Heat

Thermal Energy
 It is the energy responsible for the random movements of the molecules within an object or system.
 It is a form of energy that remains stored in the system as kinetic energy.
 It is a reflection of the random motion of the molecules in an object.
 Energy sources include geothermal energy, nuclear heat, waste heat, and electrical heat
Heat
 When a substance is heated, these molecules vibrate about their mean position, which possesses kinetic energy.
 The sum of kinetic energy of all the molecules of a body is called its internal energy.
 When the internal energy is in flow, it is called heat.
 Heat is measured by using a calorimeter.
 The SI unit of heat is the Joule and the CGS unit is calorie.
 The amount heat possessed by a body depends upon [Q=msdt]
a) Total number of molecules or atoms in the matter/mass of the body.
b) The average kinetic energy of the molecules i.e. temperature of the body
i.e. Amount of heat  mass of the body x average of K.E. of the molecules
 In terms of molecules, heat is defined as the total sum of kinetic energy of the molecules present in the body.
 1J heat energy is defined as the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of an object of 1kg mass and
1J/Kg0C specific heat capacity by 10C.
 One calorie is heat is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of gram pure water by one degree
Celsius.
 One kilocalorie of heat is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one kilogram pure water
by one degree Celsius.
1000 Calorie = 4.2J
1000 Calorie = 4200 Joule
 Heat is not stored in any object. It is only the quantity of thermal energy transferred from one object to
another. When heat is transmitted, the thermal energy of one object decreases and that of the other increases.
 Therefore, when heat is transmitted, the temperature of one object decreases and that of another increases.
 Heat is transmitted by the methods of conduction, convection, and radiation.

Effects of heat on Volume

 Bound but Vibrating: Molecules in solids are held in a fixed pattern by attractive forces, but constantly vibrate.
 Heat Increases Vibration: Heating provides energy, increasing the vibrational motion of the molecules.
 Vibration Weakens Attraction: Rapid vibration caused by continuous heating weakens the intermolecular attractive
forces.
 Molecules Move Apart: Weakened forces allow molecules to move farther apart from each other.
 Volume Increases (Expansion): Increased separation between molecules increases the solid's volume (thermal
expansion).
 Cooling Decreases Motion: Releasing thermal energy reduces the molecules' average vibrational speed.
 Temperature Drops: This decrease in molecular motion corresponds to a decrease in temperature.
 Volume Decreases (Contraction): Reduced motion allows attractive forces to pull molecules closer, decreasing
volume (thermal contraction).
 General Rule: Most matter expands when heated and contracts when cooled due to these changes in molecular
motion and separation.
In essence: Adding heat → Increases particle motion → Increases average particle separation → Increases volume
(for most substances under most conditions).

 Practical Consequences:
 Expansion joints in bridges, roads, and railway tracks to prevent buckling.
 Thermostats using bimetallic strips (two metals expanding differently).
 Rising liquid in thermometers.
 Hot air balloons rising (heated air expands, becomes less dense than the surrounding air).
Some effects of heat are:
a. Expansion of the body
b. Change in physical states
c. Change in temperature
. Change in solubility
. Change in colour
. Chemical change

Temperature
 Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body.
 Temperature is the thermal condition of a body that determines the flow of heat from it to another body that is in
contact.
 In terms of molecules, temperature is defined as the average kinetic energy of the molecules present in the
body.
 The SI unit of temperature is Kelvin
 Normal temperature of the human body is 370C (98.60F)
 It is measured by using a thermometer.

Key take: away relation between thermal energy, heat, and temperature.
 Heat Transfer Changes Thermal Energy: When heat flows into a system, its thermal energy increases. When heat
flows out of a system, its thermal energy decreases.
 Thermal Energy Change Often Affects Temperature: Increasing an object's thermal energy (by adding heat)
usually causes its temperature to rise (particles move faster on average). Decreasing its thermal energy (by removing
heat) usually causes its temperature to fall (particles slow down on average).
 Temperature Difference Drives Heat Flow: A difference in temperature between two objects/systems is the driving
force that causes heat to flow spontaneously from the hotter object to the colder one.
 Same Temperature ≠ Same Thermal Energy: Two objects can be at the same temperature (same average kinetic
energy per particle) but have vastly different thermal energies if one has significantly more mass/number of particles.
(e.g., A red-hot pin vs. a bucket of warm water).
 Phase Changes are the Exception: Adding heat to (or removing heat from) a substance during a phase change (e.g.,
melting, boiling) changes its thermal energy but does not change its temperature. The energy goes into
breaking/making molecular bonds instead of increasing particle speed.

