Fe-C alloy classification

• Fe-C alloys are classified according to wt.% C

present
• Commercial pure irons: % C < 0.008
• Low-carbon/mild steels: 0.008 -%C -0.3
• Medium carbon steels: 0.3 -%C -0.8
• High-carbon steels: 0.8-%C -2.0
• Cast irons: 2.0 < %C
 Steels
• Low Alloy (<10 wt%)
–Low Carbon (<0.25 wt% C)
–Medium Carbon (0.25 to 0.60 wt%)
–High Carbon (0.6 to 1.4 wt%)
• High Alloy
–Stainless Steel (> 11 wt% Cr)
–Tool Steel
 Low Carbon Steel/ Hypo Eutectoid
• Plain carbon steels - very low content of alloying
elements and small amounts of Mn.
• Most abundant grade of steel is low carbon steel
– greatest quantity produced; least expensive.
• Not responsive to heat treatment; cold working
needed to improve the strength.
• Good Weldability and machinability
• High Strength, Low Alloy (HSLA) steels - alloying
elements (like Cu, V, Ni and Mo) up to 10 wt %;
have higher strengths and may be heat treated.
Low carbon steel
 Medium Carbon Steel
• Carbon content in the range of 0.3 – 0.6%.
• Can be heat treated - austenitizing, quenching and
then tempering.
• Most often used in tempered condition – tempered
martensite
• Medium carbon steels have low hardenability
• Addition of Cr, Ni, Mo improves the heat treating
capacity
• Heat treated alloys are stronger but have lower
ductility
• Typical applications – Railway wheels and tracks,
gears, crankshafts.
 High Carbon Steel
• High carbon steels – Carbon content 0.6 – 1.4%
• High C content provides high hardness and
strength.
• Hardest and least ductile.
• Used in hardened and tempered condition
• Strong carbide formers like Cr, V, W are added as
alloying elements to from carbides of these
metals.
• Used as tool and die steels owing to the high
hardness and wear resistance property
(Low-C to High-C)-High alloy steels

High-C-High alloy steels

The American Iron and Steel Institute (A.I.S.I.)
Unified Numbering System for Metals and Alloys (UNS) provides a
means of correlating many internationally used metal and alloy numbering
systems administered by societies, trade associations, and individual users
and producers of metals and alloys.
• Stabilizing austenite: Elements such as nickel,
manganese, cobalt and copper increase the
temperatures range in which austenite exists.
• Stabilizing ferrite: Chromium, tungsten,
molybdenum, vanadium, aluminum and silicon
can have the effect of lowering carbon's
solubility in austenite.
– This results in an increase in the amount of carbides
in the steel and decreases the temperature range in
which austenite exists
• Carbide forming: Many minor metals, including
chromium, tungsten, molybdenum, titanium,
niobium, tantalum and zirconium
• Chromium – Cr (0.5-18%): A key component of
stainless steels.
– At over 12 percent content, chromium significantly
improves corrosion resistance.
– The metal also improves hardenability, strength,
response to heat treatment and wear resistance
• Cobalt – Co: Improves strength at high
temperatures and magnetic permeability.
• Copper – Cu (0.1-0.4%): Most often found as a
residual agent in steels, copper is also added
to produce precipitation hardening properties
and increase corrosion resistance.
• Manganese – Mn (0.25-13%): Increases strength
at high temperatures by eliminating the
formation of iron sulfides.
– Manganese also improves hardenability, ductility
and wear resistance.
– Like nickel, manganese is an austenite forming
element
• Molybdenum – Mo (0.2-5.0%): Found in small
quantities in stainless steels, molybdenum
increases hardenability and strength, particular
at high temperatures
• Nickel – Ni (2-20%): Another alloying element critical to
stainless steels, nickel is added at over 8% content to high
chromium stainless steel.
– Nickel increases strength, impact strength and toughness,
while also improving resistance to oxidization and corrosion.
– It also increases toughness at low temperatures when added
in small amounts.
• Nitrogen – N: Increases the austenitic stability of stainless
steels and improves yield strength in such steels.
• Sulfur (“Sulphur” - British) – S (0.08-0.15%): Added in
small amounts, sulphur improves machinability without
resulting in hot shortness.
• Phosphorus – P: Phosphorus is often added with sulphur
to improve machinability in low alloy steels.
– It also adds strength and increases corrosion resistance
 Effects of Alloying Elements on Steel
• Manganese – strength and hardness; decreases
ductility and weldability; effects hardenability of steel.
• Phosphorus – increases strength and hardness and
decreases ductility and notch impact toughness of
steel.
• Sulfur decreases ductility and notch impact toughness
– Weldability decreases. Found in the form of sulfide
inclusions.
• Silicon – one of the principal deoxidizers used in steel
making.
• In low-carbon steels, silicon is generally detrimental to
surface quality.
 Effects of Alloying Elements on Steel
• Copper – detrimental to hot-working steels;
beneficial to corrosion resistance (Cu>0.20%)
• Nickel - ferrite strengthener; increases the
hardenability and impact strength of steels.
• Molybdenum increases the hardenability;
enhances the creep resistance of low-alloy steels
• W, V carbide formers
Stainless Steels
 Stainless steel
• Stainless steels - A group of steels that contain at least
12% Cr.
• Exhibits extraordinary corrosion resistance due to
formation of a very thin layer of Cr2O3 on the surface.
• Categories of stainless steels:
• Ferritic Stainless Steels – Composed of α ferrite (BCC) , Cr
• Martensitic Stainless Steels – Can be heat treated.
• Austenitic Stainless Steels – Austenite (ϒ) phase field is
extended to room temperature by addition of Ni .
– Most corrosion resistant.
• Precipitation-Hardening (PH) Stainless Steels – Ultra high
strength due to precipitation hardening.
• Duplex Stainless Steels – Ferrite + Austenite
Austenitic stainless steel
 High speed tool steel
• High carbon steels(18W-4Cr-1V steel)
• Contains maximum of 5% Chromium
• Mo, V, W are major alloying elements
• Strong carbide formers like Cr, V, W, Mo are
added as alloying elements to from carbides of
these metals
• Used as tool and die steels owing to the high
hardness and wear resistance property
 Hadfield steels
• ASTM A 128
• Manganese is the major alloying element
• (11.5 -14% Mn), (0.9-1.05%C), 1% Si, 0.07% P
• MnS (Manganese sulphide) has excellent wear
resistance
• Good Wear resistance
• Major application is Jaw crushers, earthmoving,
mining, quarrying, oil well drilling, steelmaking,
railroading, dredging
• Hadfield's steel was unique in that it combined high
toughness and ductility with high work-hardening
capacity
• Hadfield's austenitic manganese steel
 APPLICATIONS

