then comin Lightning or Surge Arresters Lightning is one of the main causes of damage to the distribution lines and equipment. Arresters are installed to protect lines and equipment. Arresters take the lightning surge and divert it to ground. Arresters are commonly found on transformer poles, riser poles and other poles with equipment mounted on them. One end of the arrestor is connected to phase and the other end to ground. Lightning Arrester Capacitors Capacitors are used to improve the efficiency of the circuit. They reduce the fiow of power that does not perform any useful function. When transformers and large customer-owned motors are installed on Capacitors improve the efficiency ofa crcult. a system, they introduce inductive reactance, which reduces the amount of power that can be delivered to customers, Capacitors introduce capacitive reactance, which counteracts the negative effects of inductive reactance. Capacitors can be manually or automatically controlled.Atwesinerncsiee pistRiBUTION 49 Gang-operated Switches Gang-operated switches are strategically placed throughout the main line to redirect power or to sectionalize a portion of a line. The advantage of gang-operated switches is they can break load and all three phases open at the same time, Opening all three phases at the same time prevents damage to customer owned three-phase equipment. The operating handle that extends to the ground distinguishes most gang-operated switches. Operating, Handle50 erecrricat systEMs sormetirnn conse Underground equipment is commonly classified as padmounted or subsurface. 4.7 Key components of an Underground Distribution Line Underground systems have become the most populer and reliable way of installing the distribution system. The public prefers the elimination of poles and wires from their sight. Underground is immune from high winds, ice, trees, etc., but is costly to install and ‘maintain. There are two key classifications for the installation of equipment that the student should know. They are as follows: + Above ground or padmounted equipment * Below grade or subsurface equipment inderground systems because of improved ‘appearance. Theso photos show a padmounted switchgear (left) and ‘subsurface switchgear in its place. (Courtesy S&C Electric Company), The public prefers the below grade because of improved appearance. Pad-mounted equipment is visible and much easier to maintain and operate. Utlities may install either type, or in some cases a mixture of both. Lineman operating a subsurface ‘switch. (Photo courtesy S&C Electric Company).Most utilities are installing underground cables in conduit. Notuettnenncotior DISTRIBUTION 97 Cable The first underground lines used paper insulated lead cables. Many of these cables remain in service, particularly in the larger cities. Cables are currently made with polyethylene type insulation and are much easier to splice and terminate. The larger cables are stranded aluminum or copper, and the smaller sizes may be either stranded or solid. Concentric Copper Shield Wire (or Neutral) (Courtesy Pacific Gas & Electric Company) Conduit Most of the underground installations are installed in PVC conduit, Some utilities still install some cables directly in the ground. Steel conduit is used for certain main feeders in locations like substations or areas where the extra protection is warranted. Some utilities install their systems in what is known as cable in conduit. This product is made by extruding a continuous one-piece conduit over the cable. This increases the efficiency of installation. (Courtesy Pecifc Gas & Electic Company)52 erectRIcAL systems siswestnran cote Enclosures / Manholes/ Pedestals Enclosures is a term broadly used to classify various types of concrete, fiberglass, or composite-type housings, which are used to splice cables, terminate cables, or to house equipment such as switches and transformers. Manholes are larger concrete structures, which are typically installed in the larger cities to house heavy cables and equipment. Pedestals are above ground and are used to splice low voltage secondary and service conductors. ‘A concrete enclosure (lef), fborgtass enclosure, and fiberglass secondary ‘pedestal (right). The lds of some enclosures can be changed fo a manhote- {ype ld. Can Paste Cae & Seis Corea, Transformers Transformers are generally classified as either pad-mount or subsurface. In overhead construction, it is common to connect three single-phase transformers in a bank to provide three-phase service. In the underground, this is rarely done as the single-phase units are ‘combined into one three-phase unit PADMOUNT SUBSURFACE PRIMARY SECONDARYseominmen coker DISTRIBUTION OD Padmounted transformers are installed on a pad of either concrete or some form of polyurethane. Subsurface type transformers are installed either in an enclosure or a manhole. Switches / Fuses Like transformers switches can either be pad-mounted or subsurface. Combinations of switches and fuses are popular and help increase the reliability of the circuit Risers Riser is a term that is used to identify a pole where there is a transition from an overhead circuit to an underground circuit or from an underground circuit to an overhead ireuit, The underground cables rise up the pole from where they terminate and are connected to the overhead line. Riser poles may have switches to open the circuit or fuses to protect the line. Itis also common for riser poles to have lightning arresters to protect the underground from lightning surges.54 evectricat SvSTEMS somes tine cotce Easements and Joint Use When building a distribution line, one of the first considerations is the route of the line. The selection of the route must take into consideration