Absolute zero: It is the lowest possible temperature that can exist in the universe at which kinetic energy of molecules of a
substance becomes zero. It is 0K or -2730C.

Thermometer
 It is a device that is used to measure the temperature of a body
 It is based on the principle ‘liquid expands on heating and contracts on cooling’
 Generally, a liquid is used in a thermometer.
 Liquids like mercury and alcohol, which are used in a thermometer are called thermometric liquids.

Properties of Thermometric Liquid

 The liquid used should be visible.
 The thermal expansion of the liquid must be uniform.
 The freezing point of the liquid used must be low.

a) Mercury
 Boiling point=3570C
 Freezing point= -390C
 Can be used in very hot regions but not in very cold regions
Advantages:
 Shiny and opaque liquid so that it can easily be seen in the thermometer for easy and correct reading.
  Non-sticky and does not wet the wall of capillary tube.
 Uniform rate of expansion, contraction and good conductor of heat.
 Higher density so that it occupies a small space to maintain the size of the thermometer.
 Shows faster effect of change in temperature due to its lower specific heat capacity.

Disadvantages:
 Not suitable as a thermometric liquid for measuring temperature at the very cold region it freezes quickly as its
freezing point is -390C.
 Expensive and even small quantity of spill can have negative impacts on the human health.

b) Alcohol
 Boiling point=780C
 Freezing point= -1170C
 Can be used in very cold regions but not in very hot regions
 Cannot be used to measure the temperature of boiling water.
Advantages:
 Higher rate of expansion.
 Freezes at -1170C, so can be used to measure the temperature in very cold places.
 Cheaper and easily available.

Disadvantages:
 Gets vaporized quickly due to its very low BP [780C]. So, not suitable for measuring higher temperature.
 No uniform rate of expansion
 Colourless- so difficult to read the level.
 Lower density- so it takes large volume/space.
 Sticky and not a good conductor of heat.

Temperature scale- Scales such as 0C, 0F, 0K etc used in the thermometer for reading temperature are called thermometric
scales.

a) Centigrade scale
 Denoted as 0C
 Upper fixed point = 1000C
 Lower fixed point = 00c
 Divisions = 100
b) Fahrenheit scale
 Denoted as 0F
 Upper fixed point = 2120C
 Lower fixed point = 320C
 Divisions = 180
c) Kelvin scale
 Denoted as K
 Upper fixed point = 3730C
 Lower fixed point = 2730C
 Divisions = 100

Relation between Celsius scale, Fahrenheit scale and Kelvin scale

Scale−LFP
=Constant
(UFP−LFp)

Therfore,

C−0 F−32
= =
100 180
 k−273
100

Differences between heat and temperature

Heat Temperature

It is the form of energy that gives us It is the degree of hotness or coldness

the sensation of warmth. of a body

Its SI unit is Joule Its SI unit is Kelvin

It is the cause of temperature It is the effect of heat

It is measured by Calorimeter It is measured by Thermometer

It flows from hot object to cold object It does not flow

Types of thermometer
a) Clinical thermometer
 Used to measure human body temperature.
 Called as the doctor's thermometer.
 Calibrated range of scale i.e. from 350C to 420C (940C to 1080F)
 Contains mercury as a thermometric liquid.
 Prismatic in shape- gives a magnified view of the scale and the thread.
 Contains a narrow constriction at the capillary to prevent the back flow of
raised mercury.
 Jerked before using again to bring the mercury back to the bulb.
 Bulb made of glass with very thin walls to allow heat from sample being
measured to reach the liquid for fast response and quick reading.
 The stem of the thermometer has a narrow bore/ capillary tube to improve the
accuracy and sensitivity.
 The stem of the thermometer has a thick wall as the thick wall of the stem resists
the heat of the surrounding, that would affect the level of mercury inside the
capillary tube.