CONE CRUSHER DIE

JAW CRUSHER DIE

• Manganese steel is used in harsh applications that
require high levels of toughness
• Manganese steel was discovered by Sir Robert
Hadfield in 1882.
• Austenitic manganese steel, also called Hadfield
steel
• This alloy possesses unique resistance to impact
and abrasion wear.
• It exhibits high levels of ductility and toughness and
slow crack propagation rates, in comparison to
other potentially competitive materials.
• It is also non-magnetic and can work harden during
service or can be surface-hardened to as high as
450 HB by mechanical or explosive means prior to
service
Heat treatment of Hadfield -Mn steels

• This steel is in standard state, an alloy of Fe, C

and Mn.
• Solution anneal to 1093OC/24 minutes/ agitated
Water Quench
• Good Wear resistance improved by good toughness
• Good impact strength also

High work hardening rate induces

O
1093 C/24 minutes
Solution Annealing
Є-Martensie with
Austenite carbides as precipitates
Temperatur

Mn7C3 and Mn23C6

e

WQ
Auste
Time nite Stabilized to RT with 12%Mn.
In this paper, manufacturing processes and properties of Hadfield manganese steel
was studied. Due to good flexibility and excellent resistance to wear, the high
strength steel is widely used in various industries such as cement, mining, road
construction and railroads. Induction furnace is suitable for melting of Hadfield steel.
Typically, silica, olivine and chromite sand are used to make mold in the casting
process of Hadfield steel. This steel is in standard state, an alloy of Fe, C and Mn.
But in certain applications, other elements such as Cr, Ti, Al, Mo, B, V, etc are added.
Mn is used as the most important austenite stabilizer in Hadfield steel and its role is
to delay the austenite to martensite transformation. Mn is a carbide forming element
and forms Mn3C and (Fe, Mn)3C in Hadfield steel. The optimal structure for the
Hadfield steels is the fully austenite structure and the single-phase. In
non-heat-treated castings, the structure of the unit consists of austenitic and grain
boundary carbide phase. To provide optimum toughness, the structure of the
Hadfield steel should be austenitic single-phase. Twin strain has a great contribution
to plastic deformation of this steel. Two phenomena of dislocation accumulation and
the formation of twins during plastic deformation of these steels are the main reason
of the strain hardness of this steel. The high rate of work hardening in Hadfield steel
is due to strain induced transformation of γ to α or ε martensite, mechanical twinning,
dynamic strain aging, and the confrontation between dislocations with stacking
faults. In the early stages of wear and slow wear conditions, the wear resistance of
Hadfield steel is low. In conditions of slow wear, the surface is not sufficiently work
hardening and thus the wear resistance of this steel is low. But with the work
hardening of the surface, wear resistance rises sharply.
The welding and weldability of this steel are strongly
influenced by the heat input. In any case, the formation of
carbide phases in the weld metal is acceptable, and often the
weld metal has higher strength and lower toughness than the
base metal. Carbides deposited in the heat affected zone
(HAZ) of welded Hadfield steel, usually are Mn7C3 and
Mn23C6.

Title:
Hadfield manganese austenitic steel: a review of manufacturing processes and
properties

Authors:
Journal Sabzi, Masoud
Materials Research Express Farzam, Mansour
Ni3(Mo,Ti)
18% Ni, 8%Co,0.9%Ti, 5%Mo
 MARAGING STEELS
• Comprise a special class of high-strength steels.
• Hardened by a metallurgical reaction that does not involve carbon
• Strengthened by the precipitation of intermetallic compounds at
temperatures of about 480 °C
• Maraging is derived from martensite age hardening and denotes the
age hardening of a low-carbon, iron-nickel lath martensite matrix
• The absence of carbon and the use of intermetallic precipitation to
achieve hardening
• yield strength from 1030 to 2420 Mpa
• solution treat 1 h at 820 °C
• age hardening of maraging steels is 455 to 510 °C/ 3 to 9 h
• heat treating for at temperatures of the order of
• maraging steels (Fe-18Ni-4Mo-8Co-0.2Ti – 0.1Al)
• 7.8 Co, 0.40 Ti, 0.10 Al Maraging 250
• Pressure vessel plates, alloy steel, precipitation hardening (maraging),
18% Ni
• missile cases, aircraft forgings, structural parts,
 MARAGING STEELS
• Maraging steels (Fe-18Ni-4Mo-8Co-0.2Ti – 0.1Al)
• 7.8 Co, 0.40 Ti, 0.10 Al Maraging 250
• yield strength from 1030 to 2420 MPa
• Heat treatment : Solution treat 1 h at 820 °C
• age hardening is 455 to 510 °C/ 3 to 9 h