many things such as the terrain, existing development, etc, utility must obtain legal rights to construct and maintain the line. When a utllty serves a city or county, the typical arrangement to install facilities is a franchise agreement. In this matter a city would establish a franchise agreement with the serving utility that would allow the utility to instal its facilities in the utility easements preserved by the city. Distribution lines that are installed on private property require the utility to secure an easement from the landowner. Distribution lines are commonly installed with other utilities using the poles or installing facilities in the same underground trench Telecommunication companies have the right to use the power ‘company’s poles; however, they are required to provide some form of ‘compensation for the value. The cost of joint-use trenches may be also be shared amongst the utilities using the trench Pole lines must be designed for the proper strength and clearances for all utilities as required by the National Electric Safety Code. Similarly, there are requirements that must be met for the joint use of underground trenches.esteem cobae DISTRIBUTION DD 4.8 Circuit Design Distribution circuits are typically designed in the following arrangements: 1. Radial In this design, the circuits are independent and radiate into the service area, If a permanent fault occurs, there is no opportunity to restore power from another source. This design has the least reliability of the three basic designs. Transformers are installed individually to supply power to the customers at the desired voltage. Substation A Tap Line Radial clroult design where the circuits do not connect to other elroults circutt # 2 Tap Line56 exectricat systems siswthenn coke 2. Radial Tie In this design, the circuits can be connected together automatically or manually at one or more points. In the case of trouble or the need to take a line section out of service, the ability to supply power from other circuits is a significant advantage. Tap Line Main Line Radial cireuit design where the circuits are connected to other circuits Tie Switch Main Lineverte ran Cpe DISTRIBUTION D7 3. Network Grid Design In this design, the circuits are connected together and the step-down transformers are connected together to form a low voltage grid network. This is a three phase either 120/208-volt or a 277/480-volt low-voltage network. If one of the transformers fails, it is automatically disconnected and does not affect service. This network arrangement, which has several sources of power, is extremely reliable. It is typically found in the larger cities with high-rise buildings. "Network ris alow uninterrupted service and are ound in metropolitan arees.58 exectricat SYSTEMS numeetinonecatgn The network design is the most reliable but also the most expensive. Network grid cireutt ‘design where the (tansformers are cconnceted in paralfe to {form a low voltage network. From this network services are connected to provide service. Almost all distribution circuits are 4- wire, with three phase conductors and one neutral conductor. Customer service andSubstations Objectives After completing this section, the reader will Describe the functions of a substation. Describe the different types of substations. Identify the components of a substation. Explain the factors relating to the design of a substation. List the environmental factors associated with substations. PawNs60 exectricat systems sxinninonocalee 5.1 Introduction The term substation is used synonymously with power station and supply station. The substation is typically recognized in the field as a fenced enclosure with large equipment inside, and several power lines coming in and out of the station. The substation is typically located on a site of 1 10 10 acres of land owned by the utility. Itis geographically located where it can most effectively perform its functions. The substation can be either automatically or manually controlled. In many cases, certain elements ina station are automatically controlled, and certain elements are manually controlled. 5.2 Substation Types Substations have three major functions: 1, Change the voltage of circuits from one level to another. 2. Connect or disconnect lines or equipment from each other. 3. Control the flow of power by adjusting the voltage and current. Some transmission substations only have equipment that can connect or disconnect lines or equipment from each other, and they are commonly referred to as switching stations. Other stations typically are designed to perform all three functions, ‘Substations are typically classified as follows: Generation Substations The generation station is designed to step up the voltage that is produced by the generators of a power plant, so that it can be transported to where it will be used, These stations would also be designed to interrupt the flow ‘of power on the transmission lines if trouble should occur. ‘The generation station would be located adjacent to the generating plant. Transmission Substations ‘Transmission substations are typically installed to change the voltage levels to help integrate a system. They have several transmission lines coming into and leaving the station.Substations provide the ability to control the power flow within a given system. seme inenmcstece suastaTions 61 Atypical station may provide a voltage change from 500Kv to 230K. ‘These stations would have large power transformers to change the voltage, and large circuit breakers to disconnect and connect lines and equipment. The station would also have equipment to control the voltage and current. Subtransmission Substations Subtransmission stations are typically located near large load centers. ‘Their main function is to change the voltage from a higher transmission voltage such as 345kV to a subtransmission voltage such as 69 kV, which then can be used to distribute power to distribution substations within the load center Distribution Substations The distribution stations are located in the middle of the load center and may be within four to ten miles of each other in densely populated areas. They would have transformers that would change the subtransmission voltage from, for example, 69KV to 12Kv for distribution to customers. A typical station might have two subtransmission lines supplying the power to the station and ten distribution circuits leaving the station to supply power to the customers in the area. All circuits would have circuit breakers to connect and disconnect lines and equipment. 