Note: Calibration establishes accurate temperature readings by comparing the thermometer against known
reference points (like water's freezing or boiling point). Adjustments or correction factors are then applied to align
the thermometer's output with these verified standards.

b) Laboratory thermometer
 Used for measuring temperatures of various substances like water and air.
 Also known as a simple thermometer.
 Typically features a long, slender, round structure.
 Calibrated over a wide temperature range, usually
from -10°C to 110°C.
 Measurement requires placing the thermometer's bulb
in direct contact with the substance.
 The temperature is indicated by the level of the thermometric liquid (like mercury) against the scale.
 Contains a vacuum above the mercury surface in the capillary tube to facilitate its rise.

Similarities between the laboratory thermometer and the clinical thermometer

 Both consists of a long, narrow and uniform glass tube
  Both have bulb at one end
 Both contain mercury in the bulb.
 Both contain Celsius scale on the glass tube.

c) Digital Thermometer
Digital thermometer is a type of thermometer that shows the temperature in digits
or numbers. It is based on the principle that the electrical resistance of metal
changes with temperature. It does not have any calibrations in it. It has a built in
sensor, and it displays the temperature directly digitally on the monitor or display.
Its operation is based on recording the change of electrical resistance of a
conductor, and converting it into numeric value, and to display it. It is used for
measuring temperature of human body food in laboratories, and for various other
scientific reasons.
d) Radiation thermometer
 A radiation thermometer measures temperature by detecting the intensity of thermal radiation emitted by a
surface.
 It is a non-contact thermometer, ideal for measuring from a distance.
 The thermometer uses a lens to focus infrared radiation onto a
thermopile sensor.
 The thermopile converts the radiation into heat, then into
electricity.
 This electric signal is sent to the detector, which calculates
the temperature.
 Higher radiation = higher electric signal = higher
temperature reading.
 The temperature is displayed on a screen/monitor.
 Commonly used in industries, medical fields, and hazardous or
moving environments.
 Based on the principle of blackbody radiation.
 Accuracy depends on factors like emissivity, distance to
target, and atmospheric conditions.

Working Process: When we press the trigger, and point the laser towards the target to measure the surface
temperature of the body. The lens will coverage radiation on the thermopile. Thermopile generates heat which is
transferred into electricity, and sent to the detector. Higher the amount of current detected higher will be the
temperature of the body. The reading of temperature is displayed in the monitor.

Heat Equation
 The equation that shows the relationship between heat gained or lost by body with its mass, change in temperature and
specific heat capacity is called the heat equation.
 When a body is heated, it gains heat and it loses heat when it is cooled.
Let, Q be the amount of heat supplied to a body of mass [m] to increase its temperature from [ t 1] to [t2]
Here,
Q = heat supplied
m = mass of body
t1 = initial temperature of the body
t2 = final temperature of the body
dt = change in temperature = t2- t1
Then, the amount of heat gained or lost by the body is directly proportional to the mass of the body and change in
temperature.
Qα m -------------- (i)
Qα dt -------------- (ii)
Combining equation (i) and (ii)
Qα mdt
Q= msdt
Where s is the specific heat capacity whose value depends upon the nature of the material.
 Q= msdt is the heat equation which states that the product of mass, specific heat capacity and change in temperature is
equal to the heat gained or heat lost.
  When an object is heated, it gains heat.
 When an object is cooled, it loses heat
 For heat gained/supplied/heated, Q = msdt = ms(t2- t1)
 For heat lost/cooled, Q = msdt = ms(t1- t2)
Specific heat capacity
 The specific heat capacity is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1kg of a substance by
10C.
 Different substances have different specific heat capacities due to which two different substances of equal mass heated
with equal temperature show different temperature.
 The bodies which have more specific heat capacity change their temperature slowly and those which have less
specific heat capacity change their temperature faster.
 It means that specific heat capacity is inversely proportional to the change in temperature
 The SI unit of specific heat capacity is J/Kg0C
 Water has the highest specific heat capacity among the known substances i.e. 4200J/Kg0C
Unit of Specific heat capacity
Q = msdt
Q
S= = J/Kg0C
mdt
 Relation of s with Q
Q α s It means that if s is more then the heat gained by the body becomes more and vice versa.
 Relation of s with dt
1
Sα It means that if s is more then the change in temperature is less and vice versa.
dt