(Solutionising)
820oC/1h

(455oC-510oC)/(3h-9h)
Temperatur

(Age hardening)
e

Time
 MARAGING STEELS
• comprise a special class of high-strength steels
• hardened by a metallurgical reaction that does not involve carbon
• maraging is derived from martensite age hardening and denotes
the age hardening of a low-carbon, iron-nickel lath martensite
matrix
• strengthened by the precipitation of intermetallic compounds at
temperatures of about 480 °C
• The low carbon and the use of intermetallic precipitation to
achieve hardening
 Applications

• Pressure vessel plates, alloy steel, precipitation hardening (maraging), 18% Ni

• missile cases, aircraft forgings, structural parts
 Cast Iron
• Carbon 2.1- 4.5 wt% and Si (normally 1-3 wt%).
• Lower melting point (about 300 °C lower than
pure iron) due to presence of eutectic point at
1153 °C and 4.2 wt% C.
• Low shrinkage and good fluidity and casting
ability.
• Types of cast iron: grey, white, nodular,
malleable and compacted graphite.
 Cast irons
• That were slowly cooled to room temperature
consists of cementite,
• look whitish – white cast iron.(combined form
of carbon, Fe3C)
• If it contains graphite, look grayish –gray cast
iron.
• It is heat treated to have graphite in form of
temper carbon–malleable cast iron.
• If inoculants are used in liquid state to have
graphite nodules – Ferro-Silicon; spheroidal
graphite (SG) cast iron.(Mg, Ce) or Ba, Ca etc
 Grey Cast Iron
• Grey cast iron contains graphite in the form of flakes.
• Named after its grey fractured surface
• C:3.0 – 4.0 wt%, Si: 1.0 – 3.0 %
• Si is the graphitiser (disintegrates Fe3C)
• Microstructure: graphite flakes in a ferrite (anneal) or
pearlite (normalising) matrix
• Weak & brittle in tension (the graphite flake tips act as stress
concentration sites).
• Stronger in compression, Casting shrinkage is low
• The fluidity of liquid gray iron, and its expansion during
solidification due to the formation of graphite, have made
this metal ideal for the economical production of
shrinkage-free, intricate castings such as motor blocks
Advantages and Applications of Gray Cast Iron:
• Graphite acts as a chip breaker and a tool lubricant.
• Very high damping capacity.
• Good dry bearing qualities due to graphite.
• After formation of protective scales, it resists
corrosion in many common engineering
environments.
• It is used for housings where the stiffness of the
component is more important than its tensile
strength,
• such as internal combustion engine, cylinder blocks,
pump housings, valve bodies, electrical boxes, and
decorative castings.
Disadvantages:
• Brittle (low impact strength) which severely limits
use for critical applications.
• Graphite acts as a void and reduces strength.
Maximum recommended design stress is 1/4 of the
ultimate tensile strength.
• Maximum fatigue loading limit is 1/3 of fatigue
strength.
• Changes in section size will cause variations in
machining characteristics due to variation in
microstructure.
• Higher strength gray cast irons are more expensive
to produce.
• Nodular / Ductile cast iron: This structure is
developed from the melt.
• The carbon forms into spheres
– when cerium, magnesium,sodium, or other elements are
added to a melt of iron with a very low sulfur content
that will inhibit carbon from forming.
• The control of the heat-treating process can yield
pearlitic, ferritic, martensitic matrices into which the
carbon spheres are embedded.
• Addition of Mg and/or Cerium to grey iron
converts the graphite flakes to nodules.
• Normally a pearlite matrix.
• Castings are stronger and much more ductile
than grey iron as the stress concentration points
existing at the flake tips are eliminated.
• Ductile iron, also known as
• ductile cast iron,
• nodular cast iron,
• spheroidal graphite iron,
• spheroidal graphite cast iron
• and SG iron
 Applications of Nodular cast Iron
• Ductile iron pipes, used for sewer lines
• off-highway diesel trucks,
• agricultural tractors,
• and oil well pumps
• White cast iron – C: 2.5 – 3 wt.%, Si: 0.5 – 1.5%.
• Most of the carbon is in the form of cementite.
• Named after its white fracture surface.
• Results from faster cooling.
• Contains pearlite + cementite, not graphite.
• Thickness variation may result in nonuniform,
microstructure from variable cooling.
• Very hard and brittle
• Used as intermediate to produce malleable cast iron
• white cast irons extremely hard and abrasion
resistant but very brittle
• only member of the cast iron family in which carbon
is present only as carbide.
 Applications
• The White Cast Iron is extensively used in
making various Industrial components which
includes Shell Liners, Slurry Pumps, Lifter Bars
in the Ball Mills & Grinding Mills, and Backhoe
Bucket
• Malleable cast iron – Carbon: 2.3 – 2.7 wt%, Si: 1.0 – 1.75 %
• Obtained by heat treating white iron for a prolonged period
that causes decomposition of cementite into graphite.
• Heat treatment : Two stages – Isothermal holding at 9500C/
48-72hrs and then holding at 7200C/AC.
• graphite forms in the form of rosettes in a ferrite or pearlite
matrix.
• Reasonable strength and improved ductility (malleable)
Ferritic Malleable Cast iron