5.3 Substation Functions The substation performs several functions that are critical to the reliable delivery of power. Depending upon the type of substation any or all of the following functions may be performed: * Voltage changed from one level to another. + Provide a point of interconnection for lines of different ownership + Power flowing in and out of the substation is measured. * Lines coming in and leaving the station are connected and disconnected in the event of abnormal conditions. + Lines coming in and leaving the station are connected and disconnected in the event of routine work. + Equipment inside the station is connected and disconnected in the event of abnormal conditions. ‘+ Equipment inside the station is connected and disconnected in the event of routine work.G2 execraicar systems rwes\nenn cage Power transformers are very heavy and contain large volumes of insulating oil. + Lightning surges and switching surges are removed from lines and equipment. + The voltage and current on lines are controlled + Communication circuits are connected to lines and equipment. + Alternating current is changed to direct current, and direct current is changed to alternating current. 5.4 Substation Equipment The substation can have many different pieces and types of equipment. The major equipment that is easily recognized in a substation includes: Power Transformers These are used to change the voltage from one level to another. They can be quite large and contain alarge amount of mineral oil. In older stations three single-phase units may be used. Most new power transformers are single three-phase units. They can be very heavy requiring special transportation from the manufacturer to the job site. The power transformer may or may not have a load tap changer, which is | ESEOURSEASEHEEEERIRNS commonly referred to as an LTC. ‘The purpose of the LTC is to cut in or out a portion of the transformer winding which adjusts the voltage to the conditions. Circuit Breakers Circuit breakers are used to connect and disconnect lines and equipment. They can be large in size but are not as heavy as the transformers. They are designed to interrupt large amounts of current and typically use oil, air, vacuum or sulfer- hexafluoride gas to accomplish the operation,Current and potential transformers provide the ability to measure the flow of power in the system. stowentinmcaien suastations 63 Disconnect Switches Disconnect switches are typically installed in substations in order to isolate lines and equipment to be worked on. They ate also installed to provide a means to connect or disconnect parts of the st reroute the flow of power. Normally, disconnects are manually operated by a switchman in the substation. Current and Potential Transformers These devices provide a reduction in the voltage and current so that the power flow can be measured. They also sense abnormal amounts of voltage and current, which is used to disconnect lines and equipment during trouble conditions, The current transformers reduce the current levels, and the potential transformers reduce the voltage levels Capacitors and Reactors These devices are used to assist in controlling the flow of power on the system. They are connected and disconnected from the system based upon the dynamics of the flow of power. Voltage Regulators These devices are used to automatically adjust the voltage as required. If the station power transformer does not have an LTC to adjust the voltage, then a separate regulator may be used. The regulators may be three single- phase units or one three-phase unit. Steel structures “The substation has several types of steel structures, which are used to terminaie lines entering and leaving the station. Structures are also used to mount switches, disconnects, bus conductors, and other equipment,64 erectricar systems texivesthann cute Control House The substation will have a control house which houses key control equipment such as relays, meters, and computers. The control house also has DC batteries that are used to control key equipment if power is lost to the station. Ground Grid The ground grid is a critical element of the station. It is designed to perform the following key functions: Provide a path to earth for lightning surges. Provide a ground reference source for transformers and the associated system neutral conductors. Provide a ground source for other station equipment, Ensure the safety of the workers in the station by limiting ground potential differences. Ensure the safety of the public who may be near the station fence during a fault condition Limit the influence of faults to communications facilities entering the station. The ground grid typically consists of large stranded copper wire buried 12 to 18 inches below the grade and spaced in a grid pattern of 8 to 20 foot squares. The grid can also be supplemented by ground rods as necessary to further reduce the overall