Note: Substance with less specific heat capacity gets heated very fast and cools down very fast.
Specific heat capacity of water is 4200J/Kg0C. What does it mean?
 It means that the 4200J of heat energy is required to raise the temperature of 1kg of water by 1 0C.
Specific heat capacity of a substance is 500J/Kg0C. What does it mean?
 It means that the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1kg of that substance by 1 0C is 500J.
Advantages of high specific heat capacity of water
a) Water is used to cool the engines of vehicles
b) Water is used in hot water bags.
c) Wet cloth is used in our forehead during fever to reduce it
Give reasons
a) Water is used to cool the engines of vehicles
Water has high specific heat capacity i.e. 4200J/Kg0C. due to its high specific heat capacity, it can absorb large
amount of heat from the engines with less rise in its own temperature since It prevents engines from getting
excessively hot and helps to cool them. So, water is used to cool the engines of vehicles.
b) Milk boils faster than water
The specific heat capacity of milk is less than that of water. Due to lesser specific heat capacity, the change in
temperature becomes faster and as a result is boils faster than water.
c) The day of desert is very hot while the night of desert is very cold
The specific heat capacity of sand is very less i.e. 800J/Kg0C. Due to less specific heat capacity its temperature
changes very fast. During day time, the sand gets heated very fast and it results in a very hot day. But, at night, sand
cools faster and it results in a very cold night. This is why, the day of desert of very hot and the night is very cold

Principle of calorimetry
 When a hot body and a cold body are in thermal contact, then the heat flows from the hot body to the cold body until
the temperature of both becomes equal.
 It means that heat flows form hot body to the cold body or exchange of heat takes place between them. So, the amount
of heat lost by hot body is equal to the amount of heat gained by the cold body.
 This is called the principle of calorimetry
 It states that ‘When a hot body and a cold body are in thermal contact, the heat flows from the hot body to the
cold body until the temperature of both bodies becomes equal. Or
  When a hot body and a cold body are in thermal contact then the amount of heat lost by the hot body is equal
to the amount of heat gained by the cold body’.
According to the principle of calorimetry,
Heat lost = Heat gained
Body at high temperature =
Body at low
temperature
m1 x s1 x dt1 =
m2 x s2 x dt2
m1 x s1 (t1- t) =
m2 x s2 (t- t2)
Here
m1 = mass of hot body
m2 = mass of cold body
t1 = initial temperature of
hot body
t2 = initial temperature of
cold body
t = final temperature of both
bodies
s1 = specific heat capacity of
hot body
s2 = specific heat capacity of hot body

Numerical problems
1. How much heat is required to raise the temperature of 5Kg of water from 300C to 1000C? The specific heat capacity of
water is 4200J/Kg0C. [1470000J]
Solution
According to the question
Mass of water (m) = 5Kg
Initial temperature (t1) = 300C
Final temperature (t2) = 1000C
Specific heat capacity of water (s) = 4200J/Kg0C
Heat required (Q) =?
We have,
Q = msdt
Or, Q = ms(t2- t1)
Or, Q = 5 x 4200 x (100-30)
Or, Q = 5 x 4200 x 70
Or, Q = 14,70,000J
Or, Q = 1.47 x 106J
Hence, the heat required is 1.47 x 106J