Pearlitic Malleable Cast Iron

 Applications
• Uses include electrical fittings, hand tools,
pipe fittings, washers, brackets, fence fittings,
power line hardware, farm equipment, mining
hardware, and machine parts.
 Applications of Cast Iron
• Gear, cylinder, base, bed, flywheel, cylinder
liners, cylinder block, pistons
• heavy-duty machine tools,
– bed, presses,
– high pressure hydraulic parts,
– frame, gears, bushings, piston rings, cams,
– crankshaft, cylinder block, cylinder head
 Applications
• Cast irons are used in wide variety of application
owing to the properties like good fluidity, ease of
casting, low shrinkage, excellent machinability, wear
resistance and damping capacity.
• Applications –
• Car parts – cylinder heads, blocks and gearbox cases.
• Pipes, lids (manhole lids)
• Foundation for big machines (good damping
property)
• Bridges, buildings
• Cook wares – Excellent heat retention
 Copper in our Modern Lives
• Common copper
alloys are bronze and
brass
• Currency
• Cooking pots
• Wiring/Electronics
• Jewelry
Major Modern Copper Uses
 Copper
Copper
• Reddish-orange bright
29 metallic luster
• Found as native (pure) copper
Cu 63.54
or combined with other
elements
8.94gm/cm3 • Ductile and malleable
10830C

• Good conductor of heat and

electricity
• Resistant to corrosion
• alloyed to make bronze and
brass
 Copper
• Copper is one of the earliest metals discovered by man.
• The boilers on early steamboats were made from copper.
• The copper tubing used in water plumbing in Pyramids was
found in serviceable condition after more than 5,000 years.
• Cu is a ductile metal. Pure Cu is soft and malleable, difficult
to machine.
• Very high electrical conductivity – second only to silver.
• Copper is refined to high purity for many electrical
applications.
• Excellent thermal conductivity – Copper cookware most
highly regarded – fast and uniform heating.
• Electrical and construction industries are the largest users of
Cu.
 Copper Alloys
• Brasses and Bronzes are most commonly used alloys of
Cu.
• Brass is an alloy with Zn. Bronzes contain tin, aluminum,
silicon or beryllium.
• Other copper alloy families include copper-nickels and
nickel silvers. More than 400 copper-base alloys are
recognized.
 Copper Alloys - Brass
• Brass is the most common alloy of Cu – It’s an
alloy with Zn
• Easy to cast - Relatively low melting point and
high fluidity
• Properties can be tailored by varying Zn content.
• Some of the common brasses are yellow, naval
and cartridge( 70 Cu, 30 Zn).
• Brass is frequently used to make musical
instruments (good ductility and acoustic
properties)
 Unlike steel alloys, brass cannot be hardened
by heating. Brass can only be strain or work-hardened. The
hardening occurs when the material is worked mechanically, e.g.
by cold working. ... If the alloy is heated to 250 – 300° it can be
relaxed to such an extent that at least no more stress corrosion
cracking can occur.

Yellow brass
• 67 percent copper and 33 percent zinc
• Ornaments, objects, or utensils made of this
alloy.
 Cartridge Brass

• 70% copper 30% zinc.

• This is one of the most widely used of the copper-zinc
alloys;
• it is formable and ductile and possesses excellent
cold-working, poor hot working and poor machining
properties.
• Rated excellent for soft-soldering; good for silver alloy
brazing or oxyacetylene welding and fair for resistance
of carbon arc welding.
• The alloy develops high tensile strength with
cold-working.
• Temper is obtained by cold rolling.
• electrical components, electronic parts, and
mechanical fasteners
Brazing is a metal-joining process in which two or more metal items
are joined together by melting and flowing a filler metal into the joint,
with the filler metal having a lower melting point than the adjoining
metal.

Soldering is a low-temperature analog to brazing.

By the American Welding Society’s definition, soldering takes place with
fillers (also known as solders) that melt at below 840°F (450°C). Metals that
can be soldered include gold, silver, copper, brass, and iron. The filler, called
solder, melts. When it solidifies, it is bonded to the metal parts and joins
them. The bond is not as strong as brazed joint or welded one.

