Butomatic

Biostatistics
car genetics) Computer

INTRODUCTION
Science ,

access
·:Doribonuclea
Nuclea
-b
RID DNA
already

due
-

Putamins
&

Nucleic acids are macromolecules present in all living cells Nucleopen

in combination with proteins to form nucleoproteins. The
-

protein is usually protamines and histones. Genetic Protein

Ducein
,

22
information is encoded in a nucleic acid molecule. Box protamines
Histones

2
 NUCLEIC ACIDS

• Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides, linked by

phosphodiester bond, they are therefore called
polynucleotides.
• The nucleic acids are of two main types:
– Deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA
– Ribonucleic acid or RNA.
• DNA is present in nuclei and small amounts are also
present in mitochondria, whereas 90% of the RNA is
present in cell cytoplasm and 10% in the nucleolus. Eyes
24

non Coding
Coding another functions
forprotein synthesis
3
 Types of nitrogenous bases C T
, , u

is
NAS RN
* . C

4
 Base + Ribose

5
 Structure of DNA

&
• DNA is a very long, thread like macromolecule made up of a
large number of deoxyribonucleotides. Deoxyribonucleotide is
composed of a*nitrogenous base, a8sugar and & phosphate
group. of base
Sequence
C

• The bases of DNA molecule carry genetic information,

whereas their sugar and phosphate groups perform a
structural role.
• The sugar in a deoxyribonucleotide is deoxyribose.
• The purine bases in DNA are adenine (A), and guanine (G).
• Pyrimidine bases are thymine (T) and cytosine (C).
6
 DNA is a polymer of many
deoxyribonucleotides linked covalently by
3', 5' phosphodiester bonds. The 3'-
hydroxyl group of the sugar moiety of one
deoxyribonucleotide is joined to the 5'-
hydroxyl group of the adjacent sugar
moiety of deoxyribonucleotide by a
phosphodiester linkage

7
 The Watson-Crick DNA Double Helical
Structure

Two helical polynucleotide chains are coiled around a

common axis. The chains run in opposite direction
(anti parallel).
Basesinside
The purine and pyrimidine bases are on the inside of
the helix, whereas the phosphate and deoxyribose
units are on the outside.
The diameter of the helix is 20 Å. Adjacent bases are
separated by 3.4 Å (A= angstrom= .1nm) along the
helix axis and the helical structure repeats after ten
residues on each chain, i.e. at intervals of 34 Å.

8
 The two chains are held together by hydrogen
bonds between complementary pairs of bases.

Adenine is always paired with thymine by

formation of two hydrogen bonds. Guanine is
always paired with cytosine by formation of three
hydrogen bonds.

The two strands are always complementary to

each other. In a double stranded DNA molecule,
the content of adenine equals to that of thymine
and the contents of guanine equals to that of
cytosine. The complementary base pairing proves
the Chargaff’s rule (discussed later)

9
 Chargaff’s Rule
-- &"S
6 ... /Is
A + C = T+ 6S8y

Ervin Chargaff discovered that in DNA of all species, quantity of purines is the same as
that of pyrimidines (A+G=T+C). He observed that in DNA, content of adenine equals that
of thymin (A=T) and content of guanine equals that of cytosine (G=C).

10
 Functions of DNA

DNA is the store of genetic information. The genetic information stored in the DNA serves
two functions.
1. It is the source of information for the synthesis of all protein molecules of the cell and
2. It provides the information inherited by daughter cells or offspring.

11
 RNA STRUCTURE

Unlike double stranded helical structure of DNA, the RNAs are single stranded. RNA
is an unbranched linear polymer of ribonucleotides joined by 3’, 5’ phosphodiester
DNA
bonds. The phosphodiester bonds join the 3’-OH group of ribose of one nucleotide
unit to the 5’-OH group of ribose sugar of the next nucleotide.

12
 Differences Between RNA and DNA

In RNA, the sugar is ribose rather than 2'-deoxyribose of DNA.

RNA does not possess thymine except in the rare case. Instead of thymine, RNA
contains uracil.

In RNA, adenine pairs with uracil rather than thymine.

Unlike DNA, RNA is a single stranded and does not exhibit the equivalence of
adenine with uracil and cytosine with guanine.

13
 Types of RNA

Cell contains three major types of RNA (coding RNA):

1. Messenger RNA (mRNA)
2. Transfer RNA (tRNA)
3. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA).
All of these are involved in the process of protein biosynthesis.
Each differs from the others by size and function.

14
 Messenger RNA (mRNA) structure
The mRNA comprises only about 5-10% of total cellular RNA.
The mRNA carries the genetic information in the form of codons. Codons are a group of three adjacent
nucleotides that code for the amino acids of protein.
In eukaryotes mRNAs have some unique characteristics, e.g. the 5' end of mRNA is “capped” by a 7- methyl-
guanosine triphosphate.
The cap is involved in the recognition of mRNA in protein biosynthesis and it helps to stabilize the
mRNA by preventing attack of 5'-exonucleases.
A poly (A) “tail” is attached to the other 3'-end of mRNA. This tail consists of series of adenylate residues, 20-250
nucleotides in length joined by 3’ to 5' phosphodiester bonds.

15
 ·
Function of mRNA

mRNAs serve as template for protein biosynthesis and transfer genetic information from DNA to
protein synthesizing machinery.

If the mRNA codes for only one peptide, the mRNA is monocistronic. If it codes for two or more
different polypeptides, the mRNA is polycistronic. In eukaryotes most mRNA are monocistronic.
m12N so 1st
als Peptiele
·

I =. e "&
I

w a say moniocistronic +

Eukaryotes -B% i
- peptide a
Sis - &1 a
↑

polycitronic- -
- &
8
-

16
 Transfer RNA (tRNA) - Structure

tRNA molecules vary in length from 74 to 95 nucleotides.

In eukaryotic cells, 10-20% of the nucleotides of tRNA may be modified and known as unusual nucleotides,
e.g.
1. Dihydrouridine (D), in which one of the double bonds of the base is reduced.
2. Ribothymidine (T), in which methyl group is added to uracil to form thymine.
3. Pseudouridine in which uracil is attached to ribose by a carbon-carbon bond rather than a nitrogen
bond.

17
 Structure of tRNA

All single stranded transfer RNA molecules get folded into a structure
that appears like a-1
clover leaf. All t-RNAs contain four main arms:

1. The acceptor arm

2. The D arm

3. The anticodon arm

4. The arm.

Function of tRNA

tRNA carries amino acids in an activated form to the ribosome for the
--

protein synthesis.

18
 Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
The RNA of the ribosomes is called the rRNA.
• A ribosome is a cytoplasmic nucleoprotein that acts
as a machinery for the synthesis of proteins.
• The ribosome is a1 =
spheroidal particle- and is
composed of a large and a small nucleoprotein
subunit.
• The eukaryotic ribosomes are composed of 60S and
40S subunits.
• Each subunit is composed of one or more strand of
rRNA and numerous protein molecules .
• The 60S subunit contains 28S rRNA, 5S rRNA and
5.8S rRNA, while the 40S subunit contains 18S rRNA.

19
 Functions of ribosomal RNA

The function of the ribosomal RNA molecules in the

ribosomal particle are not fully understood, but they are:
• Necessary to maintain ribosomal structure and also
participate in protein synthesis by binding of mRNA
to ribosome.
• Recent studies suggest that ribosomal RNAs may
also provide some of the catalytic activities and thus
is an enzyme “a ribozyme”.

20