2. Calculate the specific heat capacity of water if 2Kg water at 25 0C requires 2.1 x 105 J heat energy to raise its
temperature to 500C. [4200J/Kg0C]
3. A pressure cooker of mass 2kg is at the temperature of 250C. If 6400J of heat energy if supplied to it, what is its final
temperature? The specific heat capacity of the material of pressure cooker is 1000J/Kg 0C. [28.20C]
4. The mass of a block is 1kg. An electric heater of power 48w takes 5 minutes to raise the temperature of the block from
200C to 500C. find the specific heat capacity of the block. [480J/Kg0C]
5. One kilogram of paraffin requires 44000J heat energy to raise its temperature by 20 0C. Find the amount of heat energy
required to raise the temperature of 5 kg paraffin by 100C. [110000J]
6. How much heat is supplied to raise the temperature of 100g of water from 50C to 900C? [35700J]
7. If 50KJ of heat is transferred to 10Kg of water, what is the change in its temperature? [1.19 0C]
8. Calculate the final temperature when 2400J of heat is given to the iron of mass 2Kg at 20 0C. the specific heat capacity
of iron is 460J/Kg0C. [22.60C]
Numerical related to principle of calorimetry
1. Hot water at 1000C is added to 300g of water at 00C until the final temperature is 400C. Find the mass of the hot water
added. [0.2kg]
Solution
Given,
For hot water,
Mass (m1) =?
Initial temperature (t1) = 1000C
Specific heat capacity (s1) = 4200J/Kg0C
For cold water,
Mass (m2) = 300g = 0.3Kg
Initial temperature (t2) = 00C
When hot and cold water mixed together,
Final temperature (t) = 400C
Specific heat capacity (s2) = 4200J/Kg0C
Now
From the principle of calorimetry
Heat lost by hot water = heat gained by cold water
m1 x s1 x dt = m2 x s2 x dt
m1 x s1 (t1- t) = m2 x s2 (t- t2)
m1 x 4200 x (100- 40) = 0.3 x 4200 x (40-0)
Or, m1 x 60 = 0.3 x 40
0.3 x 40
Or, m1 =
60
12
Or, m1 =
60
Or, m1 = 0.2Kg
Hence, the mass of hot water added is 0.2Kg

2. What is the final temperature of the mixture if 100g of water at 700C is added to 200g cold water at 100C?
[300C]
3. The temperature of a certain metal of mass 600g is 1000C. It is then placed in 300g of water at 150C. If the final
temperature is 200C, calculate the specific heat capacity of the metal. [131.25J/Kg 0C]

Study the given table and answer the following questions

Substance Specific heat capacity

A 380J/Kg0C

B 910 J/Kg0C

C 470 J/Kg0C

a) If the equal mass of A, B and C have the same temperature, which one has maximum heat? Why? B[ Q=msdt]
Q=1xsx1 Q=s]
b) If A, B and C are taken in equal mass and heated by giving equal heat, which one of them gains the maximum
temperature and why? A[s =1/dt]
c) If all of them are taken at 800C and left to cool, which one of them will be cooled faster and why? A[s =1/dt]
d) If the equal mass of same shape and size of them at 1000C temperature is kept over a wax slab, which one of them
will melt the wax for the maximum depth and why? B [s =1/dt]
e) If all of them are liquid, which one of them is suitable as a thermometric liquid and why?
A [s =1/dt]
If all of them are liquid, which one of them is suitable for cooling and heating purposes and why? B [s =1/dt]
f) Specific heat capacity of substance B is 470 J/Kg0C. What does it mean?
470J heat-1kg mass-raise the temperature 10C.
Give reasons
a) Water is used to cool the engines of vehicles?
b) During high fever, a piece of wet cloth is kept on the forehead of the person.
c) Mercury is heated faster than water.
d) Water cannot be used as a thermometric liquid.
e) Temperature of boiling water cannot be used by using alcohol thermometer.
f) Sea breeze occurs at day time and land breeze occurs at night time.
g) Water in an earthen pot is cooler than the water in a metal pot.
h) Animals curl their body during winter.