Solder was once made mainly of lead, but environmental concerns are
pushing industry to lead-free alternatives.
 Naval Brass
• Sea water service applications.
• Tin in included in the alloy composition in order to
improve the corrosion resistance of Naval Brass.
• 59% Copper 40% Zinc and 1% Tin
• Naval brass is the classic marine, high-strength and
corrosion-resistant alloy containing 60 percent copper,
0.75 percent tin and 39.2 percent zinc.
• It is widely used in marine construction where strong,
corrosive-resistant and hard material is required and is
suitable for both salt and fresh water applications.
Copper
Brass
Bronze
• Copper alloys containing tin, lead, aluminum,
silicon and nickel are classified as bronzes.
• Cu-Sn Bronze is one of the earliest alloy to be
discovered as Cu ores invariably contain Sn.
• Stronger than brasses with good corrosion and
tensile properties; can be cast, hot worked
and cold worked.
• Wide range of applications: ancient Chinese
cast artifacts, skateboard ball bearings,
surgical and dental instruments.
 Gun metal
• Red brass
• Alloy of Copper, Tin and Zinc
• 88% copper, 8–10% tin, and 2–4% zinc
• Making guns
• Gunmetal, which casts and machines well and is
resistant to corrosion from steam and salt water
• tensile strength of 221 to 310 MPa, a specific
gravity of 8.7, a 65 to 74BHN, and a melting point
of around 1,000OC
Gun metal parts
 General properties
• Atomic number (Z)13
• Atomic weight 26.9815385
• 933.47 K (660.32 °C, 1220.58 °F)
• 2743 K (2470 °C, 4478 °F)
• RT 2.70 g/cm3
• when liquid, at m.p.2.375 g/cm3
• FCC
• Oxidation state +3
 ALUMINIUM
• Aluminum is a light metal (density = 2.7 g/cc); is easily
machinable;
• has wide variety of surface finishes; good electrical and
thermal conductivities; highly reflective to heat and light.
• Versatile metal - can be cast, rolled, stamped, drawn, spun,
roll-formed, hammered, extruded and forged into many
shapes.
• Aluminum can be riveted, welded, brazed, or resin bonded.
• Corrosion resistant - no protective coating needed, however it
is often anodized to improve surface finish, appearance.
• Al2O3 oxide layer will form form on surface.
 APPLICATIONS AND PROPERTIES
• Al and its alloys - high strength-to-weight
ratio (high specific strength) owing to low
density.
• Such materials are widely used in
aerospace and automotive applications
where weight savings are needed for
better fuel efficiency and performance.
• Al-Li alloys are lightest among all Al alloys
and find wide applications in the
aerospace industry.
• Aluminum alloys are classified into two categories
– Cast and
– Wrought alloys.
• Wrought and Cast alloys can be either
– heat-treatable or
– non-heat treatable.
• Alloys are designated by a 4 digit number.
• Wrought – the 1st digit indicates the major alloying
element.
• Cast – The last digit after the decimal indicates
product from( casting - 0 or ingot -1)
•1, 3 and 5XXX are non heat treatable
• 2, 6, 7 and 8XXX are heat treatable
• F : As fabricated - products in which no thermal
treatments or strain-hardening.
• H : Strain-hardened (wrought products) – strain
hardened with or without additional thermal
treatment.
• H1: Strain-hardened only - strain-hardened without
thermal treatment.
• O: Annealed, Recrystallized
• T : Thermally treated with or without
strain-hardening to produce stable tempers other
than F, O or H.
• T3: Solution heat-treated and then cold worked.
• Solution heat treatment – heating to the single
phase region and isothermal holding.
 Al-Cu alloys
• Al-Cu phase diagram
• Al rich end of the Al-Cu equilibrium
• The maximum solubility of Cu in Al is 5.65% at 550OC
• The solubility decreases to 0.45% at 250OC
• So alloys containing between 2.5% to 5% Cu will
respond to heat treatment by age hardening
• The theta ϴ phase is an intermediate alloy phase
whose composition is CuAl2
• Solution treatment is 540OC/ 4hrs
• Subsequent Aging by natural or artificial (180OC) so
ϴ’’ and ϴ’ phase is precipitation takes place
• So leads to increase in strength
Solid solution
of Al and Cu

60RB

90RB
CuAl2

Aluminium rich end of Al-Cu phase diagram.

 Age hardening or Precipitation hardening

Heat treatment Cycle

single phase solid
Solution heat solution
Cu
Temp,

treatment Ageing
1 1
o
C

Quench 180C 3
2
Time supersaturated
Al
Al-Cu Phase diagram solid solution

[Link]
TM 2

After ageing

TF

precipitates
Guneior Preston
 Precipitation hardening – strengthening by precipitation of fine
particles of a second phase from a supersaturated solid solution.
Another name for this process is Age Hardening” – because some
metals form precipitates at room temperature over time.

550
Saturated α

180C
CuAl2

Room temperature microstructures in Al-4%Cu

alloy.
Slow
cooling Age hardening
Age Hardening
GP zone structure
Phase transformations in metals and alloys, D.A. Porter,
&
K.E. Easterling, Chapman & Hall.
Materials Principles & Practice, Butterworth Heinemann,
Edited by C. Newey & G. Weaver.
Mechanical Metallurgy, McGraw-Hill, G.E. Dieter, 3rd Ed.
Hull, D. and D. J. Bacon (1984). Introduction to
Dislocations. Oxford, UK, Pergamon.
Courtney, T. H. (2000). Mechanical Behavior of Materials.
Boston, McGraw-Hill
Al alloy
Non heat treatable

Heat treatable
Al---🡪240C
Ti>400C
Stainless steels-500-550C
Superalloys> >550-1100C
 TITANIUM ALLOYS
Pure titanium crystalline structure undergoes a transformation from hcp (α – at lower
temperature) to bcc (β – at higher temperature) by increasing the temperature up to
882oC and The mentioned single-phase regions are separated by two-phase region of
α+β.
AE
Bcc (β)

Ti 882

HCP( α)

Alloying elements in titanium are usually classified in two groups of α and β stabilizing
additions depending on whether increase or decrease α/β transformation temperature of
882oC.
 Advantages & Applications of Ti alloys

The specific gravity of an object is

the density of that object divided by the density of water.
 Titanium (Ti)
• Atomic number 22, Atomic Weight 47.9
• Density 4.54 g/cc
• Melting point 1668 °C, Boiling point 3260 °C
• Titanium alloys (Beta) tensile strengths of over 1,400 MPa.
• Titanium loses strength when heated above 430 °C
• poor conductor of heat and electricity
• Allotrope whose HCP alpha form changes into a BCC β form
at 882 °C.
• Titanium metal and its alloys Oxidise immediately upon
exposure to air.
• Welding of Titanium must be done in an inert atmosphere
of Ar or He in order to shield it from contamination with
atmospheric gases such as O, N, or H
 Applications in medical industry: Medical Implants