resistance. The grid covers the entire footprint of the station and slightly outside the perimeter fence. The perimeter fence is connected to the grid at several locations.The ground grid is critical element in mitigating hazards to workers and the public. etwetinenmcsnon suastarions 65 GROUNDING GRID ‘SUB TRANSMISSION earcurrs. ‘Alt cubstation ‘equipment, structures, perimeter fence, and gates are securely connected to Neutral point of tow voltage transformer nding connected to to provide a point for roturn current to. flow. DISTRIBUTION caRcuITs66 exectricar systems sinsinenm Cale 5.5 Basic Substation Design Substations are typically designed to have room for expansion in the case of the need for more capacity for power delivery. They are designed so that the equipment can be safely maintained and operated. They are also designed to have room for bringing in a mobile substation in case a major transformer needs to be taken out of service. - ee =e |The public is typically very concerned about the appearance of substations. oomen imnancanoe susstarions 67 5.6 Environmental Considerations Environmental considerations are a major factor in the sitting, construction and operation of a substation. These considerations are typically focused on the following elements: 4. Appearance Of The Station The public is very critical about the appearance of substations. Mitigation efforts include attractive landscaping, low structure profile, and decorative fences. 2. Electro Magnetic Fields This is an area in which the design of the station and the incoming and outgoing lines can minimize the EMF inthe area. 3. Sound Power transformers by nature can ‘emit a humming sound, which can be objectionable to the public. Sound barriers may be installed, or the manufacturer will make special design considerations to limit the sound levels. 4. Oil Spill Containment Transformers and other equipment can contain thousands of gallons of oll, The substation must be designed to contain the release of the liquid in the event of a catastrophic failure. The utility must also be prepared to respond to any such incidents and make the appropriate cleanup. 5. Fencing Fences are installed for both human and wildlife safety, and substation equipment security. The substation perimeter must be surrounded by a high fence.P D P Northwest Lineman College Power Delivery Program’ oh Training & Safety Curriculum pe ene man Cee Electrical Systems APPLYING YOUR KNOWLEDGE69 execrricaL svsTEMS simsethann cee Key Terms The following terms may appear in the evaluation for this section. ‘Study these terms and identify where they are first mentioned in the text. Alternating Current Page, Alternating current means that the flow of electrical eneray changes direction at a certain rate. Conductor Bundles Page__ A term used to indicate more than one conductor per phase. Conductor bundles are found on transmission lines and can be two, three, or four bundle. Distribution Page, Lines that deliver power directly to the customer. Distribution lines most commonly operate between 2kV and 34.5kV. DELTA systems Page__ ‘A DELTA distribution powerline has only three phases. The term DELTA refers to how the substation transformers, which are the source of the distribution line, are wired Distribution Substation Page__ Substations that are used to step voltage down from sub transmission levels to distribution levels. Distribution circuits leave these stations and deliver power directly to the customers. Generation Stations Page. Where energy from coal, oil, gas, steam, water, and atom are converted into electrical energy. Generation Substation Page. Substations located at the generation station that step voltage up and connect to the transmission system. Kilovolt Page___ Kilo is metric for 1000. A kilovolt would be equal to 1000 volts and would be denoted as 1kV. A 500kV line would be operating at ‘500,000 volts Network Circuit Design Page. Circuits in metropolitan areas where the primary and secondary Circuits are tied together in a grid.vermicsinanancatge APPLYING YouR KNowLEDGE 7. Phase Page. A term used referring to an energized conductor. A distribution main line feeder has three phases. Primary Page___ The high voltage portion of a distribution power line. Radial Circuit Design Page__ Independent distribution circuits that “radiate” from the substation into the service area. There is no other source should a section of the line need to be cleared. Radial Tie Circuit Design Page__ Circuits that are tied to circuits from the same substation or another ‘substation. Power can be supplied from other circuits should a section of line need to be cleared. Secondary Page, The low voltage portion of a distribution power line that runs from pole to pole on overhead systems or padmount to pedestal in underground systems, Service Page___ The low voltage portion of a distribution power tine run from pole to customer on overhead systems or pedestal to customer in underground systems. Sub Transmission Page__ Lines that move medium quantities of power to distribution substations at the load centers. Sub transmission circuits are most commonly energized at 44kV, 69KV, 115KV, and 138KV. Sub Transmission Substation Page__ ‘Substations that are used to step voltage down from transmission levels to sub transmission levels. Sub transmission circuits leave these stations and travel to distribution substations. Substations Page__ Substations change voltage of circuits, connect or disconnect ines or equipment from each other, and control the flow of power by adjusting voltage and current. The Grid Page A term used to describe the network of transmission lines that are interconnected across regions of the United States.71 erectricat SYSTEMS ote tian conn Transmi: n Page. Lines that move large quantities of power over long distances at voltages and are most Commonly ehergized at TOEKV. SOOKV, 345RV, or 230kV. Transmission Substation Page. ‘Substations that are used to tie transmission lines together, or to step voltage down from one transmission voltage to another. WYE systems Page___ AWYE distribution powerline has three phases and a neutral or three phases. The term WYE refers to how the substation transformers, Which are the source of the distribution line, are wired.tectwusinensiine APPLYING YOUR KNOWLEDGE 72. Key Points The following key points may appear in the evaluation for this section, ‘Study these points and refer to the text for further information. 