1. Define the following

a. Heat Energy f. principle of liquid thermometer

b. Temperature g. Absolute zero [Absolute zero is
c. specific heat capacity defined as the point where no
d. 1 Calorie heat more heat can be removed from
e. Principle of calorimeter a system, according to
the absolute or thermodynamic
temperature scale. This
corresponds to zero Kelvin, or
minus 273.15 0C, and minus
459.67 F]
h. Heat capacity [Heat capacity is
the amount
of heat energy required to raise
the temperature of a body a
specified amount. In SI units,
heat capacity (symbol: C) is the
amount of heat
in joules required to raise the
temperature 1 Kelvin.]
i. Thermal expansion [increase in
linear dimensions of a solid or
in volume of a fluid because of
rise in temperature]

2. Differences between
a. Heat and temperature
b. Specific heat capacity and thermal capacity
c. calorimetry and calorimeter
d. One calorie heat and one joule heat

Anomalous Expansion of Water

 The anomalous expansion of water refers to its unique behavior where, between 0°C and 4°C, water expands when
cooled and contracts when heated — the opposite of how most liquids behave.

Breakdown:
1. Normal Behavior (Most Substances):
 Expand when heated (increased temperature increases molecular motion/space).
 Contract when cooled (decreased temperature reduces molecular motion/space).
2. Water's Anomalous Behavior (Between 0°C and 4°C):
 Contracts when heated (from 0°C towards 4°C).
 Expands when cooled (from 4°C towards 0°C).
 Reaches maximum density at 4°C (1000 kg/m³).

Causes of anomalous of water

This behavior defies the typical thermal expansion rules due to the complex structure of water molecules and hydrogen
bonding:
  As water cools below 4°C, hydrogen bonds begin to lock molecules into an open, hexagonal lattice structure (like in
ice, but less ordered).
 This lattice takes up more space than the closer-packed liquid molecules at 4°C, causing expansion despite the drop in
temperature.
 Ice (at 0°C) is significantly less dense (917 kg/m³) than liquid water at 4°C, which is why it floats.

In simple terms
Water is densest at 4°C. Cooling it below 4°C or heating it above 0°C towards 4°C both cause it to contract until it hits 4°C.
Only above 4°C does it expand like a normal liquid when heated. This unusual contraction on heating (0°C → 4°C) and
expansion on cooling (4°C → 0°C) defines its anomaly.

Graphical Representation of Anomalous Expansion of Water

Advantages of the Anomalous expansion of water

a. Preservation of Aquatic Life: Because ice is less dense than liquid water (due to expansion upon
freezing), it forms on the surface of lakes, rivers, and oceans. This layer of ice acts as an insulator,
preventing the water body from freezing solid from the bottom up. This allows fish and other aquatic
organisms to survive in the liquid water below the ice during winter.
b. Weathering and Soil Formation: Water seeping into cracks in rocks expands significantly when it
freezes. This expansion exerts tremendous pressure, forcing the cracks wider. Repeated cycles of
freezing and thawing (freeze-thaw weathering) gradually break down rocks into smaller fragments,
contributing to the natural process of soil formation over geological time.

Disadvantages of Anomalous expansion of water

a. Bursting of Water Pipes: When water trapped inside pipes freezes, it expands with great force. This
expansion can easily exceed the strength of metal or plastic pipes, causing them to crack or burst.
This leads to significant water damage, costly repairs, and inconvenience, especially in colder
climates.
b. Damage to Roads and Structures: Water can seep into tiny cracks in road surfaces, pavements, and
building foundations. When this water freezes and expands, it widens these cracks. Subsequent
thawing allows more water to enter, and the cycle repeats. This "freeze-thaw cycle" is a major cause
of potholes in roads, cracking in concrete, and structural damage to buildings over time.

Water pipes burst in very cold places in winter. write any two reasons for this.

Ans: The volume of water increases as the temperature decreases from 4°C to 0°C. When the water freezes, its molecules
crystallize into an open hexagonal form, which takes up more space than in the liquid form. This increases volume and
pressure, resulting in the bursting of pipes.

Do fish stay alive in a frozen pond in winter? Explain.

Ans: The density of water at 4°C is maximum and gradually decreases up to 0°C. Further, the density of ice at 4°C is smaller
than the density of water at the same temperature. Therefore, there is water inside the pond although its surface in frozen. As
soon as the water freezes into ice on the surface of the pond, it insulates the heat from flowing out from the surface and
prevents the water from freezing. The pond contains water inside it, although the surface is covered with ice. Hence, fish stay
alive in frozen ponds in winter.