•for replacement hip and knee joints;

•completely inert to human body fluids, making it ideal for
medical and allows bone growth to adhere to the implants, so
they last longer than those made of other materials.
•Reconstructive titanium plates and mesh that support broken
bones are also commonly used today
 Applications in:Aerospace Industry
• for high-temperature
performance, creep resistance,
strength, and metallurgical
structure
• aerospace industry - for example
in aircraft engines and air frames;
wide chord titanium fan blades &
landing gear
• for pipes, etc, in the nuclear, oil
and chemical industries where
corrosion is likely to occur.
 Industrial applications
• Power plants, where saline, brackish or polluted
waters are used as the cooling medium
• titanium thin wall condenser tubing will last for the
life of the condenser (with a 40-year warranty
against failure under proper conditions) and
eliminate the need for a corrosion allowance
• titanium pipe's light weight and flexibility make it
an excellent material for deep sea production risers
• Titanium is a promising substrate for hard disk
drives (non-magnetic properties prevent
interference with the data storage process)
• consumer products such as jewellery, watch cases,
eyeglasses, bicycles and clocks
 Titanium
• Oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen can cause titanium to
become more brittle. Care should be taken during
processing.
• Titanium can also be cast using a vacuum furnace.
• Because of its high strength to weight ratio and excellent
corrosion resistance, titanium is used in a variety of
applications:
• Aircraft – Body structure, Engine parts ,sporting
equipment, chemical processing, desalination, turbine
engine parts, valve and pump parts, marine hardware
• Medical implants - prosthetic devices.
• Recently use of Ti in bikes and automotives is increasing
 Alloying system of titanium alloys

❖Binary Ti alloys – Two stabilized systems

▪α stabilized – α phase field enlarged – α stabilizing
elements
▪β stabilized – β phase field enlarged – β stabilizing
elements
❖ α Stabilized systems
▪Alloying elements are more soluble – β transition
is raised
▪Elements – Al, Gallium and Germanium , Al – ductility
and lightness to Ti
▪Interstitial alloying elements stabilizes (O,N & C)
▪Oxygen found as impurity in α Ti – strength levels
 Classification of Ti alloys
❖ Classified according to the phases present
❖ α Ti alloys – consists mainly of α phase
❖ Near α Ti alloys – principally α phase along with small β stabilizing
elements
▪ Non HT and weldable, Med. Strength, good Notch tough. & good creep
resistance at elevated temperature
❖ α – β Ti alloys – Mixture of α and β phases
▪ Heat treatable to moder. Increase in strength, med. To high strength,
▪ Good forming proper., creep resistance is less than α and near α Ti
❖ β Ti alloys – consists of β phase
▪ Heat treatable to very high strength, readily formable
▪ Relatively high density, low ductility @ high strength
▪ Not used much
able 1. Effects of alloying elements

Alloying Range
Effect on structure and properties
element (wt.%)
Aluminum, Al 2–7 α-Stabilizer, solid solution strengthener, reduces density, improves
oxidation resistance
Carbon, C 0.05–0.1 α-Stabilizer, interstitial element
Chromium, Cr 2–12 β-Eutectoid stabilizer
Cobalt, Co β-Eutectoid stabilizer
Copper, Cu 2–6 β-Eutectoid stabilizer, improves weldability, α and β strengthener
Hydrogen, H 0.008–0.0 β-Eutectoid stabilizer, interstitial element
2
Iron, Fe β-Eutectoid stabilizer
Manganese, Mn β-Eutectoid stabilizer
Molybdenum, Mo 2–20 β-Isomorphous stabilizer, moderate solid solution strengthener
of β phase
Nickel, Ni β-Eutectoid stabilizer
Niobium, Nb β-Isomorphous stabilizer, known to improve oxidation behavior of Ti
alloys, moderate solid solution strengthener of β phase
Nitrogen, N 0.015–0.0 α-Stabilizer, interstitial element
7
Oxygen, O 0.1–0.4 α-Stabilizer, interstitial element, strengthens α phase
Silicon, Si 0.05–1 β-Eutectoid stabilizer, Si atoms tend to segregate at dislocations and
thus effectively prevent dislocation climb, improving creep resistance,
also strengthens α phase
Tantilum, Ta β-Isomorphous stabilizer
Tin, Sn 2–6 Neutral stabilizer, improves weldability, solid solution strengthener
of α phase
 9.3.3 Alpha titanium alloys
There are two major groups of alpha titanium alloys known as super-alpha
and near-alpha.
1. Super-alpha alloys contain a large amount of α-stabilising alloying
elements (> 5 wt%) and are composed entirely of α-Ti grains.

2. Near-alpha alloys contain a large amount of α-stabilisers with a smaller

quantity of β-stabilising elements (< 2 wt%).

The microstructure of near-alpha alloys consists of a small volume fraction

of β-Ti grains dispersed between the much greater volume fraction of α-Ti
grains.
Near-alpha alloys have higher strength properties than
super-alpha alloys (owing to the small amount of the hard β-Ti
phase) and also have excellent creep resistance at high
temperature.