1. Voltage Change The AC system has one substantial advantage over the DC system. Alternating current can be transformed and DC cannot. This allows the generating stations to be located many miles from the load center. Voltage is stepped up at the generating station and stepped down throughout the rest of the system. Generation Station Types All generating stations convert energy from coal, oil, gas, water, steam, or atom to electrical energy. There are several types of generation stations and each has its own advantages and disadvantages. The current trend is toward dispersed micro generation, which is connected directly to the distribution system. Transmission The transmission system is a series of interconnected lines similar to our highway system. The basic function of a transmission line is to take large amounts of bulk power from a source and transmit it to a given point with a minimum of loss. istribution The distribution system can be visualized as a series of “streets” that can be used for delivering power directly to the customer. The power must be delivered safely with acceptable quality and reliability.73 evectRicar SYSTEMS snwesinnsn Cais 5. Substations Substations perform three main functions: 1. Change the voltage of circuits from one level to another. 2. Connect or disconnect lines or equipment from each other. 3. Control the flow of power by adjusting the voltage and current, There are four main types of substations: Generation substations, transmission substations, sub transmission ‘substations, and distribution substations. 6. Transformer Transformers are devices that change AC voltage from one level to another. Transformers can step the voltage up or down, Transformers are basically the same whether ina substation, pole mounted, or padmounted.sermuctirenancolege APPLYING YOUR KNOWLEDGE 74 Key Questions The following questions are provided to help you study for the evaluation. Sit section. 1. 10. ilar questions may appear in the evaluation for this List the four main elements of the electrical system: a b, «. d, Generating stations convert energy from and. into electrical energy. At what voltage range is power generated? What is the one common purpose of generating stations? At what voltages are transmission lines energized? At what voltages are sub trans sion lines energized? Atwhat voltages are distribution lines energized? What is NERC and what is its function? ‘Where in the electrical system is voltage stepped up? List the advantages of fossil fired generation?75 execrricar SYSTEMS tstonatineen Colin " 12. 13. 14. 15, 16. 47. 18. 19. What is meant by co-generation? ‘What is unique about dispersed micro generation? When would DC transmission be used? What is the difference between a tubular tower and a lattice tower? What is the difference between a radial circuit and a radial- tie circuit? When would a network grid circuit design be used? List the four types of protective equipment on a distribution line. 1 2. ‘What is the function of a capacitor on the distribution line? ist the three main functions of a substation.Buildi seowstinena cage APPLYING YouR KNOWLEDGE 76 g Your Proficiencies Completion of the following tasks will help increase your knowledge. and awareness of safety. 1 Observe electrical systems and try to identify the various elements discussed in this section. Most generating facilities provide public tours. Arrange to tour a generation station in your area Many large substations provide pre-arranged public tours. Arrange to tour a large substation, which will ensure that you see many different types of equipment Explain the electrical system to a new employee or a family member using this manual as a guide if needed. Identify the parts of the electrical system that your company or department works on regularly. Make an extra effort to fully understand that portion of the electrical system and the associated safety requirements. Talk with your foreman about the methods of identifying the nominal voltage of the different portions of the electrical system you are working on Contact an electrical engineer with the local power company and ask questions about the electrical system in your area (voltages, loading, types of generation, customers, etc.) Contact a power company representative and find out where the company buys its power and how itis delivered to you. Arrange a tour of the dispatch center at your local power ‘company. Find out how the distribution system is laid out and tied together.77 erectRicar SYSTEMS roweitinenmcstse Resources The following resources can be used to increase your knowledge of this section. Printed Resources The Lineman’s and Cableman's Handbook, By Kurtz, Shoemaker, and Mack Online Resources Generating Facilities [Link]/washington/[Link], [Link]. gov [Link] North American Reliability Council [Link], Poles [Link]/html/infrat shtml [Link]/wrepa/product. html Pole Line Hardware and equipment www. hubbell. com/ www. [Link]/ [Link]/ ‘[Link]/ Insulators [Link]/ Fuel Cell Technology www. onsicorp.comvindex_fhtm