For this reason, near-alpha alloys are preferred over

super-alpha alloys in components for gas turbine engines
and rocket propulsion systems required to operate for long
times at 500–600 °C.
 Table 9.3. Composition and properties of alpha alloys used in gas
turbine engines
Alloy type Composition Young’s 0.2% Yield Tensile
modulus strength strength
(GPa) (MPa) (MPa)
Super-α Ti–5Al–2.5Sn 103 760 790
(IMI317)
Near-α Ti–6Al–2Sn–4Zr–6 114 862 930
Mo
Ti–5.5Al–3.5Sn–3Zr 120 860 960
–1Nb (IMI829)
Ti–5.8Al–4Sn–3.5Zr 120 910 1030
–0.7Nb (IMI834)

Ti–2.25Al–11Sn–5Z 115 900 1000

r–1Mo (IMI679)
Ti–6Al–4Zr–2Mo 115 960 1030
(IMI685)
 Titanium
• Pure Ti exhibits two phases – Hexagonal α-phase at room
• temperature and BCC β-phase above 8820C.
• Strength of Titanium is improved by alloying. Alloying
elements are either α or β stabilizer.
• Elements with
– α stabilizer (Al, O,N Ga),
– neutral (Sn, Zr) and
– β stabilizer (V, Mo,Ta, W).
• (α + β) two-phase alloys can be obtained with right
proportions of alloying elements.
• α alloys have low density, moderate strength, reasonable
ductility and good creep resistance.
• β Metastable alloys are heavier, stronger and less ductile than
α alloys.
• Creep strength reduces with increasing β content
• (α + β) alloys show a good strength-ductility combination
The aluminum equivalent and molybdenum equivalent equations (in
wt.%) are used to describe the degree of stability of the α-
and β-phases, and to define what class an alloy is in.

Oxygen and nitrogen are potent α-stabilizers,

and iron is the most potent β-stabilizer:

Alequiv= %Al+13%Sn+16%Zr+10%O
Moequiv= %Mo+0.67%V+2.9%Fe+1.6%Cr−%Al
Oequiv= %O+2%N+0.67%C
Near α and α Titanium Alloys; Alequiv<8 and Moequiv<1

Alpha titanium alloys are primarily used in the chemical and

processes engineering industry.
These applications require excellent corrosion resistance
and ductility.
Aluminum is the most important alloying element in order to
stabilize α-phase, add strength, and lower the density (Figure
6b, Table 2).

Ti–5Al–2.5Sn is the most commonly used α alloy, and like

most α alloys it cannot be age-hardened, but it does has
excellent weldability.
 Near α and α Titanium Alloys; Alequiv<8 and Moequiv<1

Near-α Titanium Alloys; 6<Alequiv<10 and Moequiv<2

α–β Titanium Alloys; 5<Alequiv<10 and 2<Moequiv<8

β Titanium Alloys; Alequiv<6 and Moequiv=15–30 (Metastable β), >30

(Stable β)
 Table 1. Chemical Composition of Titan – 44 (Beta -21S)

Elements Mo Nb Al Si Fe Cr C O N H Ti

Heat - -
Min 14 2.4 2.5 0.15 0.2 0.01 -- 0.11 -
No.
0.05 0.015
K 5799 Max 16 3 3.5 0.25 0.4 0.03 0.02 0.15 Bal

Obtained 15.77 2.78 2.93 0.20 0.16 0.02 0.016 0.1223 0.0064 0.0025 Bal

11/20/2025 SNWEST 2020 164

*[Link]
alloys#:~:text=%CE%B2%20Titanium%20Alloys%3B%20Alequiv,during%20an%20aging%20heat%20treatment.
 Fig 1: Pseudo-Binary Phase Diagram for β -Isomorphous Stabilized Alloys.*

*Characterizing the microstructure and properties of thermally aged aerospace β-21s titanium alloy THE UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND -Bachelor of Engineering Thesis-Michael
Campbell
 Beta equivalent of different Titanium alloys and their modulus

14.11.2021 167
Commercially Pure Titanium; 99–99.5% Ti :

Commercially pure (CP) titanium is considered an α-alloy, because

the α-phase is the only phase present.

Oxygen is the main alloying element that determines the grade and
strength of the alloy (Figures 6b and 7).

CP titanium has lower strength than other alloys, but it is the alloy of choice
for applications requiring corrosion resistance, and it has better elevated
temperature creep resistance, and is less expensive than the other titanium
alloys.

Figure 7 shows how the strength and hardness increase with interstitial
element concentration.

Since oxygen is the main alloying element in CP titanium, the

Oequiv describes the strengthening effect of the interstitial elements O, N,
and C.

Each 0.1% Oequiv increases the strength of unalloyed titanium by

∼120.5 MPa.
 Commercially pure titanium
❖ Unalloyed ranges in purity , 99.5-99.0% Ti
❖ Main elements in unalloyed Ti: Fe & inters. elements
C,O,N & H
▪ Oxygen content determines the grade and strength
▪ Oxygen is present in all Ti sponge- amount can be
adjusted to increase the strength in CP Ti Phase diagram of
▪ C, N and H present as impurities in Ti α stabilised Ti alloy

▪ Source of C contamination in sponge- TiCl4 (reaction

vessel)
▪ Fe an impurity is a β stabilizer
▪ Nitrogen within low limits – interstitial strengthening
element Heat exchanger &
Bleaching section
▪ Hydrogen has an embrittling effect Paper & pulp
▪ CP Ti – lower strength, more corrosive resistant &
less expensive
▪ Main use in Petroleum processing industry
▪ 0.2% Pd – improve corrosion resistance in reducing
media(hydrochloric, phosphoric and sulfuric acid)
 Mechanical properties of CP Ti
❖ Tensile strength determined by nitrogen and oxygen and lesser
extent by carbon
▪ The strength effect of inters.
elements O, N, & C is expressed
in terms of O as
%Oequi=%O+2.0(%N)+0.67(%C)
▪ Each 0.1% O, increases strength
to 17.5 ksi

❖ [Link] increase strength but detrimental to toughness

▪ Extra Low Interstitial (ELI)- CP Ti with extra low interstitials
 Alpha Ti alloys

❖ Al and O are the main alloying elements which provides solid solution
strengthening, C and N present as impurities which provides intestitial
hardening

❖ The amount of α stabilizers should not exceed 9%in the Al equivalent to

prevent embrittlement due to ordering

❖ 5-6% Al can leed to finely dispersed, ordered phase α2 (Ti3Al) which is

a coherent to lattice, deleterious to ductility

❖ Sn & Zr is also added in small amounts to stabilize the α phase and give
strength.
 Alpha Ti alloys
❖ The most important α Ti alloy in commercial use is Ti-5% Al-2.5% Sn

❖ Both Al and Sn stabilize the α phase

❖ Special low oxygen Ti-5% Al-2.5% Sn for

good low temperature ductility

❖ Fig. shows the aluminium rich portion

of the Ti-Al phase diagram

❖ α/ α+ α2 phase boundary can exist with

an Al content as low as 5% at temper
atures below 500⁰C
 Compositions & applications of near alpha Ti alloy

Composition Condition Typical Applications

Airframe and jet engine parts
requiring high strength to 455ºC,
8% Al- 1% Mo-1% V Duplex annealed
good creep and toughness,
good weldability
Parts and cases for jet engine
6% Al-2% Sn-4% Zr-2% Mo -- compressors,
Airframe skin components

5% Al-5% Sn-2% Zr-2% 975ºC (1/2 hr) Jet engine parts ,

Mo-0.25% Si Aircooled high creep resistance to 538ºC

High toughness, moderate strength,

good resistance to sea water and hot
6% Al-1% Mo-2% Cb-1% Ta As rolled 1 Inch plate salt stress corrosion, good
weldability
Alpha Beta Ti alloys
 Beta Ti alloys

❖ Principle alloying elements

▪ V, Mo, Cr, & Fe
▪ Zr – strengthens both α and β phases
▪ Al – It lowers the density, adds solid
soln hardening & improves oxidation
resistance
❖ Readily cold workable in [Link] treated and quenched cond.
❖ It has high density due to the large % of heavy metals such as V and Mo
❖ Problems like chemical segregation and large grain size, results in low
tensile ductility and Fatigue performance
❖ Ti-13%V-11%Cr-3%Al alloy produced in large quantities
 Beta Ti alloys
Alloy compositions Typical Applications

High strength fasteners, Aerospace Components,

13% V, 11% Cr, 3% Al honeycomp panels (Good formability and heat
treatable)

8% Mo, 8% V, 2% Fe, High strength, Tough airframe sheet, plates, fasteners,

3% Al and forged components

High strength fasteners, torsion bars, aerospace

3% Al, 8% V, 6% Cr,
components
4% Mo, 4% Zr

Parts requiring formability and corrosion resistance,

11.5% Mo, 6% Zr,
High strength fasteners, high strength aircraft sheet
4.5% Sn
parts
• Give the composition of High speed tool steels. Discuss the
role of each element?
• Discuss the functions of Mn in Hadfield steels and
Austenite steels ?
• Role of `Ni' in Maraging and austenite steels?
• Role of `Cr' in Austenite Stainless steels and high speed
tool steels?
• What is an alloy? Give two examples, What is an alloy?
Give two examples
• What is the effect of carbon on Mechanical properties
• Why are alloying elements added to steels? Give some
examples of common alloying elements and their effect on
the properties of steel.
• Explain about Hadfield manganese steel
• Give the classification of stainless steels
• Write the classification of plain carbon steels? Also give
their carbon contents
• What is cast iron and explain the classification of
cast irons
• What are the main features of spheroidal cast
iron
• What is effect of silicon in the metallurgy of gray
iron
• Compare the properties of malleable and
spheroidal cast iron?
• What are cast Irons? Why are they named so?
Give the importance of cast irons and in the
metallurgical curriculum with suitable example
• Explain the microstructure, properties and
applications of White cast iron and SG cast iron
• Explain the role of the Lead, Aluminium, Zinc,
Manganese and Phosphorus elements on the
structure and properties of copper alloys
• Draw and explain Cu and Zn phase diagram
• Differentiate between Brass and Bronze
• Define Bronze? What are the types of bronzes?
Explain the properties and application of any two
of them?
• Briefly describe the important commercial
copper alloys
• What alloying elements are commonly used in the
commercial aluminium alloys? And explain their
effect on structure and properties of alloys
• In what way the mechanical properties of
aluminium and its alloys be increased? Discuss.
• Compare Al and Cu alloys w.r.t heat treatment,
properties
• What are the procedural steps in age-hardening of
Cu-Al alloy? Explain.
• Give examples of non-heat treatable type of
aluminium alloys. What are their applications.
• Write short notes on Ti alloys
• Name a few Ti alloys
• Write the properties of titanium and applications
of titanium alloys
• How the beta titanium alloys are strengthened.
• (ii) Give at least 2 applications for alpha;
alpha-beta and beta titanium alloys
• Explain about Alpha and Alpha-Beta Alloys of
Titanium